HANDBOOK OF BIRDS 
OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 



By FRANK M. CHAPMAN 

Curator of Ornithology in the American Museum 
of Natural History 



HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 

Revised Edition. With Keys to the Species, 
Descriptions of their Plumages, Nests, etc., and 
their Distribution and Migrations. With over 
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Illustrated with over 100 Photographs from Nature 
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THE WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA 

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1). APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK 



Plate I 




Screech Owl 
Gray and rufous phases of plumage 



HANDBOOK OF BIRDS 

OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 

WITH INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS ON ^^(^<^ 
THE STUDY OF BIRDS IN NATURE 




BY 

FRANK M. CHAPMAN 

CUHATOR OF ORNITHOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 

FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS* UNION 

FOREiSn MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS* UNION, ETC. 



WITH FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLORS AXD BLACK AND WHITE 

BY LOUIS AQASSIZ FUERTES 

AND TEXT-OUTS BY TAPPAN ADNEY AND ERNEST THOMPSON SETON 



REVISED EDITION 



NEW YORK AND LONDON 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1912 






Copyright, 1895, 1912 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



Puhlished May, 1912 



Printed in the United States of America 



es 01 



CC!.A314700 



TO MY MOTHER 

WHO HAS EVER ENCOURAGED HER SON IN HIS 

NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES 

THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 



PLAN OF THE WORK 

IntrodiLction. — The Introduction to the present edition of the 
"Handbook" is wholly new, and is designed to meet the wants of a 
class of bird-students which was almost unknown when the first edition 
of the "Handbook" was written. Field work in eastern North America 
then meant chiefly collecting. Now it means chiefly observing. The 
observation blind, the camera, the note-book to record prolonged, con- 
secutive, definitely directed studies, were then used rarely, if at all. 
Now they form part of the equipment of all serious students of birds 
in nature, and it is to them that this Introduction is addressed. 

Nomenclature. — The nomenclature of the American Ornithologists' 
Union's "Check-List of North American Birds" (third edition, 1910) has 
been adopted. The number preceding the name of each species is its 
permanent number in the Union's "Check-List." 

Through an oversight, trinomials were not employed in the "Check- 
List" for certain races, of which only the one first described occurs in 
North America, and such species are here entered under their proper 
trinomial designation. 

I have not, however, followed this plan for species of wholly acci- 
dental occurrence, with which a re-examination of the specimen or 
specimens on which the records are based might be essential to their 
correct subspecific determination. 

With the object of encouraging uniformity in the use of common or 
vernacular names of our birds, I have given in the body of the book 
only one such name for each species — that adopted for it in the "Check- 
List" of the American Ornithologists' Union. Other common names, 
which have been or are in more or less general use, are given in the 
index, with a cross reference to the name with which they are syn- 
onymous. 

In some instances, I have taken the common names of the earlier, 
rather than of the last, edition of the "Check-List," in which abbre- 
viations have been made with consequent loss of definil iCss. Exam- 
ples are "Scaup," "Scoter," "Crossbill," and other instances where two or 
more species, having the same general name, are found in the same 
locality. In such cases, it is evident that, to avoid ambiguity, each one 
should have some qualifying title. 

Definition of Terms. — The accompanying figure, with its named 
parts, will explain the meaning of the terms used in the following 
descriptions of birds. The words upperparts and underparts, mentioned 
so frequently, refer respectively to the whole upper or under surfaces 
of the body of the bird, from the base of the bill to the root of the tail, 
but are not applied to either wings or tail. 

(xiii) 



XIV 



PLAN OF THE WORK 



There are infinite variations in the markings of feathers, and those 
figured present only the patterns most frequently met with. The 




shaft of the feather is the midrib, to either side of which the vanes, 
or webs, are attached. (See Fig. 2.) 

The Keys. — It is of the utmost importance thoroughly to under- 



PEEFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION 

In preparing a revised edition of the ''Handbook," it was decided 
that any increase in size which would remove it from the ranks of true 
handbooks was not to be considered for a moment. The question, then, 
with which I have been confronted, was, how, within given hmits, to meet 
the wants of the bird student of today, who demands, primaril}^, infor- 
mation concerning the bird in nature. To add materially to the space 
given to each of the species contained in the first edition would result 
in widely overstepping the bounds set by necessity. But, if it were not 
possible to present a complete biography of every bird, at least a sug- 
gestive biography of Lhe bird could be given, and the expansion in size 
permitted has been largely used for this purpose. 

This added material will be found in the introductory pages, which 
number 116, as compared with 31 in the original edition. 

Here I have dealt with those phases of bird-life which, to a greater 
or less extent, enter into the existence of every species. These chapters 
on migration, song, nesting habits, color, structure and function, food, 
etc., may be read not only alone, but they are intended to be a guide to 
the study in life of any bird to which we may devote our attention. In 
short, they are designed to arouse an interest in the bird in relation 
to its environment, and to stimulate and direct original observations. 

Aside from this Introduction, which constitutes both the largest 
and most important addition to the new ''Handbook," the balance 
of the book has been thoroughly revised, much of it has been rewritten, 
and not a httle of it is wholly new. The nomenclature is that of the 
last (1910) edition of the A. O. U. Check-List. The Ranges have also 
been taken from this same authoritative source, and arc a vast improve- 
ment over those of the first edition of the "Handbook." In addition 
to the migration notes given in preceding editions, data arc now also 
included for northern Ohio, Glen Ellyn, Illinois, and southeastern 
Minnesota. A new feature, which we believe will prove helpful, is the 
series of nesting dates from localities often covering the breeding range 
of the species. 

If space has prohibited giving all that is known about a bird, at 
least one may say where recent information concerning it may be 
found, and to this end I have added many references not containcnl in 
earlier editions. This bibliographical feature of the new "Handbook" 
is best shown in the Appendix giving references to the more important 
faunal lists of birds in Eastern North America, a knowledge of which 
is believed to be of the utmost importance to the local student, 

(vii) 



viii PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION 

In the preparation of the first edition of this book, the author 
gratefully acknowledged assistance which he had received from Florence 
Merriam Bailey, J. A. Allen, and Ernest Thompson Seton, and he 
now desires to express his indebtedness to Waldron DeWitt Miller for 
aid in reading the proof of the present edition, and to Henry W. Henshaw, 
Chief of the Biological Survey, for permission to reproduce the faunal 
map appearing on the cover pages. 

It is proper, in closing this preface, for the author to express the 
pleasure and gratification which the reception of the first edition of 
the "Handbook" has given him. So far as circumstances permit, he 
has endeavored to make this new "Handbook" worthy of the praise 
which has so generously been accorded its predecessor. 

Frank M. Chapman. 



American Museum of Natural History, 
New York City, October 1, 1911. 



HISTORICAL REVIEW 

A review of the progress which has been made in the study of North 
American birds during the eighteen years since the first edition of the 
"Handbook" was pubHshed must impress one with the fact that it is 
our knowledge of hving rather than of dead birds which has increased, 

A more exact discrimination, larger and better collections, and 
gradually changed standards as to the degree of differentiation which 
deserves recognition by name, have added many forms to our ' 'Check- 
List," and rendered more definite our knowledge of the relationships 
of others. Particularly is this true of the birds of the Pacific coast 
region. This systematic work has appeared in various special papers 
and monographs, the most thorough of which, not only for the period 
under consideration, but for any preceding period in the history of 
North American ornithology, is Ridgway's ''Birds of North and Middle 
America," of which five volumes have thus far been issued. 

Thanks to the American Ornithologists' Union, our nomenclature 
has been revised with the utmost care and, while the numerous result- 
ing changes in names may be annoying to present-day students, those 
who follow us will enjoy, in greater measure, that stability which is 
the ideal of the biologist. The third (1910) edition of the Union's 
"Check-List" contains this modern nomenclature; but it is worthy of 
note that the classification employed in this work is the same as that 
used in the first (188Gj edition of the "Check-List." So httle advance 
has been made in this branch of ornithology that no system of classi- 
fication proposed since 1886 was considered sufficiently satisfactory 
to warrant adoption by the Committee of the Union having in charge 
the preparation of the 1910 edition. 

The studies of Dwight and others have made far more definite 
our knowledge of the molt of birds, the times and manner of feather- 
loss and renewal having been determined for many species, with an 
exactness made possible only by the collecting of specimens for this 
special purpose. At the same time, Beebe, by experiments on captive 
birds, has attacked the problem of the causes of molt, while Strong's 
histological work on the feather has increased our understanding of 
its growth and development. 

In laboratory experiment on living birds, Beebe has shown certain 
effects of humidity upon the colors of feathers; Davenport has used 
Canaries and domestic fowls in working on the laws of heredity; Porter 
and others have conducted psychological investigations upon certain 
species; and Watson has pursued similar studies upon the Noddy and 
the Sooty Tern in nature. The highly original researches of Thayer 

.(ix) 



X HISTORICAL REVIEW 

have greatly stimulated interest in the study of the colors of birds in 
relation to their environment. 

Dealing still with the more technical branches of ornithology, the 
investigations of Fisher, Beal, and other members of the Biological 
Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture, of Forbush 
in Massachusetts, and of other state ornithologists, have supplied by 
far the larger part of our exact knowledge of the food-habits of our 
birds and determined for the first time the economic status of many 
species. This work constitutes one of the most pronounced and impor- 
tant phases of research during the period under consideration. While 
based, primarily, on field work in observing as well as in collecting, 
special training in laboratory methods is required to make the analyses 
of stomach contents, from which, in the main, the nature of a bird's 
food is ascertained. 

Field, as well as laboratory work, has also been required to produce 
the faunal papers and books which, in volume, form the greatest addi- 
tion to the ornithological Hterature of the past decade and a half. From 
the pioneer explorations of Merriam, Fisher, Nelson, Bailey, Preble, 
Osgood, and other members of the Biological Survey, in new or but 
little-known regions, to the almost final reports of Brewster and others 
on the bird-life of localities which have been studied for years by many 
observers, these publications have added enormously to our knowledge 
of the distribution of North American birds. This is particularly true 
of western North America, especially of the Pacific coast region, where 
Grinnell, W. K. Fisher, Swarth, and other members of the Cooper 
Ornithological Club„ have placed on record a vast amount of data 
concerning the birds of this area. 

Besides furnishing material for the more philosophic phases of 
faunal work, these monographs and local lists often treat also of the 
migration of the birds with which they deal. Most important contribu- 
tions to this subject have been made by the large and widely distributed 
corps of observers acting under the direction of the Biological Survey, 
which, under the authorship of Cooke, has published several important 
bulletins on migration. Here also should be mentioned the significant 
experiments of Watson upon the homing instincts of Terns, which are 
referred to beyond (p. 54). 

Possibly, in no other branch of definitely directed ornithological 
research has greater advance been made than in the study of the nesting 
habits of birds. For the first time in the history of ornithology, trained 
biologists have devoted an entire nesting season to the continuous 
study of certain species, and the results obtained by Watson, Herrick, 
Finley, and others, have, in a high degree, both scientific value and 
popular interest. 

No small part of the educational value of work of this kind is due 
to the photographic illustrations by which it is usually accompanied, 
and bird study with a camera may be said to be the most novel and, 
in many respects, the most important development in ornithological 



HISTORICAL REVIEW xi 

field work during the past fifteen years. Not only has the fascination 
of camera hunting itself stimulated the bird photographer, but the 
results he has obtained have at times had a commercial value, which 
has enabled him to pursue his labors in before unexplored fields. In 
consequence, in the books of Job, Finley, Dugmore, and others, and in 
numerous magazine articles, we now have thousands of graphic records, 
not one of which existed fifteen years ago, depicting the home-life 
of some of our rarest as well as commonest birds, and possessed of a 
power for conveying and diffusing information with which the written 
word cannot compare. 

Here, too, should be mentioned the work of the ornithological 
artists who, lead by Fuertes, have given us an unsurpassed series of 
faithful and beautiful portraits of our birds, to the educational value 
of which, in no small measure, is to be attributed the existing wide- 
spread interest in bird study. 

It is the growth of this interest which has chiefly distinguished the 
past two decades; for, much as they have been marked by activity in 
various branches of ornitholog}', it is less as an exponent of natural laws 
than as a most attractive form of wild life that the bird has made its 
appeal. In the history of North American ornithology, therefore,this 
period may w^ell stand as the Epoch of Popular Bird Study. Where, in 
1895, there was one person who could claim acquaintance with our 
commoner birds, today there are hundreds; and the plea for the develop- 
ment of our inherent love of birds, which was made in the first edition 
of the "Handbook," has been answered with an effectiveness few 
would have predicted. 

Opportunity alone was needed to bring to its fulfilment this inborn 
interest in creatures which have such manifold claims to our attention, 
and with which we may l^ecome so intimately associated. This oppor- 
tunity has come in popular manuals of bird study, which, in the aggre- 
gate, have been sold by hundreds of thousands; in the introduction of 
nature study in the schools, in the formation of bird clubs and classes, 
through the far-reaching and important work of the National and State 
Audubon Societies, through popular lectures, through magazines 
devoted to bird study, and the greater attention of the press in general 
to bird studies — particularly such as arc illustrated by photographs, — 
through increased museum facilities, and through the closer relation 
everywhere existing between the professional or advanced student and 
the amateur, a relation which must be attributed primarily to the influence 
exerted by the American Ornithologists' Union. 

It is the diffusion of this widespread knowledge of the economic, as 
well as the esthetic importance of birds, which has made it possible to 
secure the passage and (enforcement of effective laws for their protection; 
and it is in this continu(>d and increasing interest in birds, not alone as 
our efficient co-workers in garden, field, orchard and forest, but as the 
most eloquent expression of nature's beauty, joy and freedom, that we 
shall doubtless find a true measure of their greatest value to man. 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

Ad. Adult; a fully matured bird. 

A. V. Accidental visitant (see page 33). 

B. Bill. 

B. from N. Bill from nostril. 

9 The sign employed to designate female sex (see page 20). 

cf The sign employed to designate male sex (see page 20) . 

Im. Immature; the term is generally applied to birds less 
than a year old, or to those in first winter plumage. 

L. Total length. 

P. R. Permanent resident (see page 32). 

S. R. Summer resident (see page 32). 

T. Tail. 

Tar. Tarsus= Metatarsus. 

T. V. Transient visitant (see page 33). 

W. Wing. 

W. V. Winter visitant (see page 33). 



(xii) 



PLAN OF THE WORK xv 

stand the use of the keys. At first sight they will, no doubt, appear 
confusing, but in reaUty they are exceedingly simple. The system 
upon which they are arranged may be mastered in a few minutes, and 
you '^dll then be surprised at the ease and rapidity with which, even 
in large families, you can ''run a bird down." 

The Key to Families. — The scheme of this key which, since its 
appearance in the first edition of the "Handbook," has been so widely 
adopted, originated with Ernest Thompson Seton. The key here 
presented is, with some modifications and expansions, based on one 
contributed by Mr. Seton at a time when he was expected to be a joint 
author of this work. Strictly speaking this is not one key but a series 
of keys, one under each order. The orders are placed in a natural 
sequence, — that is, we begin with the oldest, or lowest, forms of birds, 
Loons, Grebes, etc., and end mth the most highly developed ones, 
Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. Two main divisions are given: first. Water 
Birds; second. Land Birds. In no case \vill it be difficult to decide in 
which of these groups a bird belongs. Now glance over the illustra- 
tions, and select the one which you think most nearly resembles the 
bird you are identifying. At each step, test your decision by reading 
the brief diagnoses of orders and famihes. In this way you may readily 
place your bird in its proper family. 

The Keys to Species. — If a bird always wore the same plumage, it 
would be a comparatively easy matter to place it in a certain section 
of a key and keep it there. But, unfortunately, not only are the males 
and females of the same species frequently quite unlike, and the young 
different from either, but their plumages may vary with the season. 
Furthermore, an individual of a given species may not only wear two 
very different costumes, but, in doffing one for another, he does it 
gradually, and, in the meantime, appears in changing or transition 
plumage. 

For this reason it has been customary to base keys on only adult 
males. Such keys do very well in the nesting season, when birds are 
in song, and when males con.stitute probably nine-tenths of the birds 
one sees. But at other times of the year young birds outnumber the 
old ones, and the adults themselves may lose their breeding plumage 
and wear quite a different one. I have, therefore, attempted to make 
keys which will identify a bird in any plumage. To do this, it was 
necessary to use many more specimens than there were species. For 
example, the key to our some 40 species of Warblers is based on 110 
specimens, representing as many phases of plumage. 

With identification as the sole end in view, I have, in the keys, 
abandoned all attempts to follow the current system of classification, 
and, taking color as the most tangible character, have to a great extent 
arranged the species on this character alone. The result, from the sys- 
tematist's standpoint, is most unnatural. Species of different genera 
are brought into the same subsections, and the more variable species 
may be placed in several widely separated sections. 



xvi PLAN OF THE WORK 

The maker of keys, however, should not try to serve two masters. 
If the keys will identify, they will have accomplished their purpose. 
The classification of our birds is shown in the body of the book, where 
the species are arranged according to the system adopted by the American 
Ornithologists' Union. The keys proper are dichotomous, but I have 
not hesitated to divide the larger famihes into three, or even four, 
primarj^ sections, the characters of which are placed together at the 
head of the keys to permit of direct comparison. The heading of a 
group or section applies to all the species included in it. Thus, if I 
does not apply to the bird you are identifying, you must pass at once 
to II, or III, or IV, as the case may be. Even should the first section 
describe your bird, it is weU to read the sections which are contrasted 
with it. 

As a model to show how the keys are used, let us identify a male 
Enghsh Sparrow, a bird which has a black patch on the throat and 
breast, a slate-colored crown, chestnut marks on the sides of the head, 
and a streaked back. Turning to the key to the family Fringilhdse, 
or Finches, Sparrows, etc., we read first the headings to the main 
divisions, which are placed at the beginning of the key in order that 
they may be more readily compared. 

"I. Underparts with red. 

"11. Underparts with no red, and without distinct streaks; throat 
or breast sometimes with a patch or spot. 

"HI. Underparts without red, and with numerous streaks." 

Our bird evidently belongs in Section II. Under this section we 
read first: "1. Tail with white spots, bars or patches." Our bird has 
no white in the tail, so we go to "2" and read: "Tail without large white 
spots or patches." The first subsection here is: "A. Back plain, without 
distinct streaks." Our bird is unquestionably streaked, so we therefore 
go to "B. Back distinctly streaked." Under B we have "a. Bend of 
the wing yellow," and "b. Bend of the wing not yellow." Our bird 
has no yellow on the wing, and we therefore place it in subsection "6." 
This subsection is subdivided into "bK Crown bright reddish brown," 
etc., and "cK Crown not bright reddish bro\\Ti." Evidently our bird 
belongs in the group headed "c\" which is further divided into "c^. Crown 
streaked or spotted with black or black and white" and '^d^. Crown 
mixed grayish brown, and rufous, ashy or slate-color, without black 
streaks." It is clear that our bird with its slate-colored crown, belongs 
in the second of these sections. This, we observe, contains four species, 
and we soon discover that "d^ Crown slate-color; a chestnut patch 
behind the eye; throat black," fits our bird, and to prove the identifi- 
cation we turn to the detailed description beyond. 

If this more than usually complicated case has been clearly demon- 
strated, you should have no difficulty in using the keys, so far as 
their construction goes. One has only to remember that if the descrip- 
tive matter following I docs not fit, one should try II; similarly 1 
is contrasted with 2, A with B, a with 6, a^ with b\ ¥ with c^ etc. 



PLAN OF THE WORK 



xvu 



Descriptions of Plumage. — The descriptions, "^dth quoted exceptions, 
are from specimens in the American Museum of Natural History, and 
my thanks are due the authorities of that instutition for permission 
to use its valuable collections. I have tried to make them as concise 
and simple and, at the same time, as detailed, as seemed necessary for 
the purpose of identification. 

It has not always been possible to describe in detail all the plumages 
assumed by a species at various ages and seasons, but at least the more 
important plumage changes, and the differences due to sex, age, and 
season are indicated. It should be explained that, where the sexes 
are alike, they are described under the subheading "Ads.," meaning 
adult specimens in breeding dress. The subheading "Im.," in the light 




Fio. 2. Spotted (a), streaked (6), barred (c) and margined (d) featliors. 

of our present more exact knowledge, is somewhat indefinite; but, as 
has just been said, absolute exactness in this connection is not possible 
in a book of this size, where descriptions are intended primarily for the 
purpose of identification. It may be said, however, that, with but few 
exceptions, "Im." signifies a bird in first winter plumage, or the one 
following that (the juvenal) in which the bird leaves the nest. Whore, 
however, the juvenal plumage is worn for some time, as with the Snijx*, 
in which it largely takes the place of a first winter plumage, th(>n it is 
described under the term "Juv." 

Measurements. — All the nijea^urements given are in English inches 
and hundredths. Those of birds are average measurements, taken for 
the most part from specimens in the American Museum of Natural 
History. I have also, with the author's permission, made use of the excel- 
lent series of measurements in Dr. E. A. Mearn's Birds of the Hudson 
Highlands. A variation of about ten per cent from the figures giv(>n may 
be expected. 

The total length (= L.) of a bird is found by gently stretching the 
specimen, laying it on its back, and measuring the distance from the 
2 



xviii PLAN OF THE WORK 

end of its bill to the tip of its longest tail-feather. The length of the 
wing (= W.) is the distance from the "bend of the wing" to the end of 
the longest primary. The length of the tail (= T.) is the distance from 
the base, or insertion of the middle feathers, to the end of the longest 
feather. The length of the tarsus (= Tar.) is the distance from the 
base, or insertion of the toes, to the end of the tibia, or what in reality- 
is the heel. The ''tarsus" is therefore the true foot of the bird, while 
the part to which this name is generally applied consists only of the 
toes. The length of the bill (= B.), or "culmen," is the distance from 
the base of the feathers on the forehead to the tip of the upper mandible 
in a straight line. With the exception of total length, these measure- 
ments are generally taken with a pair of dividers. 

Range, — The paragraphs under this heading are taken from the 
"Check-List" (third edition, 1910) of the American Ornithologists' 
Union. In some few instances I have abridged, and in others expanded 
or emended the original. Based primarily on the unexampled series of 
records on file in the Biological Survey of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, these outhnes of distribution are more accurate 
and detailed than any we have before had of North American birds. 

Following the paragraphs on range are exact, concise statements 
of the birds' status, manner and times of occurrence, at various local- 
ities from the District of Columbia northward to Cambridge, Mass., 
and thence westward to southeastern Minnesota. Each locality is 
treated by a recognized authority, from notes based on observations 
extending over many 3^ears. The statement in italics in the first edition 
of the "Handbook," that the dates given represent the "usual times 
of migration" appears, by some readers, to have been overlooked. It 
may be well, therefore, to emphasize it here. 

The data from Washington, D. C, were supplied by Dr. C. W. Rich- 
mond of the United States National Museum. Not only has Dr. Rich- 
mond had a prolonged personal experience in this field, but he has had 
access to the notes of other local ornithologists. 

The water birds of Long Island are treated by William Dutcher, 
who for years made our coast birds a subject of special investigation. 
Sportsmen, lighthouse keepers, and ornithologists have all contributed 
to his splendid series of notes on the movements of waterfowl and bay 
birds. In more recent years, Mr. Dutcher's work has been continued 
by Dr. W. C. Braislin, from whose paper on the Birds of Long Island 
(Abst. Proc. Linnaean Society, Nos. 17-19, 1904-7) I have supple- 
mented or emended Mr. Dutcher's notes. 

Dr. A. K. Fisher supplied the notes from Ossining, New York. This 
locality formed the field of his ornithological labors for fifteen years. 
Within the limits of the town of Ossining, he has observed no less than 
236 species of birds. I doubt if any other one person in northeastern 
America has recorded so large a number from so small an area. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts, is historic ground in the annals of 
ornithology. From the time of Nuttall, its bird-hfe has been studied 



PLAN OF THE WORK xix 

by an ever-increasing number of enthusiastic field students, whose 
acknowledged leader for the past forty odd years has been WilHam 
Brewster. Mr. Brewster contributed to the first edition of the "Hand- 
book" data on Cambridge birds of much value; but, since that time, 
he has fortunately embodied his fife studies in his ''Birds of the Cam- 
bridge Region" (Memoir No. 4, Nutt. Orn. Club), beyond question 
the most important local work on American birds which has as yet been 
pubhshed. The data from the Cambridge region given in this edition 
of the "Handbook" are quoted, by permission, from Mr. Brewster's 
book, where the exact hmits of the area covered will be found stated. 

None of the additional records were contained in the first edition 
of the "Handbook." Those from Ohio were supplied by Professor 
Lynds Jones, of Oberlin, long the authority on the birds of that State. 
They cover Lorain and Erie Counties. The dates, Professor Jones 
states, are "median dates of first arrival." 

B. T. Gault, who has contributed the notes from Glen Ellyn, writes: 
"The dates given are extreme [thus contrary to the plan followed by 
other contributors], excepting in isolated cases of extra-limital species. 
My observations really cover the township of Milton, but every bird 
listed, except Gallinula galeata, Strix varia, and Aquila chrysaetos, has 
been noted within the corporate limits of the village of Glen Ellyn." 

The records from southeastern Minnesota were supplied by Dr. 
Thomas S. Roberts, for many years the leading authority on the birds 
of Minnesota. They are based, in the main, on observations made in 
the vicinity of Minneapolis. 

Nests and Eggs. — The brief descriptions of nests and eggs are based 
on the collections of the American Museum of Natural History, supple- 
mented by the use of Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway's "History of North 
American Birds," Davie's "Nests and Eggs of North American Birds," 
Ridgway's "Manual," and Bendire's "Life Histories of North American 
Birds." In describing the eggs, the color chart was used when possible; 
but it was designed with particular reference to the plumages of our 
birds, and is of less assistance in describing their eggs. The measure- 
ments of eggs are mostly from series of measurements made by Mr. H. 
B. Bailey, accompanying the Bailey collection in the American Museum, 
supplemented by reference to the works mentioned above. 

Nesting Dates. — The dates following the descriptions of nest and eggs 
are designed to indicate when the nesting season of the species in ques- 
tion begins at various localities. They are the earliest dates I have found 
for the taking of full sets of (presumably) fresh eggs of the first laying. 
These records were compiled chiefly from the data accompanying the 
collections of the United States National Museum (to which I have 
kindly been given access by Dr. C. W. Richmond), those of the Ameri- 
can Museum of National History, and the collection of Mr. J. P. 
Norris, Jr., to whom I gratefully express my indebtedness. The "Cam- 
bridge" records are all extracted, by permission, from Brewster's 
"Birds of the Cambridge Region," while for those from "SE. Minn." 



XX PLAN OF THE WORK 

I have to thank my friend Dr. Thomas S. Roberts. The Charleston 
and South Carohna coast records are from Wayne's excellent work 
on "The Birds of South Carolina." 

Biographies. — After devoting separate paragraphs to the bird's 
general range, its manner of occurrence, comparative numbers, times 
of migration at several specific points, and its nest and eggs, the space 
remaining is given to a brief sketch of its haunts, notes, and disposi- 
tion, with the particular object of aiding in its identification in the 
field. 

In preparing these biographical sketches, I have aimed to secure 
the best material possible, using my own notes only when I felt they 
were based on adequate observations. Not only have I carefully exam- 
ined the Hterature relating to the habits of our birds, selecting what 
seemed to be the most trustworthy accounts of their appearance in 
life, but, through the generous cooperation of fellow-students of living 
birds, I am able to present character sketches of some of our birds, 
written by observers who are everywhere known for their sympathy 
with birds out-of-doors. Thus, I have to thank Mrs. Miller, Mrs. 
Bailey, Mr. Bicknell, Mr. Brewster, Dr. Dwight, Mr. Seton, and Mr. 
Torrey, for pen pictures of birds with which they are especially famiUar, 
each sketch being signed by its author. 

Illustrations. — Tappan Adney's pen-and-ink drawings, which have 
added so much to the value of the preceding editions of the "Hand- 
book," appear in the present edition. To them have been added others 
by Ernest Thompson Seton, from "Bird-Life." 

In the matter of illustrations, the present edition of the "Hand- 
book" is chiefly distinguished from its predecessors by the inclusion 
of fifteen full-page plates by America's foremost painter of birds, Louis 
Agassiz Fuertes. Of those in color, some are designed to aid in identify- 
ing the more difficult species of birds, like Flycatchers and Thrushes, 
while others are intended to illustrate various phenomena in connection 
with the plumage of birds. 

The Color Chart. — It must not be supposed for a moment that the 
colors on this chart represent the colors of all the birds of eastern North 
America. It does not do so any more than an artist's palette shows all 
the colors of his picture; in fact, I have called this plate my mental 
palette, and have frequently used two, and even three, terms to describe 
a given shade or tint. 

It should be clearly understood, therefore, that when grayish brown, 
for example, is mentioned, it does not follow that the feathers to which 
the term is applied are of exactly the same color as the plate, but that 
they are nearer to this color than to any other in the plate. Used even 
in this general way, the plate will prove a far more definite basis for 
description than if every one were left to form his own idea of the colors 
named. 



CONTENTS 



Historical Review. 



List of Abbreviations. 



Plan of the Work. 



Introduction 



Chapter I. — Why We Should Study Birds 

Chapter II. — A Word to the Beginner 
Finding and Naming Birds 
The Equipment of the Field Student 
Collecting Birds, Their Nests and Eggs 
American Ornithological Societies . 
Current Ornithological Magazines 



Chapter III. — The Study of Birds in Nature 
The Distribution of Birds 
The Migration of Birds 
The Voice of Birds 
The Nesting Season 
The Plumage of Birds . 
The Food of Birds 
General Activities of the Adult Bird 



PAGE 

ix 



xu 



3 

3 

9 

15 

23 

24 

26 
27 
32 
60 
66 
84 
98 
103 



THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA EAST OF THE NINF.- 

TIETH MERIDIAN 118 

Key to Orders and Families . . . . . .118 

Field Key to Land Birds 133 

I. Order Pygopodes: Diving Birds . . . .138 

1. Family Colymbida^: Grebes . . . .138 

2. Family Gaviidae: Loons . . . .142 

3. Family Alcidae: Auks, Murres, and Puffins . 145 

Cxxi) 



xxii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

II. Order Longipennes: Long-winged Swimmers . 150 

4. Family Stercorariidse : Jaegers and Skuas . 150 

5. Family Laridae: Gulls and Terns . . . 152 

6. Family Rynchopidse : Skimmers , . . 172 

III. Order Tubinares: Tube-nosed Swimmers . . 172 

7. Family Diomedeidae: Albatrosses . . . 172 

8. Family Procellariidse : Fulmars, Shearwaters, and 

Petrels 173 

IV. Order Steganopodes: Totipalmate Swimmers . 178 

9. Family Phaethontidse : Tropic-birds . . .178 

10. Family Sulidse: Gannets . . . .179 

11. Family Anhingidae : Darters .... 181 

12. Family Phalacrocoracidse : Cormorants . . 182 

13. Family Pelecanidse: Pelicans .... 183 

14. Family Fregatidae: Man-o'-war-birds . . 185 

V. Order Anseres: Lamellirostral Swimmers . . 186 

15. Family Anatidse: Ducks, Geese, and Swans . 186 

VI. Order Odontogloss.e: Lamellirostral Grallatores 216 

16. Family Phoenicopteridae : Flamingoes . . 216 



VII. Order Herodiones: Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc. 

17. Family Plataleidae: Spoonbills 

18. Family Ibididae: Ibises .... 

19. Family Ciconiidae: Storks 

20. Family Ardeidae: Herons and Bitterns 

VIII. Order Paludicol^: Cranes, Rails, etc. 

21. Family Gruidae: Cranes .... 

22. Family Aramidae: Courlans 

23. Family Rallidse: Rails, Gallinules, and Coots 

IX. Order Limicol^: Shore Birds 

24. Family Phalaropodidae : Phalaropes . 

25. Family Recurvirostridae : Stilts and Avocets 

26. Family Scolopacidae: Snipes, Sandpipers, etc. 

27. Family Charadriidae: Plovers . 

28. Family Aphrizidse : Surf -birds and Turnstones 

29. Family Hsematopodidse : Oyster-catchers . 



217 
217 
218 
219 
219 

229 
229 
230 
230 

238 
239 
241 
242 
263 
268 
268 



CONTENTS 



XXlll 



X. Order Gallin.^: Gallinaceous Birds 

30. Family Odontophoridse : American Quail 

31. Family Tetraonidae : Grouse 

32. Family Meleagridae: Turkeys 

XI. Order Columb.e: Pigeons and Doves 

33. Family Columbidse: Pigeons and Doves 

XII. Order Raptores: Birds of Prey 

34. Family Cathartidae: American Vultures 

35. Family Buteonidse: Hawks, Eagles, Kites, etc. 

36. P'amily Falconidae: Falcons, Caracaras, etc. 

37. Family Pandionida?: Ospreys . 

38. Family Aluconidse: Barn Owls 

39. Family Strigida?: Horned Owls, Hoot Owls, etc. 



XIII. Order Psittaci: Parrots, jMacaws, Paroquets, 

Cockatoos ..... 

40. Family Psittacidse: Parrots and Paroquets 

XIV. Order Coccyges: Cuckoos, Kingfishers, etc. 

41. Family Cuculida?: Cuckoos, Anis, etc. 

42. Family Alcedinidaj: Kingfishers 

XV. Order Pici: Woodpeckers, Wrynecks, etc. 

43. Family Picidse: Woodpeckers 



XVI. Order M acrochires : Goatsuckers, Swifts, Humming 
BIRDS, etc. ....... 

44. Family Caprimulgidae : Nighthawks, Whip-poor- 

wills, etc. ..... 

45. Family Micropodida^: Swifts 

46. Family Trochilida} : Hummingbirds . 

XVII. Order Passeres: Perching Birds . 

47. Family Tyrannida;: Flycatchers 

48. Family Alaudidcc: Larks . . . , 
Family Corvida^: Crows, Jays, etc. . 
Family Sturnida^: Starlings 
Family Icterida^: Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. 
Family Fringillida): Finches, Sparrows, etc 

53. Family Tangarida): Tanagers 

54. Family Ilirundinidir: Swallows 



49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 



XXIV 



CONTENTS 



55. Family Bombycillidae : Waxwings 

56. Family Laniidse: Shrikes 

57. Family Vireonidse : Vireos 

58. Family Mniotiltidse: Wood Warblers 

59. Family Motacillidae : Wagtails and Pipits 

60. Family Mimidee: Thrashers, Mockingbirds, etc. 

61. Family Troglod5rtid8e : Wrens 

62. Family Certhiidae: Creepers 

63. Family Sittida?: Nuthatches . 

64. Family Paridse: Titmice 

65. Family Sylviidae: Old- World Warblers, Kinglets, 

and Gnatcatchers . . . . . 

66. Family TurdidsB: Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. 



PAGE 

420 
422 
424 
430 
470 
472 
475 
481 
482 
485 



491 



Bibliographical Appendix 501 



Index 



517 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

J FULL-PAGE PLATES 

PLATE FACING PAGE 

I. Screech Owl. (In color.) L. A. Fuertes. Frontispiece. 
Color Chart. (Double page in color.) .... 26 
II. Nests of Red- winged Blackbird and of Pheasant. 

Photographed hy F. M. C. 75 

III. Eggs of Meadowlark, Upland Plover, and Common 

Tern. Photographed by F. M.C 78 

IV. Plumages of the Scarlet Tanager. (In color.) L. A. 

Fuertes. ........ 85 

V. Adult Male Wood Duck in 'Eclipse' Plumage. (In 

color.) L. A. Fuertes. ...... 86 

VI. Red-winged Blackbirds and Chickadees in Juvenal 

Plumage. Photographed by F. M. C. . . . 88 

VII. Song Sparrows. (In color.) L. A. Fuertes. ... 91 

VIII. Woodcock on Nest. Photographed by E. Van Altena. 

Black Skimmer on Nest. Photographed by F. M. C. 95 
IX. Gannet, Murres, Puffins, and Razor-billed Auks. 

Photographed by F. M. C 145 

X. Gulls and Petrels. L. A. Fuertes. .... 152 
XI. Terns and Skimmers. From Habitat Group in the 

American Museum of Natural History. . . . 162 

XII. Heads of Ducks. Photographed from Specimens in the 

American Museum of Natural History. . . .186 

XIII. Ducks and Geese. L. A. Fuertes. .... 198 

XIV. Clapper Rail. From Group in the American Museum 

of Natural History. 232 

XV. Spotted Sandpiper and Young. Photographed from 

Specimens in the American Mu^seum of Natural History 261 

XVI. Passenger Pigeon. L. A. Fuertes. .... 282 

XVII. Flying Hawks. L. A. Fuertes 287 

XVIII. Heads of Owls. L. A. Fuertes .309 

XIX. Flycatchers. (In color.) L. A. Fuertes. . . . 315 

XX. Plumages of the Bobolink. (In color.) L. A. Fuertes. 358 
XXI. Plumages of the Orchard Oriole. (In color.) L. A. 

Fuertes ......... 364 

(xxv) 



XXVI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE FACING PAGE 

XXIL Pine Siskin, Redpoll, Tree Sparrow, Snow Bunting. 

L. A. Fuertes .' . 381 

XXIII. Bachman's, Swainson's, and Worm-eating Warblers. 

L. A. Fuertes. . . . . . . . 441 

XXIV. Thrushes of the Genus Hylocichla. (In color.) 

L. A. Fuertes. . 492 



FIGLfBES IN TRb] TEXT 

FIGURE 

1. Topography of a bird ...... 

2. Spotted (a), streaked (6), barred (c), margined {d) feathers 

3. The Umbrella blind ... 

4. A completed bird skin 

5. Migration of the Blackpoll Warbler . 

6. Migration of the Mourning Warbler . 

7. Migration of the BoboUnk 

8. Migration of the Redstart 
Migration of the Golden Plover 
Feathers of Snow Bunting 
Bill of Woodcock .... 
Bill of Avocet ..... 
Wing and foot of Tree Swallow 
Wing and foot of Little Black Rail 
Man-o '-war-bird .... 
Wing of Woodcock .... 
Tail of (a) Downy Woodpecker, (6) Brown Creeper 
Flamingo . . • . 
Toes of Ruffed Grouse 

20. Foot of Osprey .... 

21. Feet of (a) Phalarope, (6) Coot 

22. Feet of (a) Pied-billed Grebe, (6) Loon, (c) Puffin 

23. (a) Bill of Parasitic Jaeger; (6) bill and foot of Laughing Gull 

24. Bill of Common Tern 
Bill of Skimmer .... 
(a) Bill and foot of Black-footed Albatross 

of Fulmar ..... 
Bill of Gannet .... 

Bill of Yellow-billed Tropic Bird 
Foot of Cormorant .... 
Bill of Anhinga .... 

Bill of Cormorant .... 
I^ill of Man-o'-war-bird 
Bill of Merganser .... 
(a) Bill and foot of Mallard; (6) foot of Canvasback 
Bill of Flamingo ...... 



25. 

2(3. 

27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 



(6) bill and foot 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxvii 



36. Bill and toe-nail of Green Heron .... 

37. Bill of White Ibis 

38. Bill of Roseate Spoonbill ...... 

39. (a) Bill and foot of Clapper Rail; bills of (6) Yellow Rail, 

(c) Sora, (d) Florida Gallinule; (e) bill and foot of Coot 

40. Bill of Sandhill Crane 

41. Bill of Limpkin ....... 

42. BUls of (a) Dowitcher, (6) Knot, (c) Black-bellied Plover, 

(d) Semipalmated Plover ..... 

43. Feet of (a) Red Phalarope, (6) Knot, (c) Dowitcher, (d) 

Black-bellied Plover, (e) Semipalmated Plover 

44. Bill of Ruffed Grouse 

45. Bill of Wild Pigeon 

46. Feet of (a) Barred Owl, (6) Red-shouldered Hawk 

47. Head of Barn Owl 

48. Head of Barred Owl 

49. Head of Turkey Vulture ..... 

50. Head of Red-shouldered Hawk .... 

51. Bill and foot of Carolina Paroquet .... 

52. Bill and foot of Belted Kingfisher .... 

53. Bill and foot of Yellow-billed Cuckoo 

54. (a) Bill and foot of Hairy Woodpecker, (6) foot of Arctic 

Three-toed Woodpecker ..... 

55. Bill and foot of Nighthawk ..... 

56. Bill and tail-feather of Chimney Swift 

57. Bill of Hummingbird ...... 

58. Foot of Robin ....... 

59. Bill and wing of Phoebe ...... 

60. Bill and hind-toe of Horned Lark .... 

61. (a) Bill and wing of Blue Jay, (6) bill of Crow 

62. Bill and wing of Starling ..... 

63. (a) Bill and wing of Baltimore Oriole; bills of (b) Meadow- 

lark, (c) Purple Grackle ..... 

64. Bills of (a) Cardinal, (b) Pine Grosbeak, (c) Purple Finch, 

(d) Am. Crossbill, (e) Seaside Finch, (/) Goldfinch . 

65. Bill of Scarlet Tanager ...... 

66. Bill and foot of Cliff Swallow 

67. Head of Cedar Wax wing ..... 

68. Bill of Loggerhead Shrike ..... 

69. Bill of Blue-headed Vireo 

70. (a) Bill of Tennessee Warbler; (6) bill, wing, and hind- 

of Pine Warbler; bills of (c) Redstart, (d) Water-Thrush; 

(e) Chat ■ . 

71. Bill and hind-toe of American Pipit .... 

72. (a) Bill of Brown Thrasher, (ft) bill and wing of Catl)ird; 

bills of (c) CaroUna Wren, (d) House Wren . . .131 



XXVlll 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIGURE 

73. Bill and tail of Brown Creeper 

74. (a) Bill of White-breasted Nuthatch, (&) bill and wing of 

Chickadee ........ 

75. Bill and wing of Golden-crowned Kinglet, (h) bill of Blue- 

gray Gnatcatcher ....... 

76. (a) Bill of Robin, (&) bill and wing of Bluebird 

77. Great Auk 149 

78. First primaries of (a) Herring Gull, (6) Ring-billed Gull, 

(c) Laughing Gull, (d) Franklin's Gull, (e) Bonaparte's 
Gull 

79. First primaries of (o) Caspian Tern, (b) Royal Tern, (c) 

Common Tern, (d) Arctic Tern, (e) Roseate Tern 

80. Head of Least Sandpiper 

81. Head of Red-backed Sandpiper 

82. Wing of Solitary Sandpiper 

83. Head of Semipalmated Plover 



84. Head of Wilson's Plover . 

85. Tail of Sharp-shinned Hawk 

86. Tail of Cooper's Hawk . 

87. Primaries of Red-shouldered Hawk 

88. Primaries of Broad-winged Hawk 

89. Foot of Golden Eagle 

90. Foot of Bald Eagle 

91. Tail-feathers of Yellow-billed Cuckoo 

92. Tail-feathers of Black-billed Cuckoo 

93. Tongue of Pileated Woodpecker 

94. Whip-poor-will 

95. Head of Crested Flycatcher 

96. Head of Prairie Horned Lark 

97. Starling; — Summer plumage 

98. Starling; — Winter plumage 

99. Head of Cowbird . 

100. Head of Purple Finch . 

101. Head of Redpoll . 

102. Hind-toe of Lapland Longspur 

103. Tail-feathers of Vesper Sparrow 

104. Tail of Grasshopper Sparrow . 

105. Head of Seaside Sparrow 

106. Head of Lark Sparrow . 

107. Head of Chipping Sparrow 

108. Head of Fox Sparrow 

109. Head of Dickcissel . 

110. Barn, Cliff, Tree, and Bank Swallows 

111. Section of primary of Rough-winged Swallow 

112. Head of Red-eyed Vireo . 

113. Wing of Warbling Vireo . 



131 

131 

132 

132 



154 



164 
251 
252 
257 
266 
267 
293 
294 
297 
298 
301 
302 
319 
320 
327 
332 
341 
349 
355 
356 
360 
377 
381 
385 
386 
389 
393 
395 
398 
405 
412 
415 
420 
425 
426 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



XXIX 



FIGURE 








PAGE 


114. 


Head, of Black and White Warbler 445 


115. 


Head of Worm-eating Warbler 445 


116. 


Head of Blue-winged Warbler . 








. 445 


117. 


Head of Golden-winged Warbler 








. 445 


118. 


Head of Parula Warbler . 








. 445 


119. 


Head of Myrtle Warbler 








. 445 


120. 


Head of Magnolia Warbler 








. 445 


121. 


Head of Chestnut-sided Warbler 








. 445 


122. 


Black-throated Blue Warbler . 








. 449 


123. 


Head of Blackpoll Warbler 








. 462 


124. 


Head of Prairie Warbler 








. 462 


125. 


Head of Ovenbird . 








. 462 


126. 


Head of Kentucky Warbler 








. 462 


127. 


Head of Maryland Yellow-throat 








. 462 


128. 


Head of Wilson's Warbler 








. 462 


129. 


Head of Hooded Warbler 








. 462 


130. 


Head of Canadian Warbler 








. 462 


131. 


Head of Yellow-breasted Chat 








. 467 


132. 


Head of Short-billed Marsh Wren 








. 479 


133. 


Head of Long-billed Marsh Wren 








. 480 


134. 


Head of Red-breasted Nuthatch 








. 484 


135. 


Head of Tufted Titmouse 








. 486 


136. 


Head of Golden-crowned Kinglet 


• < 






. 489 



A HANDBOOK OF THE 
BIEDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 



INTRODUCTION 

WHY WE SHOULD STUDY BIRDS 

A WORD TO THE BEGINNER 

THE STUDY OF BIRDS IN NATURE 



CHAPTER I 

WHY WE SHOULD STUDY BIRDS 

Birds occupy a fourfold relation to man: an economic, esthetic, 
what may be termed a mythological or symbolic, and a scientific rela- 
tion. 

Birds are Nature's most potent checks upon the undue increase 
of noxious insects and harmful rodents; they devour the seeds of weeds 
and act as scavengers. The more we learn of their food habits, the 
greater becomes the reahzation of our indebtedness to them, and 
economic ornithologists now agree that, without the services rendered 
by birds, the ravages of the animals they prey upon would render the 
earth uninhabitable. 

Birds, however, not only make life upon the globe possible, but 
they may add immeasurably to our enjoyment of it. Where in all 
animate nature shall we find so marvelous a combination of beauty 
of form and color, of grace and power of motion, of musical ability 
and intelligence, to delight our eyes, charm our ears and appeal to 
our imagination? 

To the birds' mastery of the, air, to their mysterious appearances 
and disappearances occasioned by migration, to the weird or peculiar 
character of their notes, as well as to their human-like characteristics, 
we may doubtless attribute the influence they have exerted on the mind 
of primitive man. This is shown in a thousand myths and leg(>n(ls 
investing the bird with supernatural powers, and in savage art and 
symbolism, and is reflected in the folk-lore of a later day. It is not 
surprising, therefore, that civilized man should devote especial atten- 
tion to creatures possessed of such unusual interest, studying their 
origin and relationships, their distribution in time and space, their 
migrations, their nesting habits, their form and color, and all the details 

(1) 



2 WHY WE SHOULD STUDY BIRDS 

of their structure and life which go to make up the science of ornithol- 
ogy. The claims of birds to our attention may then be formally sum- 
marized as follows: 

First, because, as the natural enemies of harmful insects and rodents, 
as destroyers of weed seeds and as scavengers, birds are of inestimable 
value in the economics of nature. 

Second, because birds are sensitively organized creatures, and 
respond so readily to the influences of their surroundings that in their 
structure, distribution, migration and habits they furnish naturalists 
with numerous and important clews to the workings of natural laws. 

Third, because birds, more effectively than any other forms of 
life, arouse our inborn interest in animals, not only through their 
abundance and familiarity, but because their form, color and power 
of flight stimulate our love of beauty and of grace; because their 
songs appeal to us as the most eloquent of nature's voices; because 
their migrations excite our wonder and continually renew our interest 
in the bird-life of the same locality, and because the human-like traits 
displayed during their nesting season emphasize our kinship with them. 
Hence it follows that birds, more than any other animals, may serve 
as bonds between man and nature. 



CHAPTER II 

A WORD TO THE BEGINNER 

Finding and Naming Birds 
The Equipment of the Field Student 
Collecting Birds, Their Nests and Eggs 
American Ornithological Societies 
Current Ornithological Magazines 

Finding and Naming Birds 

How to Find Birds 
How to Identify Birds 
How Birds Are Named 

How to Find Birds. — The best times of the day in which to look 
for birds are early morning and late afternoon. After a night of fast- 
ing and resting, birds are active and hungry. When their appetites 
are satisfied, they may rest quietly until hunger again sends them forth 
in search of food. 

Experience will soon show you where birds are most abundant. 
The more varied the nature of the country the greater number of 
species you may expect to find inhabiting it. An ideal locality would 
be a bit of tree-dotted meadow with a reed-bordered pond or stream, 
surrounded by woods, rolling uplands and orchards. 

Common sense will tell you how to act in the field. Birds are gen- 
erally shy creatures and must be approached with caution. You must 
not, therefore, go observing or collecting dressed in flaming red, but 
in some inconspicuous garb and as quietly as a cat. Furthermore, go 
alone and keep the sun at your back — two apparently unrelated but 
equally important bits^of advice. 

The naturalist generally has the instincts of the hunter, and prac- 
tice will develop them. The 'squeak' is one of his most valuable aids. 
It is made by placing the lips to the back of the hand or finger and ki.s.s- 
ing vigorously. The sound produced bears some rcsemblanc(^ to the 
cries of a wounded or young bird. In the nesting season its utterance 
frequently creates much excitement in the bird-world, and at all times 
it is useful as a means of drawing bush- or reed-haunting species from 
their retreats. One may enter an apparently deserted thicket, and, 
after a few minutes' squeaking, find himself surrounded by an anxious 
or curious group of its feathered inhabitants. 

The observer of birds will find that by far the best way to study 

3 (3) 



4 HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS 

their habits is to take a sheltered seat in some favored locaHty and 
become a part of the background. Your passage through the woods 
is generally attended by sufficient noise to warn birds of your coming 
long before you see them. They are then suspicious and ill at ease, 
but secrete yourself near some spot loved by birds, and it may be your 
privilege to learn the secrets of the forest. In this connection I cannot 
too highly recommend the observation blind described beyond. Ade- 
quate natural cover cannot always be found and at best, rarely permits 
of much freedom of movement. In it, one therefore becomes so cramped 
and tired that what should be a pleasure becomes hard labor. Where- 
as, I have passed as much as eight consecutive hours in a blind without 
undue fatigue; and, it may be added that, although I was in an open 
field only twenty feet from a Meadowlark's nest, the birds had not 
the slightest suspicion of my proximity.* 

How to Identify Birds. — Whether your object be to study birds as a 
scientist or simply as a lover of Nature, the first step is the same — you 
must learn to know them. This problem of identification has been 
given up in despair by many would-be ornithologists. We can neither 
pick, press, net, nor impale birds; and here the botanist and the ento- 
mologist have a distinct advantage. Even if we have the desire to 
resort to a gun, its use is not always possible. But with patience and 
practice the identification of birds is comparatively an easy matter, 
and in the end you will name them with surprising ease and certainty. 
There is generally more character in the flight of a bird than there is 
in the gait of a man. Both are frequently indescribable but perfectly 
diagnostic, and you learn to recognize bird friends as you do human 
ones — by experience. 

If you confine your studies to one locality, probably not more than 
one-third of the species described in this volume will come within the 
field of your observation. To aid you in learning which species should 
be included in this third, the paragraphs on Range are followed by a 
statement of the bird's standing at several locafities distributed through- 
out the Eastern United States. Take the fist of birds from the point 
nearest your home. as an index of those you may expect to find. This 
may be abridged for a given season by considering the times of the 
year at which a bird is present. Often you can secure a published list 
of the birds of your state, county, or immediate vicinity, and publica- 
tions of this nature are of such exceptional value and interest to the 
local student that a list of the more important ones has been prepared 
as an appendix to this edition of the "Handbook." 

After this slight preparation, you may take to the field with a much 
clearer understanding of the situation. Two quite different ways of 
identifying birds are open to you. Either you may shoot them, or study 
them through a field- or opera-glass. (See beyond, under Collecting.) 
A bird in the hand is a definite object whose structure and color can be 
studied to such advantage that in most cases you will afterward recog- 

*See "Camps and Cruises," pp. 15-19, 



HOW BIRDS ARE NAMED 5 

nize it at sight. After learning the names of its parts, its identity is 
simply a question of keys and descriptions. 

If you would ''name the birds without a gun," by all means first 
visit a museum, and, with text-book in hand, study those species 
which you have previousl}^ found are to be looked for near your home. 
This prehminary introduction will serve to ripen your acquaintance in 
the field. A good field- or opera-glass is absolutely indispensable. (See 
beyond, under Equipment.) Study your bird as closely as circumstances 
will permit, and write, on the spot, a comparative description of its size, 
the shape of its bill, tail, etc., and a detailed description of its colors. 
In describing form, take a Robin, Chipping Sparrow, or any bird you 
know, which best serves the purpose, as a basis for comparison. A 
bird's bill is generally its most diagnostic external character. A sketch 
of it in your note-book will frequently give you a good clue to its owmer's 
family. It is of the utmost importance that descriptions and sketches 
should be made in the field. Not only do our memories sometimes 
deceive us, but we really see nothing vnih. exactness until we attempt 
to describe it. Haunts, actions, and notes should also be carefully 
recorded. 

Even better than a description is a figure colored with crayons or 
water-colors. It may be the crudest outline and in ridiculous pose, but at 
least it is definite. There is no possibility of error through the wrong 
use of terms; the observ-er draws or charts what he sees. Neither art 
nor skill is required. Anyone can learn to make the outline of the 
normal bird figure as readily as he can learn to make the letters of the 
alphabet, and a little practice will enable one to give the shape of bill, 
wings and tail, and even a hint of characteristic form and position. 
Typical, passerine outline figures may be made in advance in one's 
field note-book, and the shape of the bill and color may be added while 
the bird is under observation. A collection of diagrams or sketches of 
this kind will be found to possess far greater individuality and value 
than mere written descriptions. If the sketch cannot be completed, if 
essential details are lacking, it is obvious that the subject has not been 
seen with that definiteness upon which satisfactory field identification 
should rest. With this description or sketch you may now proceed to 
use the 'Keys' as explained on an earlier page. 

How Birds Are Named. — Nine years have passed since an actually 
new species of bird was discovered in North America, while no new 
eastern North American bird has been found for twenty-five years. It 
is extremely doubtful, therefore, if from our Mexican boundary to the 
Arctic Ocean there remains a single unknown species of bird. Of geo- 
graphical races, or climatic varieties or subspecies, a gradually decreas- 
ing number will be described from at least western North America 
for years to come, but in eastern North America we have practically 
reached, if indeed we have not passed, the point where such forms may 
be profitably named. 

The bird student in this area may be reasonably certain, therefore, 



6 HOW BIRDS ARE NAMED 

that every bird he sees has a name, and in the preceding section having 
suggested ways in which this name may be learned, the somewhat 
obscure details of nomenclature may be made clearer by explaining 
how the bird got it. In doing so I draw freely from a similar effort in 
the "Color Key to North American Birds." 

Birds have two kinds of names. One is a common, vernacular or 
popular name; the other is a technical or scientific name. The first 
is usually given to the Hving bird by the people of the country it in- 
habits. The second is applied to specimens of birds by ornithologists 
who classify them. Common names in their origin and use know no 
law. Technical names are bestowed under the system of binomial 
nomenclature estabUshed by Linnaeus in 1758, and their formation 
and adoption are governed by certain definite, generally accepted rules. 
The Linnsean system, as it is now employed by most ornithologists, 
provides that a bird, in addition to being grouped in a certain Order, 
Family, etc., shall have a generic, a specific, and, often, a subspecific 
name which, together, shall not be applied to any other animal. 

Generally speaking. Orders and Families are based on skeletal, 
muscular, and visceral, or what may be termed internal characters; 
while genera are based on the form of bill, wings, feet and tail, and 
sometimes on pattern of markings, and species and subspecies on color 
and size, or external characters. Thus, all the members of an Order 
agree in major internal characters; those of a Family further agree in 
minor internal characters; those of a Genus, in addition, resemble one 
another in external characters, while species and subspecies differ only 
in color and in size. 

Frequently it happens that a bird may possess some of the char- 
acters of one group in connection with some of the characters of another 
group, and such birds, collectively, create intergrading groups known 
as Suborders, Subfamilies, Subgenera, or Subspecies. With the last, 
the student is especially concerned since they figure in the name by 
which a bird is known. 

In pre-Darwinian days it was generally believed that a species was 
a distinct creation whose characters did not vary from a certain type. 
But in later years comparison of many specimens of a species from 
throughout the region it inhabits, shows that specimens from one part 
of a bird's range may differ in size and color, or both, from those taken 
in another part of its range. At intervening localities, however, inter- 
mediate specimens will be found connecting the extremes. (See beyond, 
under Color and Climate.). 

Variations of this kind are termed geographic, racial or subspecific 
and the birds exhibiting them are known as subspecies. In naming 
them, a third name, or trinomial is employed, and the possession of 
such a name indicates, at once, that the bird is a geographic or racial 
representative of a species with one or more representatives of which 
it intergrades. 

In illustration let us now trace the history of a trinominal designa- 



HOW BIRDS ARE NAMED 7 

tion; for example, that of our Robin, Planesticus migratorius migra- 
torius (Linn.). The first account of this bird appears in Catesby (1731) 
and it was later classified by Linnaeus in the twelfth edition (1766) of his 
epoch-making ''Systema Naturae" as Turdus migratorius. By this name 
the Robin or '^Migratory Thrush' was kno^Ti for over one hundred 
j^ears, when that finer discrimination, which has increasingly character- 
ized systematic ornithology, showed that the genus Turdus of Lin- 
naeus contained species which, in the Hght of this more modern view, 
were generically separable. The type of the genus ha\dng been deter- 
mined to be Turdus visdvorus Linn., the Mistle Thrush of Europe, 
the name Turdus was restricted to that bird and its congeneric allies, 
and the genus Merula of Leach was accepted for our Robin and the 
species with which it is generically related. The bird's name then became 
Merula migratoria (Linn.), the termination of the specific name being 
changed from us to a in order that it might conform to the gender of 
the generic name with which it was associated; and the parentheses 
enclosing the abbreviation for the name of Linnaeus, indicating that 
while Linnaeus described the species migratoria, he did not place it in 
the genus Merula. 

Now, by one of those unfortunate coincidences which have done so 
much to create confusion in zoological nomenclature, it was discovered, 
in 1907, that the generic name Merula of Leach was 'preoccupied' by 
the Merula of Koch, proposed by the latter for a genus of Starlings, and, 
under the ruling of the 'Law of Priority,' the name Merula could there- 
fore no longer be applied to the Robin and its congeners, and the next 
available name proved to be Planesticus of Bonaparte. There the case 
stands, though it is by no means impossible that in some obscure pub- 
lication Planesticus itself may be found to be preoccupied or perhaps 
antedated by some other name proposed before that of Bonaparte. 
Such cases, however, are the inevitable result of the rigid enforcement 
of now universally accepted laws of zoological nomenclature, which, 
if they had been in existence and observed from the time of Linnaeus, 
would have prevented these seemingly unnecessary changes in the 
technical names of animals. Each change, however, means the discovery 
of an error, and brings us nearer to that stability in names which some 
day wo- shall unquestionably reach. 

So much for the Robin's generic designation. Passing now to its 
specific name, migratorius, which being again associated with a masculine 
generic name resumes its original termination of us, this name was 
applied to the bird throughout its entire North American range imtil 
1877, when Ridgway proposed the name propinqwis for the Robin of 
western North America on the ground that in this race the outer tail- 
feather had little or no white, and on other characters, and this western 
bird, after sharing the various generic experiences of our eastern form, 
is now known as Planesticus migratorius propingmts (Ridgw.). 

After the recognition of a western race of the Robin undcT a trino- 
mial name, it would be obviously inconsistent to apply a binomial to 



8 HOW BIRDS ARE NAMED 

our eastern bird, the former being no more a subspecies of the latter, 
than the latter is of the former. In other words, to continue to apply- 
only generic and specific names to the Eastern Robin would imply that 
it was a species, while the use of a trinomial for the Western Robin 
would imply that it was a subspecies. As a matter of fact, we know that 
there is but one species of true Robin in North America, consequently, 
in accordance with the logical and now generally accepted method, 
we apply to that species the name Planesticus migratorius, and this is 
equally applicable to Robins from the West and from the East. The 
eastern subspecies is, therefore, known by the trinomial Planesticus 
migratorius migratorius, the western subspecies by the exact nomencla- 
tural equivalent, Planesticus migratorius propinquus, and the more 
recently described small, pale Southern Robin, as Planesticus migra- 
torius achrusterus. Thus we have one Robin which is represented by 
three subspecies. It may be asked, why give names to these geograph- 
ical races? Why not call Eastern, Western and Southern Robins by 
one name without regard to their climatic variations? To which it 
may be replied, that subspecies often differ more from each other than 
do species. For example, it would clearly be inadvisable to apply the 
same name to the small, pale Song Sparrow of Arizona, and the large 
dark Song Sparrow of Alaska. (See figures beyond.) Seen without 
the connecting forms from the intervening regions and they apparently 
are specifically distinct, but the application to each of a subspecific 
name, or trinomial, not only indicates that they are different, but it 
shows also that they are representative forms which are joined by a 
series of intergrades; a contribution of the first importance to the study 
of evolution. 

For much the same reason, we should recognize by name those 
birds, which, like the Robin, show less pronounced climatic variations. 
Here we have species in the earliest stages of development from a 
common ancestor, and in naming them we are, in effect, giving 'a, handle 
to the fact' of their evolution by environment. The study of the distri- 
bution and migration of birds and the mapping of natural life-areas are 
also intimately connected with this recognition by name of geographical 
variations. 

Since it is evident that a species may vary much or little according 
to the extent of its range, the governing conditions, and its tendency 
to respond to them, no fixed rule can be drawn which shall state just 
what degrees of difference are deserving a name. It follows, therefore, 
that in some cases ornithologists do not agree upon the validity of a 
bird's claims to subspecific rank.* 

In North America, however, questions of this kind are referred to 
a Committee of the American Ornithologists' Union, and its decisions 
establish a nomenclature which is accepted as the standard by other 
American ornithologists and which is adopted in this volume. 

Finally, the student should be warned not to permit this matter of 
♦See Allen, Auk. 1890, pp. 1-9. 



EQUIPMENT OF THE FIELD STUDENT 9 

names to have an undue significance. A species is not an entity or 
distinct creation, but merely one link in the chain of bird-life, which, 
because of the loss of the adjoining hnk or Unks, appears to stand by 
itseK. Nor should he allow himself to think of a subspecies as materially 
different from the species which it represents, simply because it has 
received a distinctive name. Nomenclature gives undue emphasis 
to differences, whereas, it is equally important to emphasize resem- 
blances. 

The Equipment of the Field Student 

The Glass 

Note-books and Journals 
The Observation Blind 
Photographic Outfit 
Collector's Outfit 

Glass. — A good field-glass is necessary, not alone as an aid in identify- 
ing birds, but in observing their actions. When one is working in fields 
and woods where the birds are comparatively near, a low-power glass 
with good illumination can be used more quickly and to better advantage 
than the higher-power glasses which require more frequent adjustment 
of focus, with consequent loss of time. But on the shore, or over the 
water, where birds are seen at great distances and where there is an 
abundance of light, the high-power glasses are much more serviceable. 
There is, however, a limit to the magnification which can be used 
effectively; the 8-power prism binocular of any one of half-a-dozen 
makes proving, in practice, to be best adapted to the bird student's 
needs. Beyond this power, the increased precision required in focussing, 
and the need for greater steadiness when in use, do not compensate 
one for the larger size of the image it is possible to obtain. For a low- 
power glass I know of none better than the Lemaire pocket field-glass, 
which has a magnification of about four diameters. 

Note-Books and Journals. — The necessity for a well-kept journal 
and full field-notes cannot be too strongly urged. Specimens may be 
duplicated, but no one can ever sec with your eyes. Do not trust your 
memory — a willing servant too frequently imposed on. It may receive 
and retain one impression clearly, but as others arc added the earlier 
ones lose their distinctness or become entirely effaced. 

The system adopted for recording notes should be simple to keep 
and easy of reference. In the field, I use a pocket note-book arranged 
to hold perforated leaves. In such a book one enters doscrii)ti()ns of 
birds' appearance and of their calls and song, and other memoranda 
which it is desired to commit at once to writing. No leaf should contain 
notes relating to more than one species, and the leaves, properly headed, 
may then be filed for reference, either alphabetically, or according to 
the classification of the American Ornithologists' Union. 



10 



NOTE-BOOKS AND JOURNALS 



For a journal I use a college lecture note-book, also arranged to 
hold perforated loose leaves, which measure 65 by 8^ inches. The first 
half-dozen leaves (others can be inserted when needed) should be 
ruled in small squares, leaving a space wide enough to enter birds' 
names at the left-hand page, with only horizontal lines. A portion of 
such a page is appended: 



Date 














Locality 














Weather 














Temperature 














Wind 














Start 














Return 














Remarks 




























Bluebird 

! 















After returning from the field, I enter on these roll-call sheets a 
record of weather, temperature, direction and force of the wind, route, 
time of starting and returning and incidental observations on the 
blooming of flowers, appearance of certain insects, calling of frogs, etc. 

After filling in these preliminary data, I write after the name of 
each bird either the exact or approximate number of individuals seen, 
or else the letters "A.," "C," or "T.C.," meaning abundant, common, 
or tolerably common. This is accompanied by an "s" if the bird is in 
song, or "calls" if it is simply heard calling. The possibilities of abbre- 
viation are unlimited, but use no abbreviation which is not fully 



THE OBSERVATION BLIND 



11 



explained. If you wish to make a record of some length concerning a 
certain species, place a cross or asterisk in its square. This refers to 
your journal of the same date which is entered on the horizontally 
ruled sheets following those used for the roll-call. 

Read from left to right, such a roll-call gives in a graphic, condensed 
form the standing of a species during the period of observation. Read 
from the top to the bottom of the page, it gives, in an easily comparable 
way, the complete record of each day, and, at the same time, it becomes 
an index to the bird-notes in the journal, which follows. 

To prevent needlessly multiplying these roll-call sheets, the series 
of birds' names should be made to last at least during an entire season. 
To this end do not completely fill the right-hand page, but when you 
have used all of it but a space equal in width to the space occupied by 
the column of birds' names on the left side of the left page, cut this 
part of the page — the extreme right — off; the part remaining will, 
when turned over to the left, just meet the column of names, and the 
lines of this column and of the new page will thus run continuously. As 
before remarked, the roll-book should be attended to immediately on 
returning from the field, while your impressions are fresh. The journal 
may if necessary wait, when a reference to the roll-call will aid in 
recalling the day's experiences. Only 
one cover, with clasps for the reten- 
tion of the perforated sheets, will be 
needed, and at the end of a trip or 
season the sheets may be removed and 
bound. This is essentially the method 
of note-keeping described in the first 
edition of the "Handbook" and which, 
after seventeen years' additional use, 
I still unreservedly recommend. 

The Observation Blind. — The ob- 
servation blind which, during the past 
ten years, has met the demands of 
many and varied situations, is in brief 
an umbrella opened within a bag 
long enough to conceal one. It is 
described in my "Camps and Cruises 
of an Ornithologist" (p. xiii) as 
follows : 

"The umbrella employed in mak- 
ing an observation blind is known to 
the trade as a 'sign' umbrella. It 
agrees with the normal variety in size 
but differs from it in having a I'lrgc; 
hole in the center. This permits a 
current of air to pass through the ,' •. -r. in i 

,,. J ,, .^^, n j_ ■ , I'iG. 3. Till- uiubnllu !iii(l Hiippf.rtiiiK 

buna — a matter of the first nnport- rods of the umbrdlu blind. 




12 THE OBSERVATION BLIND 

ance when one spends hours in the little structure on beach or marsh, 
where it is fully exposed to the sun. The 'stick' of this umbrella is a 
metal tube without the usual wooden handle. 

"The umbrella is supported by two brass tubes each of the same 
length as the umbrella, or thirty-two inches. The larger is shod with 
a steel point, by the insertion of a small cold chisel or nail-punch, 
which is brazed in position. The rod can then be readily driven into 
the ground. At the upper end a thumb-screw is placed. The smaller 
tube should enter the larger snugly, and should in turn be just large 
enough to receive the umbrella-rod which will enter it as far as the 
spring ''catch." The height of the umbrella may, therefore, be governed 
by the play of the smaller tube in the larger, while the thumb-screw 
will permit one to maintain any desired adjustment; as one would fix 
the height of a music rack. 

"If the bhnd is to be used about home, a light denim may be em- 
ployed; if it is to see the harder service of travel and camp-life, a heavier 
grade of the same material will be found more serviceable. In the former 
case the denim may be sewed to the edge of the umbrella, which then 
has only to be opened and placed in the brass tube, the latter have been 
thrust into the ground, when the blind is erected; an operation requiring 
less than a minute. 

"When traveling, it seems more desirable not to attach the walls 
of the blind to the umbrella. The covering then consists of several 
strips of material sewed together to make a piece measuring ten and 
a half feet wide by six and a half feet high. The two ends of this piece 
are sewed together at what then becomes the top of the bhnd, for about 
two feet. The unjoined portion below becomes the door of the blind. 
Openings should be cut in the opposite side for the lens and for obser- 
vation. A strong draw cord is then run about the top edge of the cloth, 
so that, before inserting and opening the umbrella, one can draw it 
up as one would the neck of a bag, until the opening corresponds in 
size to that of the umbrella. The draw cord should be long enough 
to serve as a guy or stay. This covering places less strain on the umbrella 
and may be packed in smaller space than one which is sewed to the 
umbrella, and, when in camp, it may be used to sleep on, as a covering, 
as a shelter tent or in a variety of ways. 

"The color of the umbrella should be leaf-green. The covering should 
be sand- or earth-colored and should be dyed leaf-green on its upper 
third whence it should gradually fade to the original cloth color at 
about the center. Such a color scheme conforms to Abbott Thayer's 
law that animals arc darkest where they receive the most light, and 
palest where they are most in shadow; and renders the blind much 
less conspicuous than if it were uniformly green or gray. It is not amiss 
to run belts of braid about the covering, sewing them to it at intervals 
and thus forming loops in which, when desired, reeds or branches may 
be thrust. 

"In erecting the blind, if circumstances permit, it is desirable to 



PHOTOGRAPHIC OUTFIT 13 

place the 'door' toward the wind to insure better ventilation. When 
the situation is exposed, an additional stay or two may be required. 
If the camera box is not strong enough to sit on, a collapsible, artist's 
camp-stool should be added to the outfit. One cannot spend half a 
day in such close quarters and observe and record to advantage unless 
one is comfortably seated." 

Photographic Outfit. — The camera has unquestionably won its 
place as the most important item in the field student's outfit; not merely 
because it enables one to record facts in a graphic, communicable form, 
but also because it supphes an incentive for definitely directed study, 
by satisfying the hunting instinct and gratifying the desire for some 
tangible return for effort expended. Photographs can be made not 
alone of birds, their nests and eggs, but of haunts and of vegetation, 
showing its condition at certain dates as it develops in the spring or 
dies in the autumn. 

The naturalist photographer should seek the advice and instruc- 
tion of some one with experience; or, when this is not possible, the 
books on the subject should be consulted. Much may be done in the 
study of nest-life with a camera and lens costing between thirty and 
forty dollars. Select a strong, not too fight, 4x5 camera, having a 
bellows-length of not less than 16 inches and fitted with a trade shutter; 
and a lens of about 7-inch focus, convertible in type, in order that 
either the front or rear half of the lens can be used alone, giving an 
image about double the size of that produced by both combined. 

Such a camera should be used from a tripod, and under favorable 
conditions of light and time it will do excellent work. It cannot be 
employed to photograph flying birds or to do many other things which 
require the most rapid lenses and special apparatus; but, from a bhnd, 
with the nest, food, or decoys to act as a lure, bringing birds within 
range, one may secure an endless number of valuable and interesting 
photographic records of bird-life. 

By using one of the modern, very rapid multi-speed, lens-shutters 
and guessing at the focus, such a camera may be used in photographing 
birds in flight; but the best results are attained in this somewhat diffi- 
cult field with a reflecting camera of the 'Graflex' type, equipped with 
a focal-plane shutter. Satisfactory flight photographs, at close range, 
require an exposure of not more than sh) part of a second. This 
necessitates the use of a high-class, rapid lens and the outfit becomes 
too costly to be within the reach of many. However, except under 
the conditions which sometimes prevail in large bird rookeries, one 
can do far more and better work from a blind with inexpensive 
apparatus, than with a high-priced hand-camera in the open, while 
the notes on birds' habits obtained from the blind are incomparably 
more valuable. 

Telephoto lenses require too great care in focusing, and too much 
time when exposing, to be of much service in bird photography. Nor 
indeed is it desirable to have a lens which too greatly increases the 



14 THE COLLECTOR'S OUTFIT 

distance from one's subject. We are not out merely to get birds' pic- 
tures, but to record their habits with a camera, and the nearer we can 
get to the bird without disturbing it, the better we can accompHsh 
our object. 

The Collector's Outfit. — Individual preference will always play a 
part in the selection of a gun. My own choice for general collecting 
is a 16-bore equipped with a 0.32 auxiUary barrel. In general collecting 
in a more or less wooded region, fully 80 per cent of your shots will be 
fired from the auxiliary — or 'aux' as it is commonly termed — while 
there will be but few occasions in the remaining 20 per cent when the 
16-bore, if properly held ( ! ) will permit a specimen to escape. 

Crude but effective auxiliary barrels may be made with a 16- 
gauge brass shell and a brass tube about ten inches long and having an 
opening the diameter of a 0.32 Ideal shell. Enlarge the cap-opening of 
the 16-gauge shell until it will exactly receive the brass tube; stand 
the shell on a level surface squarely on its base, place the tube upright 
in it with its end in the enlarged cap-hole and flush with the base of 
the shell; now, using extreme care to have the tube exactly in the 
center of the shell, fill the shell about the sides of the tube with molten 
lead. When it has cooled, counter-sink a shoulder in the base of the 
tube of sufficient size and depth to receive the rim of the 0.32 shell, 
file a narrow slot to enable one to remove with an awl or properly 
sharpened nail the exploded shell, and your 'aux' is made. 

A gunsmith could do a better job and give you a barrel with an 
extractor which will work automatically with that of your gun, and 
such barrels may sometimes be purchased from natural history dealers; 
but the one I have described can be made by any one and will answer 
every purpose. In any event, test your 'aux' thoroughly until you 
have learned its range and what load will giye the best pattern and 
penetration. I use about three-fifths fine smokeless powder with a card- 
board and felt or leather wad, and two-fifths shot with a cardboard 
wad. In loading a large number of shells for a prolonged collecting 
trip, the wad over the shot may be dipped lightly in liquid paraffine, 
which, in hardening, will tend to keep the wad from slipping. 

Since the 'aux' is used almost exclusively for birds no larger than a 
Blue Jay, the shells for it should be loaded with No. 12 shot. For the 
16-bore, one should carry variously loaded shells, as the nature of the 
collecting directs. 

A hunting-coat with large pockets, a fisherman's creel, or a game- 
bag, for carrying specimens, a bottle of corn-meal for cleaning them, 
non-absorbent cotton for 'plugging' them, stiff paper for wrapping them, 
and a mixture of equal parts powdered alum and arsenic for preserving 
them, are all part of the collector's outfit. 

The bird skinner's outfit, in its simplest form, consists of one or 
more scalpels having blades with well-rounded ends, and one, at least, 
with a handle small enough to be used as a spoon in removing brains; 
three pairs of scissors, one with short, heavy blades for bone-crushing, 



COLLECTING BIRDS 15 

one with sharp points and long handles, and one of medium size with 
blunt ends; one medium size, flat-end 'eye-forceps'; thread, pins and 
needles. This outfit, which can be purchased of a dealer in naturalists' 
supplies or surgical instruments, can be enlarged as circumstances 
require or taste directs. 

Any cotton will do for filling skins, but for use in wrapping them, 
procure the best cotton batting that money will buy. Usually it will be 
found that absorbent cotton, such as may be purchased at drug stores, 
will be as good as if not better than any which is available. 

Large birds may be filled with excelsior or a body made of crumpled 
newspaper, possibly covered with a thin sheet of cotton. 

References 

1900. Pynchon, W. H. C, A Method of Recording Observations, 
Bird-Lore, II, 19-22. — 1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 
12mo., 218 pp., illus. (Appleton).— 1901. Herrick, F. H., The Home Life 
of Wild Birds, rev. ed., 1905, 8vo., 255 pp. (Putnam's).— 1902. Bailey, F. M. 
Handbook of Birds of Western United States, introduction (Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co.). — 1902. Dugmore, A. R., Nature and the Camera, 8vo., 
126 pp. (Doubleday). — 1902. Felger, A. H., A Plan for Recording in a 
Condensed Form the Life History Notes of Birds, Auk, XIX, 189-195.— 
1904. Brownell, Photography for the Sportsman Naturalist (Macmillan). 
—1910. Job, H. K., How to Study Birds, (Outing Co.).— 1911. Beetham, 
B., Photography for Bird Lovers, 12mo., 126 pp., illus. (Witherby, London.) 

Collecting Birds, Their Nests and Eggs 

Collecting Birds 

Care of the Bird in the Field 

Making Birdskins 

Sexing 

Cataloguing and Labeling 

Care of a Collection 

Collecting and Preserving Nests and Eggs 

Collecting Birds. — When one goes to a country whose birds are 
unknown or but little known, the first thing to do is to collect and 
preserve them in order that they may be properly nan^ed and classified, 
and that our records of their distribution may rest on the tangible 
ground of specimens. 

This is the essential procedure in beginning the study of bird-life 
the world over, but once thoroughly done, it is neither necessary nor 
desirable to repeat it indefinitely. 

To say that one cannot become an ornithologist without first having 
been a collector of bird's skins, is to confess ignorance of the advance 
which has been made in the methods and possibilities of bird study. 

The non-collector will possibly never have that intimate, personal, 
first-hand knowledge of specific differences which has been gained by 
the man who has handled many birds of his own killing, nor will he 



16 CARE OF THE BIRD IN THE FIELD 

have added as many 'records' of the occurrence of species beyond 
the normal Hmits of their range; but in regions whose birds have been 
adequately collected, he will unquestionably render ornithology a far 
higher service by devoting himself to a study of biographic problems 
than by collecting specimens which, however much they may gratify 
his desire for acquisition and increase his personal acquaintance with 
birds, will add but Uttle or nothing to the fund of ornithological 
knowledge. 

The student with some definite problem in view is always justified 
in taking the specimens which are required to aid in prosecuting his 
researches, nor can there be any reasonable objection to collecting 
for purposes of identification; but there can be no doubt that through- 
out the greater part of eastern North America there is no longer need for 
general, indiscriminate collecting. No better proof of the truth of this 
statement can be required than the fact that, as our introductory 
'Historical Review' shows, some of the most important additions to 
our knowledge of birds in this area, during the past fifteen years, have 
been made by men who are not collectors. 

There is no question of the destruction of life involved here. In 
only two or three instances has the collecting of birds for specimens 
appreciably affected the numbers of a species ; and, as every one familiar 
with the facts involved knows, the results of general amateur collect- 
ing are absolutely inappreciable. Therefore, it is the student, rather 
than the bird, I have in mind, when I discourage further collecting 
in regions whose bird-life is already well-known. In most cases the 
time which he can give to bird study is limited, and the question is, 
shall he devote it to doing exactly what ornithologists for generations 
before him have done, or shall he, by concentrating on a definite prob- 
blem, do what no one has done? Can he not well afford to forego a 
general superficial knowledge of a large number of birds, such as many 
have had, for a special knowledge of some few birds such as no one 
has had? For the real student, imbued with the true spirit of research,, 
there can be only one answer to this question. 

After this protest against unnecessary collecting, and the waste 
of opportunity it occasions, I add a description of the technique of 
birdskin making, for the use of those who may properly employ it. 

Care of the Bird in the Field. — On killing a bird, pick it up by the 
bill or feet, and at once sprinkle meal or dry earth on any blood which 
may be visible. When this is saturated, scrape it off with a knife-blade 
and repeat the operation until all the blood is absorbed. Sprinkle 
some meal at the base of the feathers about the shot-holes from which 
the blood appears, or, if necessary, plug these holes with bits of cotton. 
Place a large plug of cotton in the mouth and force it well down the 
throat to prevent bleeding at the mouth from an internal wound. In 
some cases it is necessary to also plug the nostrils. Now make a cornu- 
copia of stiff paper, drop the bird in it head foremost, taking care 
that the bill is not turned forward on to the throat, and, if the bird is 



MAKING BIRDSKINS 17 

not too large, fold in the edges of the cornucopia and place the specimen 
in your bag or basket. In the case of very large specimens — Hawks, 
Owls, etc. — it is advisable to skin out the body in the field, when they 
can be packed in much smaller space. 

Making Birdskins. — With proper instruction it is not difficult to 
learn to skin birds. I have known beginners, who had closely watched 
experts at work, make fair skins at their first attempt — better skins, 
indeed, than the person who learns only from written directions may 
ever make. I am speaking from experience. Only too clearly do I 
remember my own first attempts at skinning birds and their hopelessly 
wretched results. In despair I at last sought the assistance of a distant 
ornithological friend. In one lesson he made the process so clear to me 
that I was at once enabled to make skins twice as quickly and twice as 
well. However, we unfortunately are not all blessed with ornithological 
friends to whom we can turn for advice, and I therefore append the 
following directions for making birdskins: 

Let us begin with a bird, say, the size of a Robin: 1. Plug the bird's 
throat and nostrils tightly with fresh cotton. If the eyeball is ruptured, 
pull it out with the forceps and fill the cavity with meal. 2. Lay the 
bird before you on its back, its bill pointing to the left; place your open 
left hand lengthwise on it, so that the base of your first and second fingers 
rests on the middle of the breastbone; use these fingers and the handle 
of the scalpel to separate the feathers from near the end of the breast- 
bone to the vent, and when the parting is made use the same fingers 
to hold the feathers aside. 3. With the scalpel make an incision in 
the skin from just in front of the end of the breastbone, or at the base 
of the V formed by the spread fingers, to the vent, being careful not to 
cut through into the abdomen, 4. Sprinkle a pinch of meal along the 
cut. 5. Lift the skin at the front end of the cut and insert the end of 
the scalpel handle between it and the breastbone. If you try to do this 
lower down on the cut, over the belly, you will find it difficult to separate 
the skin on which the feathers grow from the immediately underlying 
skin which covers the abdomen. Separate the skin from the body the 
whole length of the cut and as far down toward the backbone as possible, 
thus exposing the bare knee. 6. Take hold of the foot and i)ush the 
knee farther up into view, then take the blunt-ended scissors and, on 
the inside of the skin, clip the leg entirely in two. 7. Repeat opera- 
tions 5 and 6 on the other side of the body. 8. Press away the skin as 
much as possible on either side of the rump, and places the thumb 
at the left side (left, seen from above) of th(! base of the tail or 'pope's 
nose,' with the first finger on the other side (both inside the skin) and 
the second finger behind (above) on the rump; now witli the blunt 
scissors cut through the flesh between the thumb and first finger toward 
the second finger, which serves the purpose of a guard to prevent you 
from cutting through the skin. 9. Stand the bird on its breastbone, 
the belly toward you, and with both thumbs press the tail and skin 
of the rump over and down off the stump from which you have just 



18 MAKING BIRDSKINS 

cut it. 10. When the stump is free from the skin, take hold of it with 
the right hand and with the fingers of the left gently press the skin from 
the body, keeping it constantly turned inside out and using an abun- 
dance of meal. 11. Soon the wing-bones (humeri) will appear. Chp 
them off at either side close to the body, and resume skinning as before. 
12. The skin will slip easily over the neck, and you will then meet 
with an obstruction in the head. 13. Work the skin carefully over the 
head, using the tips of the first two fingers of either hand, placing the 
thumbs as a brace farther forward over the eyes.* 14. Pull the ears 
carefully from their sockets. 15. The eyes will now appear; carefully 
cut the membrane joining the skin and eyeball, making the incision 
as far back as possible, in order to avoid cutting the skin, which should 
be pulled forward until it is entirely free of the eyeball. 16. Remove 
the eyes with the forceps. 17. With the sharp-pointed scissors make 
an incision directly across the roof of the mouth, inside the branches of 
the lower mandible, just back of the skin, and below the eye-sockets. 
18. With the sharp-pointed scissors make incisions from either end of 
this cut back along the branches of the lower mandible through the 
base of the skull on either side of the neck at its junction with the 
skull. 19. Connect these cuts by a fourth, which passes through the 
base of the skull just above the heck, and pull the body and neck from 
the skull. 20. Scoop out what brains remain with the handle of the 
scalpel. 21. Pull the end of the wingbone (humerus) inward, skinning 
the feathers off the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna), and remove 
the flesh. 22. Do the same thing for the legs, but, after cleaning, do 
not in either case pull the bones back. 23. Remove as much flesh as 
possible from the base of the tail, including the oil-gland at the base 
of the tail above. 24. Hold the skin over the arsenic and alum box, 
and with a bit of fluffy cotton at the end of a stick, or held in the forceps, 
dust it thoroughly with the poison, giving an extra aflowance to the 
base of the tail and bones of the skull, wings, and legs. 25. Pull the 
legs back into place. 26. Place a fluff of cotton on the end of a wire 
and roll it into a firm, smooth ball, placing one in each eye-socket, 
27. Coax the skin back over the head, using the first two fingers of 
each hand and placing the thumbs at the base of the skull. When the 
tip of the bill appears through the feathers, use the fingers outside, on 
the feathers, pressing the skin back over the head, and keeping the 
thumbs in the same position. When the bill is free, take it with the 
right hand, and use the fingers of the left to urge the skin over the skull, 
being careful to get it in its former place so that the feathers of the 
head will lie smoothly. 28. Dress the feathers of the head, particularly 
those about the eye. 29. Take hold of the tip of the bill and shake 
the skin gently but vigorously to aid in setthng the plumage. 30. Lay 
the skin on its back, the bill pointing from you, and turn back the 

*In large-headed birds, like Ducks and Woodpeckers, this is impossible, and 
it is necessary to slit the skin down the back of the neck and push the skull through 
the op«ning. 



MAKING BIRDSKINS 19 

feathers about the opening on the belly. 31. See that the wing-bones 
he flat on the back of the skin, with their ends touching each other.* 
32. Take a bit of fluffy cotton, press it lightly together, and draw out 
one end to form a neck. When released from your grasp this cotton 
body should be but Uttle larger than the body you have removed from 
the skin. 33. Take the end of the neck with the forceps and insert it 
gently into the neck of the skin, working the skin down onto it in order 
to avoid stretching the neck, until the points of the forceps appear 
in the mouth, then hold the cotton there and withdraw the forceps. 
34. Carefully fit the cotton body into the skin. 35. Put one or two 
stitches in the incision on the belly. 36. Ascertain the sex of the bird 
(see beyond). 37. Cross the legs, and at the point of intersection 
attach a label (see beyond). 38. Squeeze the wing-bones together 
until you feel the tips of your fingers meet over the bird's back. 39 Pre- 
pare a sheet of cotton about five inches square and as thin as you can 
make it; lay the bird on this on its right side, the bill pointing to your 
right hand. 40. Put the left wing in place and dress the feathers about 
it. 41. Take hold of the sheet of cotton, and turn the bird over in it in 
order that you may dress the right \Nang. 42. Roll the bird on to its 
belly, holding the wings in position with the thumb and first finger 




Fig. 4. A completed birdskin (reduced). 

of the left hand, and with the right hand bring the tips of the wing- 
feathers into their proper place over the back. 43. Roll the bird back 
on to its back, the bill pointing to your right hand; take the end of 
the sheet of cotton farthest from you and draw it lightly over th(^ bird 
to the side nearest you. 44. Draw the end nearest you in the op[)osite 
direction. 45. See that the feet, tail, and tips of the wings un^ in their 
proper position, and place your specimen out of harm's way to dry. 

It will doubtless take you from half an hour to an hour to make 
your first birdskin. It will probably be a sorry-looking ol)ject, per- 
haps minus a head or tail or half its feathers; but do not l(^t this dis- 

*The most difficult part in making a birdskin is to induce tlie wings to assume 
anything like their natural position when closed. This is because the artificial cotton 
body is apt to force them outward on to the sides rather than on the back, where they 
belong. 

In the bird in the flesh the wings are held in place by being attached to the body; 
in the skin they are loose and hanging. To remedy this, after drawing the wing-bonea 
in to remove the flesh from them, they should be pushed back only far enough to 
enable one to see plainly the elbow or bend of the wing outside of the skin. This pre- 
vents the wings from hanging, and, to further keep them in place, it will be well at 
first to tie the ends of the bones (humeri) together. 

4 



20 CATALOGUING AND LABELING 

courage you. An expert can make ten birdskins an hour, and you need 
only practice to approach this. 

Sexing. — A specimen without a sex mark on its label is of com- 
paratively httle value. The sexes in many birds can of course be dis- 
tinguished by their color, but the young male frequently resembles 
the female, while in some instances the female has been known to as- 
sume the plumage of the male. Dissection, therefore, is the only safe 
way to determine sex. Upon reaching stage 36, in the operation of 
making a birdskin, cut through the left side of the body from the vent 
to the neck, taking care not to disturb the internal organs. Force the 
edges of the opening apart, and, pressing the intestines gently to one 
side, look for the sexual organs, which will be found on the walls of 
the small of the back very near to the backbone. The male organs 
(testes), two in number, are usually dull- white, elongate bodies lying 
side by side. The female organs (ovary) are composed of numerous 
round bodies lying in a mass or cluster. In the breeding season the 
sexual organs of birds become much enlarged, and at this season the 
testes of a male Chipping Sparrow are about the size of a pea, while 
the ovary of the female has been likened to a bunch of grapes, the 
largest being the size of the yolk of the egg of this species. After the 
breeding season the sexual organs decrease in size, and in adults in the 
winter and young birds are sometimes difficult to find. The testes of 
a male Chipping Sparrow at that season are about as large as a small 
pinhead, while a hand-lens is required to plainly distinguish the ovary 
of the female. The arrow of Mars (cf ) is used to indicate the male sex; 
the mirror of Venus (?) the female sex. 

Cataloguing and Labeling. — Before skinning your birds you should 
catalogue them. The catalogue should have columns giving (1) the 
date, (2) your serial collection number, (3) name of the bird, (4) sex 
and condition of the sexual organs, (5) place of capture, (6) name of 
collector, and (7) remarks. In the last column enter any notes on the 
color of the eyes, or parts which will change color when drying, con- 
tents of the stomach, and other notes. In addition to this *day-book' or 
'blotter' some ornithologists open a ledger account with their collection 
and devote a folio to each species, on which are posted the entries 
made in the collection register. 

Labels should be of strong bond paper, two inches and a half long 
and half an inch wide. They are attached to the crossed legs of the 
bird by linen thread strung through their left end. The face of the 
label bears the name and sex of the bird, place and date of capture, 
name of collector, and serial collection number. The label shown in 
Fig. 4 is small, but will illustrate the appearance and manner of 
attachment. The name of the owner of the collection is printed on the 
back of the label, preceded by the words "Collection of." 

Many collectors prefer to use as a field label a small jeweler's tag 
upon which the collection number, sex and date are written. The 
large label is added after the specimen is dry. 



CARE OF A COLLECTION 21 

Care of a Collection. — The best cases in which to keep a collection 
of birdskins are known as "Cambridge cans." They are made of tin, 
with covers which fit into grooves Hned with rubber tubing, and are 
practically air-tight. The smaller sizes cost from five dollars to seven 
dollars and a haK each, and can be obtained of Mtiller and Wood, of 
New York City. 

A wooden cabinet with tight-fitting drawers and door is less ex- 
pensive, and with ordinary care will preserve specimens for a prac- 
tically indefinite period. The drawers should be thirty inches long by 
sixteen inches in width. For birds the size of a Robin a depth of one 
inch and three-quarters is sufficient, while drawers four inches deep 
will take the largest Hawks or Owls. These drawers will hold about 
thirty birds the size of a Robin, eighty the size of a Chickadee, and 
eight to ten Hawks and Owls. 

Well cleaned and thoroughly poisoned specimens of small birds are 
not hkely to be attacked by the moth {Tinea) or beetles {Dermestes 
and Anthrenus) which so often infest poorly prepared or nonpoisoned 
skins. Naphthaline crystals or camphor gum should be placed in each 
drawer of the cabinet, the door of which should not be left open need- 
lessly. If a specimen falls a victim to insects, the better plan is to 
discard it at once. If, however, it is rare, it may be taken out-of-doors 
and placed in an air-tight box with a few tablespoonfuls of bisulphuret 
of carbon. 

Collecting and Preserving Nests and Eggs. — The following quotation, 
from the late Major Bendire's Instructions for Collecting, Preparing, 
and Preserving Birds' Eggs and Nests* may be taken as authoritative: 
"Unless the would-be collector intends to make an especial study of 
oology and has a higher aim than the mere desire to take and accu- 
mulate as large a number of eggs as possible regardless of their proper 
identification, he had better not begin at all, but leave the nests and 
eggs of our birds alone and undisturbed. They have too many enemies 
to contend with, without adding the average egg collector to the num- 
ber. The mere accumulation of specimens is the least important 
object of the true oologist. His principal aim should be to make? care- 
ful observations on the habits, call notes, song, the character of tlio 
food, mode and length of incubation, and the actions of the species 
generally, from the beginning of the mating scnison to the time the 
young are able to leave the nest. This period comprises the most in- 
teresting and instructive part of the lif(^-history of our birds." Very 
heartily do I endorse every word of this, and to the concluding sen- 
tence I would add: and there can be no better way to avoid incrorising 
our knowledge of a bird's domestic lif(> than to rob it of its eggs, and 
destroy its home and our owti opportunities at the same time. Studied 
from a local standpoint, I confess I can see only two })oints of interest 
in a bird's egg — one is what the egg is in, the other is what is in the egg. 

Nevertheless, I can understand the pleasure attending the legiti- 
*Part D. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 39, 1891, pp. 3-10. 



22 COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS 

mate formation of what Major Bendire has called "a, small, thoroughly 
identified, well-prepared, and neatly cared for collection," which, as 
the same author adds, "is worth far more scientifically and in every 
other way than a more extensive one gained by exchange or purchase." 

An egg collector's outfit consists of several drills, an embryo-hook, 
a blowpipe, forceps, and scissors. A fresh egg should be blown through 
a hole slightly larger than the tip of the blowpipe. Drill the hole in 
the side of the egg, and, after inserting the blowpipe about one-six- 
teenth of an inch, blow gently and steadily until the contents have been 
removed. Then rinse the egg thoroughly with water and lay it hole 
downward on corn-meal to drain. 

In eggs containing embryos it is necessary to make a hole large 
enough to permit of the use of the embryo-hook, scissors, or forceps, 
as the case may be. 

Each egg should be marked with the number of the species in the 
'Check-List' of the American Ornithologists' Union, the number of the 
set in your collection, and the number of eggs in the set. Thus, if I 
were about to label my second set of four eggs of the Bluebird, I should 
write with a lead pencil on each egg, near the hole, 766|. 

There are many ways of displaying collections of eggs. Some col- 
lectors place their eggs in little boxes or partitions filled with sawdust 
or cotton; Major Bendire used small pasteboard trays lined, bottom 
and sides, with cotton wadding, and divided into partitions for each 
egg by strips of cotton wadding set on edge. It is, however, very largely 
a matter of taste, and collectors generally have their own ideas on 
these matters. 

A collection of birds' nests is a telling object lesson in the study 
of ornithology. Familiar as I am with them, I never see the nests of 
some birds without feeling the most intense admiration for the mar- 
velous skill which has aided them in forming a structure man would 
find it difficult, if not impossible, to duplicate. A bird's nest in its 
original site is a concrete expression of the intelligence of its maker; 
for the foresight displayed in the choice of a situation, and the inge- 
nuity shown in the construction of the nest, even if largely instinctive 
now, originated in the intelligence of a line of ancestors. 

Nests may be collected before they have been used, when the birds 
will generally build again; or you may wait and take them after the 
birds have left them, labeling each nest with what you have learned 
of the history of its owners. For example: Time required for its con- 
struction; whether made by one or both sexes; notes on the laying of 
the eggs; period of incubation; whether both sexes assisted in incu- 
bation; care of the young; number of days they were in the nest, etc. 

Some nests, for example the pendent "baskets" of Vireos or such 
as are placed in crotches, should be taken with the crotch or branch 
to which they are attached. 

With others it is obviously impossible to do this. They should there- 
fore be placed in a frame of wire and wrapped about with fine wire 



ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETIES 23 

thread. To make this frame, twist two pieces of annealed wire, painted 
brown, into the shape of a letter X. About midway from the point 
of intersection and the end of the arm, bend the wires upward at right 
angles. Now take the fine hair or thread wire and wind it about the 
four horizontal arms of the frame until its bottom looks like a spider's 
web; place the nest in this half -formed basket, bend the upright wires 
inward or outward as the case requires, and continue winding until 
the nest is bound firmly. The size of the frame and the wire used in 
its construction may be varied to suit the nest. 

References 

1891. HoRNADAT, TV. T., Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting, 
8vo., 362 pp., ills. (Scribners).— 1898. Rowley, J., The Art of Taxidermy, 
12mo., 244 pp., ills. (Appleton.) 



American Ornithological Societies 

The bird student, particularly if, as so often happens, he be isolated 
from others of kindred tastes, should, if possible, affihate himself with 
one or more of the ornithological societies in this country. In any event, 
he should aim to secure election to Associate Membership in the Amer- 
ican Ornithologists' Union, not alone because this is the first step 
toward becoming a Fellow in this organization, "the highest honor to 
which an American ornithologist can attain," but also because he will 
be brought into communication with the leading bird students of this 
country, who, he may be assured, will never fail to respond to his 
requests for information or advice. A list of the principal ornithological 
societies together with one of their official organs is therefore appended. 

American Ornithologists^ Union. — Founded 1884. This is the lead- 
ing as well as the largest ornithological organization in the country. 
Membership is divided into the following classes: Follows (limited to 
50, contains* 49), Honorary Fellows (limited to 25, contains 12), 
Corresponding Fellows (limited to 100, contains 61), Members (limited 
to 100, contains 79), Associates (unlimited in number, contains 738). 
All bird students are eligible as candidates for election to associate 
membership. Annual Congresses are held, usually in November, in 
Washington, Philadelphia, New York, or Cambridge. 

Official organ, The Auk; free to all members. Address, American 
Ornithologists' Union, care of the American Museum of Natural 
History, New York City, N. Y. (For a history of the Union, see J. A. 
Allen in Bird-Lore, 1899, pp. 143-148.) 

Delaware Valley Ornithological Club. — Founded, 1890. Organ, 
Cassinia, published annually. Address, care of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences, Philadelphia, Penna. (For a history of the Club, sec S. N. 
Rhoads in Bird-Lore, 1902, pp. 57-61.) 

♦January, 1911. 



24 ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETIES 

Cooper Ornithological Club. — Founded, 1893. Organ, The Condor. 
Address, care of the University of California, Berkeley, Cal. 

Linnoean Society of New York. — Founded, 1878. While devoted to 
Natural History in general, the active membership of the Linnaean 
Society is composed chiefly of bird students. Organ, Abstract of Pro- 
ceedings, issued annually. Address, care of the American Museum of 
Natural History, New York City, N. Y. 

The Maine Ornithological Society. — Founded, 1893. Organ, Journal 
of the Maine Ornithological Society. Address, Portland, Maine. (For 
a history of the Society, see J. Merton Swain, Bird-Lore, 1907, pp. 
65-68.) 

National Association of Audubon Societies. — Founded, 1902. Organ, 
Bird-Lore. Issues educational leaflets for teachers and literature re- 
lating to bird conservation. Address, 1974 Broadway, New York City, 
N. Y. (A list of the some forty State Audubon Societies may be 
obtained from the National Association.) 

Nebraska Ornithologists' Union. — Founded, 1899. Organ, Pro- 
ceedings, issued at irregular intervals. Address care of the University 
of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. 

Nuttall Ornithological Club. — Founded, 1873. The oldest ornithologi- 
cal organization in America. From it sprung the American Ornitholo- 
gists' Union. Official organ, occasional Memoirs. Address, Cambridge, 
Mass. (For a history of the Nuttall Club, see F. H. Allen, in Bird-Lore, 
1902, pp. 12-17.) 

Wilson Ornithological Club. — Founded, 1888. Organ, Wilson 
Bulletin. Address, Oberhn, Ohio. 

Current Ornithological Magazines 

The Auk. — Organ of the American Ornithologists' Union. Quarterly. 
Established as the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club in 1876, 
taking its present name with the organization of the A. O. U. in 1884. 
Each volume contains about 500 pages, a number of half-tones and, 
occasionally, colored plates. Subscription, $3 per annum (free to 
members of the A. O. U.). Address, care of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences, Philadelphia, Penna. 

Bird-Lore. — Organ of the National Association of Audubon So- 
cieties. Bi-monthly. Established in 1899. Each volume contains 
about 400 pages, many half-tones, and 12 colored plates. Annual 
subscription $1 (free to members of the N. A. A. S.). Address, D. 
Appleton & Co., New York City, N. Y. 

The Condor. — Organ of the Cooper Ornithological Club. Bi-monthly. 
Established in 1899. Each volume contains about 250 pages and 
numerous half-tones. Annual subscription $1.50 (free to members 
of the C. O. C). Address, Pasadena, Cal. 

Journal of the Maine Ornithological Society. — Quarterly. Established 
in 1899. Each volume contains about 150 pages and occasional half- 



ORNITHOLOGICAL MAGAZINES 25 

tones. Annual subscription $1 (free to members of the M. O. S.). 
Address, Portland, Maine. 

The Oologist. — Monthly. Estabhshed in 1884. Each volume con- 
tains about 160 pages and a number of half-tones. Annual subscrip- 
tion 50 cents. Address, Lacon, 111. 

Wilson Bulletin. — Quarterly. Organ of the Wilson Ornithological 
Club. Established in 1889. Each volume contains about 225 pages 
and a number of half-tones. Annual subscription, $1 (free to members 
of the W. O. C). Address, Oberhn, Ohio. 



CHAPTER III 

THE STUDY OF BIRDS IN NATURE 

The Distribution of Birds 

The Migration of Birds 

The Voice of Birds 

The Nesting Season 

The Plumage of Birds 

The Food of Birds 

General Activities of the Adult Bird 

For one person with the time and equipment essential to research 
in systematic ornithology, there are hundreds, equally ambitious, but 
handicapped by hmited opportunity and inadequate material. To 
what problems can these amateur students turn their attention? 
How can they gratify their ambition to make some noteworthy contri- 
bution to the science of birds? 

Large collections and museum facihties are within reach of com- 
paratively few, but living birds are everywhere; even the Sparrow 
of our streets is worthy of our attention, and anyone who can get 
out-of-doors has the opportunity to add to our knowledge of birds. 
Indeed, observations of real value have been made from a window 
or from an invalid's chair. 

It is proposed, therefore, to present here at least an outhne of those 
branches of ornithology which relate to the habits of birds, with the 
object of suggesting some field to which the student may devote his 
attention. To do this at great length, however, would require a volume 
alone, and I have therefore dwelt fully on only those two branches of 
bird study which especially interest the field student — migration and 
nesting — treating other phases of the subject in less detail. 

The importance of specialization, with a definite end in view, 
cannot be too strongly emphasized. Select a subject for investigation, 
or a species, preferably the most common one in your vicinity, for 
continued observation, and your studies will acquire a character, 
importance, and interest which they lacked before. Not only will you 
pursue your field work with renewed pleasure and enthusiasm, but 
your researches will lead to the reading of publications which before 
seemed unattractive, and your search for information will develop a 
correspondence with fellow students throughout the country, widen- 
ing your horizon and leading to those dehghtful associations born of 
kindred tastes. 

It must not, however, be supposed that one cannot enjoy an 

(26) 





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DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS 27 

acquaintance with birds without a formal attempt to add to our knowl- 
edge of them. Bird study may not necessarily be anything so serious 
as a study; it may be merely a recreation, a pastime, even a 'fad,' 
if you like; but so long as our interest in birds is sufficient to take us 
to their haunts, or so long as the voice of a bird expresses for us that 
joy in nature which is the rightful heritage of every human being, 
just so long will it repay us to add to our sources of pleasure that knowl- 
edge of birds which will permit us to "come at these enchantments." 

The Distribution of Birds 

Factors Influencing Distribution 
Faunal Areas 

Zones of the Boreal Region 
Zones of the Austral Region 
Floridian Fauna 

Factors Influencing Distribution. — Possessed of a space-defying 
means of locomotion, birds are more widely distributed than any other 
vertebrates; but in spite of their unexcelled mobihty their sensitive 
organizations respond quickly to those influences which determine the 
distribution of life. Consequently we find that while some species 
have an almost world-wdde range, others are confined to surprisingly 
restricted areas. The factors determining the boundaries of the region 
inhabited by any given bird may be classed primarily under the heads 
of Past and Present. Past factors include those great earth-forming 
forces which, through a series of profoundly important changes, have 
brought about the now long-standing inter-relation of land areas — in 
other words, the world as we know it. The land bridges which connected 
Great Britain with the Continent, or Alaska with Siberia, and the 
strait which separated the American continents at Panama are factors 
of this kind. In their ^\mc they obviously exercised a powerful influence 
on the distribution of life. Were we equally sure of all the land con- 
nections and water separations which have existed since life appeared 
on the earth, we might hope to solve many at present inexjilicable 
problems in distribution. 

Of far-reaching importance also has been the evolution of climates 
which this globe has witnessed, and which, through the last Cllacial 
Period, has introduced the climate under which we now live. Reference 
to page 57 will explain how the distribution of White Pelicans, 
for example, is believed to have been affected by such past climatic 
changes. 

Climate, of course, has never ceased to exert its influence on the 
distribution of life and we find it the most active present-day factor. 
It is expressed mainly through temperature, and, to a lesser extent, 
through rainfall. Thus the boundaries of the three transcontin(>ntal 
zones forming the Austral Region (see cover map) conform more or 



28 FAUNAL AREAS 

less closely to certain isotherms, or lines of equal temperature, but their 
eastern and western faunal subdivisions are determined by the annual 
precipitation of rain. Any factors such as altitude, exposure in relation 
to the sun, or proximity to water, which affect temperature exert a 
marked influence on the boundaries of faunas and must of course be 
considered in mapping faunal areas. 

Outside of purely tropical regions, as Merriam ('94) has shown, 
temperature is not active throughout the year, but only at certain 
seasons. Merriam has therefore formulated the following Laws of 
Temperature Control: First, "Animals and plants are restricted in 
northward distribution by the total quantity of heat during the season 
of growth and reproduction." Second, "Animals and plants are re- 
stricted in southward distribution by the mean temperature of a brief 
period covering the hottest part of the year." With birds, of course, 
it should be understood that the southern as well as northern limits 
of the breeding range are here referred to. 

Faunal Areas. — It is not possible for us to treat, even in outhne, 
this absorbing and important subject, but for practical purposes, if 
for no other reasons, the student should become familiar with the 
boundaries of the faunal areas of North America, as well as the names 
of the birds which characterize theni^. This is the study of faunal 
geography, or zoogeography, as compared with that of poUtical 
geography. 

Examination of maps showing (1) the ranges of the families, (2) the 
genera, and (3) the species of birds, reveals the fact that many families, 
genera and species are distributed, respectively, over essentially the 
same parts of the earth's surface. It will also be found that these areas 
are occupied by other families, genera and species of animals as well 
as of plants. Such areas are therefore called natural life areas, and their 
rank conforms more or less closely to the systematic standing of the 
groups of animals inhabiting them. While the faunal terms employed 
are not always used in the same sense (see Merriam '92, and Allen '93), 
it may be said that famihes are distributed through regions, genera 
through zones, and species in faunas. 

North America, it will be observed on the cover map, here repro- 
duced by courtesy of the Biological Survey, is divided primarily into 
three Regions,* the Boreal, the Austral and the Tropical. The last, 
occupying only the southern extremities of Florida and Lower Cali- 
fornia, has in these limits no zonal subdivisions. 

Zones of the Boreal Region. — The Boreal Region includes three 
transcontinental zones, the Arctic, the Hudsonian, and the Canadian. 
The first-named extends southward to the northern limit of forests, 
and not only crosses this continent but is circumpolar; the uniform 
climatic conditions of the Arctic portions of both hemispheres, in con- 
nection with their comparative proximity, being responsible for essen- 

*For detailed consideration of the characteristics of these Regions consult 
Merriam '98. 



ZONES OF THE BOREAL REGION 29 

tially similar faunas. Consequently, Ptarmigan, Gyrfalcons, Snowy 
Owls, Snow Buntings, and numerous species of water birds are found 
in northern Eurasia as well as in northern North America. In fact, 
as Allen ('93) has shown, 60 of the 65 genera of birds occurring in the 
American Arctic are circumpolar. The parts of the Rocky Mountains 
and Sierras reaching above timberline, where, at the border of perpetual 
snow, Leucostictes, the Pipit and White-tailed Ptarmigan nest, 
should, it seems, also be included in the Arctic zone, altitude rather than 
latitude here giving the required low temperature. 

The Hudsonian zone marks the northern limit of forest growth of 
firs and spruces. It will be observed that on both the Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts, as well as along the Mackenzie River, its northern 
limits are considerably extended; while southward it pushes a spur 
down the crest of the Rocky Mountains with outlying 'islands' as far 
south as Colorado and New Mexico. The Rough-legged Hawk, Great 
Gray Owl, Pine Grosbeak, Northern Shrike and AUce's Thrush are 
characteristic birds of this zone. 

The Canadian zone is distinguished by the high development of 
its coniferous forests. Its extension southward along the Alleghanies 
will be noted, its altitude increasing as the latitude decreases. Thus, 
where primeval coniferous forests have not been destroyed, the Cana- 
dian zone appears in Massachusetts at an elevation of 1,800 feet (Howe 
and Allen), in Pennsylvania at 2,000 feet (Dwight), and in North 
Carolina at 4,500 feet (Brewster). 

Reference to the Biological Survey map will show how numerous 
are the Canadian zone 'islands' on the higher portions of our western 
mountain systems. Evidences of this zone should also be shown at 
least as far south as the southern end of the Mexican tableland, 
where, at an elevation of from 8,000 to 13,000 feet in heavy forests 
of pine and spruce, such characteristic Canadian species as the 
Red Crossbill, Evening Grosbeak, Junco, Siskin, and Brown Creeper 
are represented by closely allied forms which breed there in 
abundance. 

In addition to the species just named, the Canadian zone is char- 
acterized by the presence in the nesting season of the Spruce Partridge, 
Hawk Owl, Goshawk, Three-toed Woodpeckers, Yellow-bellied Fly- 
catcher, Canada Jay, White-throated Sparrow, Tennessee, Myrtle, 
Blackpoll, Bay-breasted, Blackburnian, Magnolia, and Canadian War- 
blers, Winter Wren, Red-breasted Nuthatch, Ruby- and Golden-crowned 
Kinglets, Bicknell's, Olive-backed, and Hermit Thrushes. 

The Zones of the Austral Region. — The Transition, Upper Austral, 
and Lower Austral zones, as has been before remarked, are transconti- 
nental, but differences in rainfall separate them into eastern humid, 
western arid, and Pacific coast humid divisions. 

The eastern humid and western arid divisions merge into one 
another at about the one-hundredth meridian, or, approximately, 
where, in going westward, the prairies pass into the plains. To the 



30 ZONES OF THE AUSTRAL REGION 

eastward of this meridian the annual rainfall exceeds 25 inches; to the 
westward, except on the Pacific coast, it is below this amount. 

In the present connection we may restrict our statements concerning 
the three zones of the Austral Region to their eastern or humid por- 
tions, which have long been known as the Alleghanian, Carolinian, 
and Austroriparian or Louisianian faunas (see Allen '71). 

The Alleghanian, as will be observed on the map, extends at sea- 
level only as far south as Long Island, where, in response to conditions 
which produce scrub oak and pitch pines, it occupies the southern 
portion of the island, while the Carohnian element is restricted to the 
more fertile northern shore. 

Crossing northern New Jersey and northeastern Pennsylvania, 
the Alleghanian fauna extends southwestward along the Alleghanies 
to northern Georgia, appearing at an ever increasing altitude. Thus 
in western Maryland its lower limit is 1,200-1,300 feet (Preble), in 
North CaroUna 2,500 feet (Brewster), and in Georgia 3,500 feet 
(Howell). 

The following species are characteristic of the Alleghanian fauna: 
Virginia Rail, Sora, Bob-white, Mourning Dove, Black-billed and 
Yellow-billed Cuckoos, Kingbird, Crested Flycatcher, Bobolink, Cow- 
bird, Meadowlark, Baltimore and Orchard Orioles, Chipping and 
Field Sparrows, Towhee, Indigo Bunting, Yellow-throated and Blue- 
headed Vireos, Golden-winged and Pine Warblers, Catbird, Brown 
Thrasher, House Wren, Long-billed Marsh Wren, White-breasted 
Nuthatch, Wood Thrush and Wilson's Thrush. 

The Carohnian fauna, or humid division of the Upper Austral 
zone, reaches the Atlantic seaboard only between Virginia and south- 
eastern New York. Westward it ascends the Alleghanies to an alti- 
tude of 1,200 feet in Maryland (Preble), 2,500 feet in North Carolina 
(Brewster), and 3,500 feet in extreme northeastern Georgia (Howell). 
At this point it sweeps around the extreme southern extension of the 
Alleghanian fauna and expands toward the north and west as indi- 
cated by the map. In the Atlantic States a tinge of the Carohnian fauna 
is present at least as far east as Saybrook, Connecticut, and as far 
north as Portland in the Connecticut Valley, and Fishkill in the Hudson 
Valley. 

Characteristic Carolinian birds are Acadian Flycatcher, Fish Crow, 
Cardinal, Prothonotary, Worm-eating and Blue-winged Warblers, 
Louisiana Water-Thrush, Kentucky and Hooded Warblers, Chat, 
Carolina Wren, and Tufted Titmouse. 

The Austroriparian fauna, or humid division of the Lower Austral 
zone, as its name implies, occupies the South Atlantic States from 
the vicinity of Cape Charles, Virginia, to the tropical portions of south- 
ern Florifla, thence westward through the Gulf States and north- 
ward in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois and southern Kansas. 
Among its characteristic birds are the Water-Turkey, Louisiana Heron, 
Black Vulture, Ground Dove, CaroUna Paroquet (now extinct in this 



THE FLORIDIAN FAUNA 31 

fauna), Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Chuck - will's - widow, . Nonpareil, 
Bachman's Sparrow, Boat-tailed Grackle, Yellow-throated Warbler, 
and Brown-headed Nuthatch, 

The Floridian Fauna. — To the three faunas above named may be 
added the Floridian fauna, a name applied to that part of the Tropical 
Region which occupies southern Florida as far north as Lake Worth 
on the Atlantic Coast and the mouth of the Caloosahatchie River on 
the Gulf Coast, which is approximately the northern Umit of cocoanut 
palms. The species which characterize this fauna are mainly West 
Indian and a number of them are confined to the Florida Keys. They 
are the Noddy and Sooty Terns, Great White Heron {Ardea ocddentalis), 
Reddish Egret, Caracara, Everglade Kite, White-crowned Pigeon, 
Mangrove Cuckoo, and Black-whiskered Vireo. 

Suggestions for the Student 

What group of animals is most widely distributed? Mention several 
wide-ranging species of birds and outline their distribution. Mention 
several having a restricted range on continental areas. Mention several 
which are confined to islands. What factors have exerted an influence on 
the distribution of birds? Illustrate with definite instances. Mention 
several islands which were formerly connected with continents. Compare 
their bird-Hfe with that of the adjoining part of the continent from which 
they have been separated. Describe the probable influence of the Glacial 
Period on the distribution of the White Pelicans (see beyond, under Migra- 
tion). Mention other groups of birds which have probably been similarly 
affected. What are the factors now controlling the distribution of birds? 
Compare the effect of temperature with that produced by humidity. AVhat 
is Merriam's Law of Temperature Control? How may altitude and slope 
exposure influence di.stribution? Compare political with zoological g(>og- 
raphy. How are the boundaries of natural life areas determined? What 
are the primary life areas of North America? Name and outline the three 
zones of the Boreal Region and mention .several species characteristic of 
each. Describe the general characters of each zone; tofjograpliy, climate, 
forest-growth, etc. Treat in a similar manner the humid jjortions of the 
Austral Region, and the Floridian fauna of the Tropical Region, tracing 
their extent in the map, mentioning some characteristic trees, plants and 
crops as well as birds, and discu.ssing their general topographic and climatic 
features in relation to their effect on the distribution of life. 

References 

1871. Allen, J. A., A Sketch of the Bird Faunae of Eastern North 
America, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., II, pp. 375-42r).— 1892. Allen, J. A., 
The Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals, Bull. Am. 
Mus. Nat. Hist., IV, pp. 199-244; maps.— 1892. Mkkiuam, C H., The 
Geographic Distribution of Life in North America with .Special Reference 
to the Mammalia, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., VII, pp. 1-G4, one map. — 1893. 
Allen, J. A., The Geographical Origin anrl Distribution of North .American 
Birds Considered in Relation to the Faunal Areas of North America, 'i'he 
Auk, X, pp. 97-150, 2 maps. — 1894. Merriam, C. H., Laws of Temperature 
Control of the Geographical Distribution of Terrestrial Animals and Plants, 
Nat. Geog. Mag., VI, pp. 229-238, 3 maps.— 1895. Merul\m, C. H., The 
Geographic Distribution of Animals and Plants in North America, Year- 
book U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, for 1H94, pp. 203-214.-1898. Merriam, 
C. H., Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States, Bull. No. 10, Biolog- 



32 MIGRATION OF BIRDS 

ical Survey, pp. 1-79, one map. — 1904. Russell, I. C, North America, 
Chap. Ill, Climate, pp. 184-203 (Appleton). 

Note. — Discussion of the faunal affinities of the region in question 
will frequently be found as introductory matter in 'local' or state bird 
lists; see especially (in the Bibliogz-aphical Appendix) under Georgia, 1909, 
Howell; Illinois, 1890, Ridgway; Iowa, 1907, Anderson; Kentucky, 1910, 
Howell; Maine, 1908, Knight; Maryland, 1900, Merriam and Preble; 
Massachusetts, 1901, Howe and Allen; Nebraska, 1909, Wolcott; New 
Hampshire, 1904, Allen; New Jersey, 1894, 1909, Stone; New York, 1910, 
Eaton; North Carolina, 1886, Brewster; Ohio, 1903, Jones; Pennsylvania, 
Stone, 1891, 1894; Dwight, 1892; Todd, 1893, 1904. South Carolma, 
1890, 1891, Loomis; Tennessee, 1910, Howell; Virginia, 1890, Rives; West 
Virginia, 1890, 1898, Rives. 

The Migration of Birds 

Times of Migration 
Extent of Migration 
Routes of Migration 
How Birds Migrate 
Why Do' Birds Migrate? 

Migration is the most distinctive phase of bird-life. Certain mam- 
mals, fishes, and even insects migrate, but no animals approach birds 
in the extent of their migrations. Wholly aside from the interest which 
is attached to a study of bird migration in the broader aspects, as we 
attempt to determine its origin and extent and the various factors 
which govern the times and manner of a bird's journeys, there is a 
fascination and excitement for the student in observing the arrival and 
passage of the great army of feathered travelers which ever renews 
itself when birds 

"Part loosely wing the region; part more wise. 
In common, ranged in figure, wedge their way 
Intelligent of seasons, and set forth 
Their aery caravan, high over seas." 

To the nature lover birds are a living calendar. "What was that 
sound that came on the softened air? It was the warble of the Blue- 
bird from the scraggy orchard yonder. When this is heard, then has 
spring arrived." 

Times of Migration. — According to the nature of their occurrence 
the birds of temperate regions may be grouped seasonally as follows: 

1. Permanent Residents. — Includes species that are represented 
in the same locality throughout the year. In temperate and boreal 
Eastern North America few species are permanently resident as indi- 
viduals. Possibly Ruffed Grouse and Bob-whites pass their lives in a 
comparatively restricted area. But the winter Crows, Jays, and Nut- 
hatches of a certain locality are probably not the ones that nested there. 

2. Summer Residents. — Includes species that come to us from 
farther south in the spring, rear their young, and return to the south 
in the fall. As a rule, the first species to come in the spring are the last 



TIMES OF MIGRATION 33 

to leave in the fall, while the later arrivals are among the first depart- 
ures. With this group should also be placed a small number of what 
may be called Summer Visitants, composed of birds which, like the 
Little Blue Heron and White Egrets, after breeding in more southern 
latitudes may wander as far as several hundred miles northward. The 
term Summer Visitant may also be apphed to Shearwaters and Petrels, 
which, ha\'ing bred in the Southern Hemisphere during our winter, 
pass the summer off our coasts. 

3. Transient Visitants. — Includes species which, nesting north of 
a given locahty and wintering south of it, consequently pass through 
it when migrating. Most transient visitants may be found at a certain 
locahty on both their spring and fall migrations, but a small number 
occur at only one season. In the Mississippi Valley, for example, the 
Golden Plover is found in the spring but much less frequently in the 
fall; while on the Atlantic Coast the Black Tern appears during the 
fall migration but is unkno-^m in the spring. The earlier Transient 
Visitants, for example the Fox Sparrow and Hermit Thrush, may 
remain in the latitude of Xew York City for a month or more, but the 
later arrivals pass by in a week or ten days. 

4. Winter Residents. — Includes species which come to us in the fall 
and remain until the spring. Some, like the Junco, are of regular occur- 
rence. Others, like the Pine Grosbeak, may be abundant some winters 
and rare or wanting other winters. To these four groups may be added 
a fifth of birds of accidental occurrence. 

Let us now review the bird-life of the vicinity of New York City for 
the year as it is affected by migration. I here abridge from "Bird-Life." 

January. — Probably during no other month is there less movement 
among our birds than in January. The regular wdnter residents have 
come; the fall migrants, which may have lingered until December, 
have gone, and the earliest spring migrants will not arrive before the 
latter part of February or early March. January, in fact, is the only 
month in the year in which as a rule some birds do not arrive or depart. 
This rule, however, may be broken by such irregular birds as the Snowy 
Owl, Pine Grosbeak, or Redpoll, which wander southward in search 
of food. Food, indeed, is now the one concern of birds and their move- 
ments are largely governed by its supply. Snow may fall and blizzards 
rage, but so long as birds find sufficient to eat they apparently are not 
affected by the weather. Where seed-bearing weeds are accessible there 
we may look for Juncos and Tree Sparrows; cedar trees bearing berries 
often tempt Waxwings, Robins and Bluebirds to winter near them. 
When bayberries are abundant we may expect Myrtle Warblers to 
remain through the winter. I recall a sheltered pile of buckwheat 
chaff at Englewood, N. J., which furnished food for a small flock of 
Mourning Doves all one winter. In Central Park, New York City, a 
Mockingbird, which had evidently escaped from a cage, was under 
daily observation from October to January, and thrived durinfr the 
exceptionally severe winter while nourished by the berries of a privet 



34 TIMES OF MIGRATION 

tree. Food, therefore, rather than temperature is the all important 
factor in a bird's hfe at this season. 

February. — The conditions prevailing during January will be 
practically unchanged until the latter half of February. Then, should 
there be a period of mild weather, we may expect to hear the Meadow- 
lark, Song Sparrow, and Bluebird, inaugurate the season of song, and 
note the appearance of Robins, Purple Grackles, and Red-wdnged 
Blackbirds, which pass the winter such a short distance south that 
they appear at the first sign of returning spring. It is probable that 
in most cases the first individuals of our summer resident species to 
arrive remain to nest. (See beyond, under Nesting.) 

March. — While March is certain to witness a general northward 
movement among the birds, the date of their arrival is as uncertain 
as the weather of the month itself. Continued severe weather prevents 
the advance, which a higher temperature as surely occasions. When 
ice leaves the bays, ponds and rivers we may look for Ducks and Geese. 
When successive thaws have made the ground soft enough to probe, 
we may expect the Woodcock. With the advent of insects their enemy 
the Phoebe will appear. 

The weather which hastens the arrival of birds from the south, 
also prompts certain of our winter residents to begin their northward 
journey. 

April. — The developments in the plant world, in early April, which 
are apparent to the least observant, are accompanied by corresponding 
but less noticed activities in the world of birds. The migratory move- 
ment now gains strength rapidly and during the latter part of the month 
one may expect new arrivals daily. 

It will be noted that the earlier migrants of the month are largely 
seed-eaters, while those which come later are insectivorous, particularly 
those insect-eaters, which Hke the Swallows, Swift and Nighthawk 
feed upon the wing. 

May. — As the season advances, marked changes in temperature 
are less likely to occur, and the migration becomes more regular and 
continuous. In February and March there may be two weeks or more 
variation in the times of arrival of the same species in different years; 
in May birds usually arrive within a day or two of a certain date. 
Nevertheless the force of the migratory current is still closely dependent 
on meteorologic conditions, and under the encouragement of high 
temperature may reach the proportions of a 'wave,' which when dammed 
by a sudden return of cold weather, floods the woods with migrants. 
Birds are then doubtless more abundant than at any other season. The 
arrival of ten or a dozen species may be noted on the same date, and a 
total of as many as 144 species has been recorded by a single observer 
during one day. (Lynds Jones at Oberlin, O., May 13, 1907.) 

After the middle of the month birds begin to decrease in numbers 
as the transient visitants pass northward, and by the first week in June 
our bird-life is composed of permanent residents and summer residents. 



TIMES OF MIGRATION 35 

It will be noticed that -^ith but few exceptions the birds arriving in 
May are insectivorous; particularly those insect-eating birds which 
obtain their food from vegetation. Thus, no sooner are the unfolding 
leaves and opening blossoms exposed to the attack of insects than the 
Vireos and Warblers appear to protect them, and the abundance of 
these small birds is the distinctive feature of the bird-hfe of the month. 

June. — June is the home month of the year. Nest-building, egg- 
lajing, incubating, and the care of the young now make constant 
and exceptional demands on the birds, which, in response, exhibit traits 
shown only during the nesting season, 

A feature of the month is the formation of roosts which are nightly 
frequented by the now fully growm 3'oung of such early-breeding birds 
as the Purple Grackle and Robin. When a second brood is reared, as 
with the Robin, the young may be accompanied to the roost by only 
the male parent, but in the one-brooded Grackle the roost is used by 
both adults and young. 

July. — The full development of the bird's year is reached in June, 
and as early as the first week in July there are evidences of a prepara- 
tion for the journey southward. The young of certain species which 
rear but one brood, accompanied by their parents, now wander about 
the country, and may be found in new locahtics. In some cases these 
families join others of their kind, forming small flocks, the nucleus 
of the great gatherings seen later. Examples are Crackles, Red-winged 
Blackbirds, Bobolinks, and Tree Swallows. The latter increase rapidly 
in number, and by July 10 we may see them, late each afternoon, 
flying to their roosts in the marshes. 

It is during this and the following month that the postbreeding 
northward wanderings of certain more southern birds, notably Herons, 
occur. 

August. — August is the month of molt, and when molting, birds are 
less in evidence than at any other time. What becomes of many of 
our birds in August it is difficult to say. Baltimore Orioles, for instance, 
are rare from the 1st to the 20th, but after that date are seen commonly. 
Possibly their apparent increase in numbers may in part be due to the 
fact that they have now in a measure regained their voices and often 
utter nearly their full song. However this may be, whether the scorn- 
ing scarcity of birds in August is due to their silence and inactivity or 
to their actual departure, certain it is that before the fall migration 
brings arrivals daily from the north, one may spend hours in the woods 
and see little besides Wood Pewees and Red-eyed Vireos, wliose abun- 
dance may also be attributed to the fact that they are still in song. 

After the middle of the month migrants from Xhv. north will be 
found in increasing numbers, but the characteristic bird-life of August 
will be found in the marshes. There the Swallows, Red-winged Black- 
birds and Bobolinks, known now as Reed-birds, come in increasing 
numbers to roost in the reeds, the last two with the Sora Rail attracted 
also by the ripening wild rice. 
5 



36 TIMES OF MIGRATION 

September. — The first marked fall in the temperature will be fol- 
lowed by a flight of migrants which, because of the denser vegetation 
and absence of song, are much more difficult of observation than in 
May. Birds of the year, that is those born the preceding season, will 
outnumber the adults, and in most cases their plumage will be quite 
unlike that worn by their parents in May, while, in many instances, 
even the adults themselves will appear in a changed costume. Often 
this new dress will resemble that of the immature bird, a fact whioh 
in part accounts for the apparent scarcity of old birds in the fall 
migration. 

In September more migrating birds are killed by striking fight- 
houses or illuminated towers than in any other month of the year. This 
is doubtless owing to the fact that stormy or foggy weather is more 
apt to prevail in September than during any other period of active 
migration; that the majority of migrants are young and inexperienced, 
and that probably more migrants pass in September than in any other 
month. It does not follow from this statement, however, that birds 
may be so abundant on any one day as they are under certain conditions 
in May, when, as before described, low temperature checks the north- 
ward movement and causes an overflow. 

About September 25 the first winter residents arrive, and after that 
date birds rapidly decrease in numbers. 

October. — Early October generally brings the first killing frost, 
causing the leaves to fall in fluttering showers and depriving many 
insectivorous birds of their food and shelter. Flycatchers, Warblers, 
Vireos, as well as Swallows, now take their departure, and after the 
fifteenth of the month few insect-eating birds remain, except those 
which, like Woodpeckers, feed on insects' eggs or larvae. 

This is the season of Sparrows. In countless numbers they throng 
old stubble, potato and corn fields, doing untold good by destroying 
the seeds of noxious weeds. Song, Field, Chipping and Vesper Spar- 
rows may be found in flocks, and with them will be the lately arrived 
Juncos, Tree and Fox Sparrows. 

The diurnal migration of Crows and of Hawks, which in scattered 
companies string across the sky, the foraging flocks of Grackles, and, 
in recent years, the gatherings of European Starlings, are features of 
the bird-life of the month. 

November. — It is an interesting fact that the first migrants to come 
in the spring are the last to leave in the fall. The bird-life of November, 
therefore, closely resembles that of March. Doubtless this is because 
both months furnish essentially the same kind of food. Thus Loons, 
Grebes, Ducks, Geese and Kingfishers remain until November or 
early December, when the forming of ice deprives them of food and 
forces them to seek open water. Woodcock and Snipe linger until 
they can no longer probe the frost-hardened earth; but the thaws of 
March will bring all these birds back to us by restoring their food. 

December. — The character of the bird-life of December depends 



PERMANENT RESIDENTS 37 

largely upon the mildness or severity of the season. Should the ponds 
and streams remain open, the ground be unfrozen, and little or no 
snow fall, many of the migrant species of November will linger into 
December. They rarely are found, however, after the middle of the 
month, when our bird-life is again reduced to its simplest terms of 
permanent residents and winter \dsitants. 

Similarity of feeding habits now brings certain species into loose 
bands whose movements are governed largely by the presence or 
absence of food. Their wanderings may lead them over large areas, 
and our orchards and dooryards may now be visited by species which 
will eagerly partake of our bounty. Crumbs and seeds will bring 
Juncos, Tree Sparrows and Purple Finches; an old seed-filled sun- 
flower head may prove a feast for Goldfinches, while bits of meat, 
suet, or ham bone will be welcomed by Chickadees, Nuthatches and 
Downy Woodpeckers. (On this subject of winter feeding consult the 
publications of the National Association of Audubon Societies.) 

The flight of Crows to and from their roosts is one of the charac- 
teristic sights of the bird-hfe of this season. 

This outhne of changes in the bird-hfe of the year occasioned by 
migration, may be summarized by presenting a list of the commoner 
permanent residents of the vicinity of New York City and adding 
chronological tables of migration. 

PERMANENT RESIDENTS 

Bob-white, Ruffed Grouse, Red-shouldered Hawk, Red-tailed 
Hawk, Broad-winged Hawk,* Marsh Hawk,* Sparrow Hawk, Duck 
Hawk,* Sharp-shinned Hawk, Cooper's Hawk, Bald Eagle,* Screech 
Owl, Long-eared Owl, Short-eared Owl, Barred Owl, Great Horned 
Owl, Downy Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Red-headed Wood- 
pecker,* Fhcker, American Crow, Fish Crow, Blue Jay, Starling, 
Meadowlark, Song Sparrow, House Sparrow, American Goldfinch, 
European Goldfinch, Purple Finch, Cardinal, Cedar Waxwing,* Caro- 
lina Wren, Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, White-breasted Nuthatch, 
Robin,* Bluebird. 

To complete the possible winter avifauna, a list of winter resident 
land birds and of the commoner winter water birds is added. 

WINTER RESIDENTS 

Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull, Kittiwake, Bonaparte's Gull, 
Old Squaw, Surf Scoter, White-winged Scoter, Saw-whet Owl,* Horned 
Lark, Prairie Horned Lark, Junco, Tree Sparrow, Pine Siskin,* 
Red-poll,* Snowflake, Lapland Longspur,* Red Crossbill,* White- 
winged Crossbill,* Pine Grosbeak,* Northern Shrike,* Winter Wren, 
Brown Creeper, Red-breasted Nuthatch,* Golden-crowned Kinglet. 

*Rare or irregular in winter. 



38 SPRING MIGRATION 



SPRING MIGRATION 

Arrival of Summer Residents and Transients* from the south. 

February lb-March 10. — Canada Goose (April 20-30), Pintail 
(April), Scaup Duck (April 20-30), Purple Grackle, Rusty Blackbird 
(May 1-10), Red-winged Blackbird, Robin, Bluebird. 

March 10-20. — Woodcock, Phcebe, Meadowlark, Cowbird, Fox 
Sparrow (April 1-15). 

March 20-31. — Red-breasted Merganser (May 1-10), Wilson's 
Snipe (May 1-10), Kingfisher, Mourning Dove, Swamp Sparrow, White- 
throated Sparrow (May 15-30), Field Sparrow. 

April 1-10. — Great Blue Heron, Black-crowned Night Heron, 
Fish Hawk, Purple Finch, Vesper Sparrow, Savanna Sparrow (May 
1-15), Chipping Sparrow, Tree Swallow (May 15-31), Myrtle Warbler 
(May 10-20), Pipit (April 15-25), Hermit Thrush (April 25-May 5). 

A-pril 10-20. — Bittern, Green Heron, Clapper Rail, Yellow-belUed 
Sapsucker (April 20-30), Barn Swallow, Yellow Palm Warbler (April 
25-May 10), Pine Warbler, Louisiana Water-Thrush, Ruby-crowTied 
Kinglet (May 1-15). 

Ajpril 20-30. — Virginia Rail, Sora, Spotted Sandpiper, WTiip-poor- 
will, Chimney Swift, Least Flycatcher, Seaside Sparrow, Sharp-tailed 
Sparrow, Towhee, Blue-headed Vireo (May 10-15), Purple Martin, 
CHff Swallow, Bank Swallow, Rough-winged Swallow, Black and 
White Warbler, Black-throated Green Warbler (May 15-25), Oven- 
bird, House Wren, Brown Thrasher, Catbird, Wood Thrush. 

May 1-10. — Least Bittern, Solitary Sandpiper (May 15-25), Semi- 
palmated Sandpiper (June 1-10), Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Black-billed 
Cuckoo, Nighthawk, Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Crested Fly- 
catcher, Kingbird, Baltimore Oriole, Orchard Oriole, Bobolink, Grass- 
hopper Sparrow, Lincoln's Sparrow, (May 15-25), Indigo Bunting, 
Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Scarlet Tanager, Red-eyed Vireo, WarbHng 
Vireo, Yellow-throated Vireo, White-eyed Vireo, Nashville Warbler 
(May 15-25), Blue-winged Warbler, Parula Warbler, Yellow Warbler, 
Black-throated Blue Warbler (May 15-30), Magnoha Warbler (May 
15-30), Chestnut-sided Warbler, Prairie Warbler, Maryland Yellow- 
throat, Worm-eating Warbler, Northern Water-Thrush (May 10-30), 
Hooded Warbler, Chat, Redstart, Veery. 

May 10-20. — Wood Pewee, Acadian Flycatcher, Alder Flycatcher, 
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (May 20-30), White-crowned Sparrow 
(May 20-30), Golden-winged Warbler (May 15-30), Tennessee Warbler 
(May 15-30), Cape May Warbler (May 15-30), Blackburnian Warbler 
(May 15-30), Bay-breasted Warbler (May 15-30), Black-poll Warbler 
(May 25-Junc 5), Mourning Warbler (May 20-30), Wilson's Warbler 
(May 20-30), Canadian Warbler (May 25- June 5), Long-billed Marsh 
Wren, Short-billed Marsh Wren, Olive-backed Thrush (May 20-30), 

♦The date of departure for the north is given for transient visitants; the omission 
of this date indicates a summer resident. 



FALL MIGRATION 39 

Gray-cheeked Thrush (May 25- June 5), Bicknell's Thrush (May 25- 
June 5). 

FALL MIGRATION 

I. Departure of Summer Residents for the south. 

September 1-10. — Acadian Flycatcher, Orchard Oriole, Rough- 
winged Swallow, Worm-eating Warbler, Blue-winged Warbler. 

September 10-20. — Baltimore Oriole, Purple Martin, Yellow Warbler, 
Chat. 

September 20-30. — Hummingbird, Kingbird, Crested Flycatcher, 
Wood Pewee, Seaside Sparrow, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Yellow- 
throated Vireo, Warbhng Vireo, Hooded Warbler, Louisiana Water- 
Thrush, Veery. 

October 1-10. — Clapper Rail, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Black-billed 
Cuckoo, Chimney Swift, Least Flycatcher, BoboHnk, Grasshopper 
Sparrow, Indigo Bunting, Scarlet Tanager, Barn Swallow, CHff Swallow, 
AVhite-eyed Vireo, Chestnut-sided Warbler, Redstart, Ovenbird, 
Wood Thrush. 

October 10-20. — Whip-poor-will, Nighthawk, Sharp-tailed Sparrow, 
Red-eyed Vireo, Black and White Warbler, Maryland Yellow-throat, 
Long-billed Marsh Wren, Short-billed Marsh Wren, House Wren, 
Brown Thrasher, Catbird. 

October 20-31.— Phoebe, Towhee, Tree Swallow. 

November 1-30*. — Woodcock, Mourning Dove, Kingfisher, Red- 
winged Blackbird, Purple Grackle, Cowbird, Vesper Sparrow, Field 
Sparrow, Chipping Sparrow, Swamp Sparrow. 

XL Arrival of Transients and Winter Visitants from the north. 

August 1-15. — Black Tern (September 25-October 10), Sora (October 
15-31), Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (September 20-30), Golden-winged 
Warbler (September 1-10), Canadian Warbler (September 20-30), 
Northern Water-Thrush (September 25-October 5). 
• August 15-31. — Olive-sided Flycatcher (September 10-20), Migrant 
Shrike (September), Tennessee Warbler (September 25-Oc'tobor 5), 
. Nashville Warbler (September 2.5-Octobcr 5), Cape May Warbler 
(September 25-October 5), Black-throated Blue Warbler (October 15- 
25), Black-throated Green Warbler (October 15-31), Magnolia Warbl(T 
(October 10-20), Blackburnian Warbler (September 20-30), Wilson's 
Warbler (September 20-30), Red-breasted Nuthatch (November 1-30). 

September 1-10. — Scaup Duck (April), Lincoln's Sparrow (Novem- 
ber 15-30), Blackpoll Warbler (October 15-25), Connecticut Warbler 
(September 20-30). 

September 10-20.— Wilson's Snipe (October 15-30), Blue-headed 
Vireo (October 15-25), Philadelphia Vireo (September 20-30), Olive- 
backed Thrush (October 20-30), Bicknell's Thrush (October 20-30). 

♦Should the season be exceptionally mild, some of these birds may remain until 
late December. 



40 EXTENT OF MIGRATION 

September 20-30. — Herring Gull (May), Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 
(October 20-30), Junco (May 1-10), White-throated Sparrow (May 1-20). 
White-crowned Sparrow (October 15-30), Myrtle Warbler (May 5-20), 
Yellow Palm Warbler (October 15-30), Brown Creeper (April), Golden- 
crowned Kinglet (April), Ruby-crowned Kinglet (October 20-30), 
Winter Wren (April), Gray-cheeked Thrush (October 15-25). 

October 1-10. — Bronzed Grackle (December), Rusty Blackbird 
(December), Pipit (October 25-November 5), Hermit Thrush (Novem- 
ber). 

October 10-31. — Homed Lark (April), Pine Finch (April), Snow 
Bunting (March), Redpoll (April), Tree Sparrow (April), Fox Sparrow 
(November 25-December 10), Northern Shrike (April). 

November. — Pine Grosbeak, White-winged Crossbill, Red Cross- 
bill. 

The Extent of Migration. — After this glimpse of the swing of the 
pendulum of migration, from a local point of view, we may extend our 
inquiry by following the birds to their winter quarters, with the object 
of learning where they go and the routes they travel. 

Generally speaking, the extent of a bird's migration is related to 
the character of its food; insect-eating birds journey much farther 
than seed-eaters, many of which travel but a short distance south 
of their birthplace. There are, however, some marked exceptions to 
this statement. The Bobolink, for instance, is in part granivorous, 
but it winters south of the Amazon, while the Golden-crowned Kinglet 
is insectivorous and winters as far north as New England. Again, of 
two insectivorous birds, one, the Short-billed Marsh Wren, does not 
winter north of the Gulf or South Atlantic States, while the other, the 
Winter Wren, is found northward to New England in winter. Numer- 
ous similar instances might be cited, all indicating that some cause 
other than food has determined the extent of the journeys made by 
many migratory birds. It will be observed that of the species just 
mentioned, the Bobolink and Short-billed Marsh Wren are American 
types of austral origin, while the Golden-crowned Kinglet and Winter 
Wren are European types and of boreal origin. Further inquiry will 
show that among land-birds the migrants which go farthest south 
belong in the first class, while those which winter farthest north belong 
in the second class. It is not improbable, therefore, that the extent 
of a bird's migrations may give some indication of its place of origin 
as a migrant. 

In the western states the migration of birds is not so pronounced 
as it is east of the Rocky Mountains, and the latitudinal movement 
is complicated by an altitudinal one. The migrants of this region, 
which winter south of the United States, pass this season largely in 
Mexico. Comparatively few land-birds go beyond Guatemala and 
practically none cross the Isthmus of Panama. 

In eastern North America, not only are migrants proportionally 
more abundant, but their movements are more clearly defined, and 



EXTENT OF MIGRATION 41 

the journeys of those birds that leave the United States are far more 
extended than those performed by the birds of the western portion of 
the continent. 

Of our thirty-nine species of Warblers, twenty-seven winter en- 
tirely south of the United States, twenty of them reaching South Amer- 
ica, the Yellow Warbler and Blackpoll having been recorded from as 
far south as Peru. The shortest journey of any Blackpoll, as Cooke 
points out, is 3,500 miles, "while those that nest in Alaska have 7,000 
miles to travel to their probable winter home in Brazil," ("Warblers 
of North America," p. 15; see also his admirable "Distribution and 
Migration of Warblers," Bull. No. 18, Biological Survey.) 

Of our ten species of Flycatchers, nine leave the United States for 
the winter (the Crested Flycatcher is of rare occurrence in southern 
Florida at this season), and all of them reach South America, the 
Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) going as far south as Bolivia. 

Two of our eight Vireos remain in Florida during the winter, five 
winter in Central America, and one, the Red-eye, extends its winter 
journey to Bolivia and southwestern Brazil. 

Even more extended migrations are performed by certain Sand- 
pipers and Plovers which nest wdthin the Arctic Circle and winter 
as far south as the southern extremity of South America. 

Routes of Migration. — Lying within those regions chmatically most 
favorable for the human race, the boundaries of the summer ranges 
of most of our migrating birds are known with more or less dcfiniteness; 
but when they leave the temperate zone to enter tropical wilds, our 
knowledge of their distribution is far less satisfactory. The data now 
available show, however, that a field of exceptional interest awaits 
the investigator who, with adequate information, traces the routes 
of migration followed by birds in journeying between their summer and 
winter homes. 

In Eastern North America some migrant land birds leave the 
United States by passing through Texas into Mexico and arc unknown 
in the southeastern At lantic States (e. g. the Mourning Warbler) ; 
others leave through Florida and arc unknown in Texas and Mexico 
(e. g. the Bobolink and Blackpoll Warbler). Others still (e. g. the 
Redstart), travel through both Texas and Florida into Mexico as well 
as to the West Indies. There is also a route which appears to cross the 
Gulf of Mexico from the region at the mouth of the Mississippi, though 
no species is confined to it. 

It was at one time supposed that the birds which left the United 
States by way of Florida all crossed dir(u;tly to Cuba, but, according 
to Cooke ('03), "The main traveled highway is tliat which stretches 
from northwestern Florida a(;ross the Gulf, continuing the southwest 
direction which most of th(^ l)ir(ls of the Atlantic ('oast, follow in passing 
to Florida. A larger or smaller proportion of nearly all the species 
bound for South America take this roundabout course, quite regardless 
of the 700-mile flight over the Gulf of Mexico." 



42 



ROUTES OF MIGRATION 



The observations of Scott* and Bennettf in the Tortugas show 
that these islets evidently lie in a migratory highway, and we know as 
yet too little about the birds of western Cuba to be sure that many 
of the birds which pass over them do not pause on that island. But, 




Fig. 5. Migration of the Blackpoll Warbler. A species which breeds as far north- 
west as Alaska, but leaves North America through Florida, and reaches South 
America through the West Indies, avoiding Mexico and Central America. 

Dotted area — Breeding range. Black area — Winter range. Arrows — Migration 
route. 



in any event, it is evident that, whether to or from western Cuba and 
Yucatan, there is a direct flight across the Gulf to or from western 
Florida, and, as Cooke ('05) remarks, it is this route which is followed 
by most of our migrant land-birds which winter in South America. 
He sums the matter up as follows: 

*The Auk, VII, 1890, pp. 301-314. tBird-Lore, XI, 1909, pp. 110-113. 



ROUTES OF MIGRATION 



43 



Species that reach South America or Panama: 

By way of the West Indies 10 

By an miknown route 7 

By way of the Gulf of Mexico 49 

There is apparently, also, a small off-shore or southeastward flight 
to the eastward of Florida leading into and through the Bahamas, 
and possibly even farther east. 




Fig. 6. Migration of the Mourning Warbler. A species wliic-h brc;o(Is as far 
northeast as Nova Scotia, but migrates southwestward, reaching Houth Amorioa 
through Mexico and Central America, and avoiding the South Atlantic States and 
West Indies. 

Dotted area — Breeding range. Black area — Winter range. Arrows — Migration 
route. 

According to Reid, the migrant land-birds which visit the Bornuidiis 
with more or less regularity are the Bolted Kingfisher, Yollow-bilh^d 
Cuckoo, Bobolink, and Northern Water-Thrush. The last two w(to 
recorded by Julien* during a short stay on Sonibroro, at the northern 
extremity of the Lesser Antilles; and in Granada, the mosi southcTu 
island of this chain, Wellsf has found the Kingfisher, Bobolink, and 
Water-Thrush. 

Possibly these birds may have reached the Lesser Antilles through 

*Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, VIII. 1864, p. 93. 
tProc. U. S. Nat. Mus., IX, 1886, p. 609. 



44 



ROUTES OF MIGRATION 



Porto Rico from the westward. This route, however, is followed by 
only a small portion of the birds which migrate southward, through 
Florida and the Bahamas, into the Greater Antilles. If they continue 
their journey to South America, most of them do so through Jamaica, 
the 400 miles of water separating this island from northern South 




1 



Fig. 7. Migration of the Bobolink. A species which breeds west of the Rocky 
Mountains, but migrates through the southeastern United States, reaching South 
America through the Greater Antilles and Central America. 

Dotted area — Breeding range. Black area — Winter range. Arrows — Migration 
route. 

Amorira being ovid'.^ntly no barrier to such great travelers as the Bobo- 
link and ]Ma('ki)()ll Warbler. 

Within the limits of the United States, coast-lines, mountain 
chains, and the larg(T river valleys, appear to be followed by birds 
in their migrations; nevertheless, there is a more or less pronounced 



ROUTES OF MIGRATION 



45 



highway of migration which crosses the southern Alleghanies from 
northwest to southeast. This is evidently followed by Kirtland's 
Warbler, which nests in northern Michigan and winters in the Bahamas, 
and it brings to our southeast Atlantic Coast, with more or less regular- 
ity, birds which are practically unknown in our North Atlantic States. 




Fig. 8. Migration of tin; I{(;(l.slart. A species wiiicli hrcfsds (hrouuliout «lie 
greater part of teinporato North Amerioa, and miKrates through the West Indies, 
Mexico and Central America. 

Dotted area — Breeding range. Black area — Winter range. Arrow.s — Migration 
route. 

There are also minor routes or paths of migration formed, generally, 
by favorable local conditions, but in some instances didicult, to ox|)lain. 
1 have seen Tree Swallows, in th(^ spring, on the (Julf coast of I'Morida, 
migrating northward low over th(^ great, expanse of unbroken marslies, 
but evidently following a definite track. Th(^ scattered flocks were 
often separated l)y several miles, but each one followed in the wake of 
its invisible predecessor as though guided by the marks of wing- 
beats in the air. 



46 ROUTES OF MIGRATION 

Most birds appear to return to their summer homes over much the 
same route by which they left them. There are, however, a few marked 
exceptions to this rule. Among our land-birds, the Connecticut War- 
bler enters the United States through Florida and journeys thence 
northwestward along the Alleghanies, and west to Missouri, to the 
Upper Mississippi Valley and Manitoba. At this season it is unknown 
on the Atlantic Coast north of Florida; but during its return migration, 
in September and October, it is often not uncommon from Massachu- 
setts southward and, at this season, is rare or unknown in the Missis- 
sippi Valley south of Chicago. (See Cooke, '04.) 

Among our wa,ter-birds, cases of this kind are more frequent. The 
fall migration often brings to the Atlantic Coast species which are 
rarely if ever seen there in the spring. The Black Tern, for example, 
occurs near New York City in numbers, from August to October, but 
is not found there in the spring. 

The Golden Plover, as has been sho^n by Cooke ('93), after breed- 
ing in June on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, in August migrates 
southeastward to Labrador, where it feeds on the crowberry (Em- 
petrum), laying on a supply of fat as fuel for the remarkable voj^age 
which follows. From Labrador the birds fly south to Nova Scotia 
and thence lay their course for northern South America in a direct 
line across the Atlantic. 

Under favorable conditions they may pass the Bermudas without 
stopping, but should they encounter storms they rest in these islands 
and are also driven to our coast. Their first stop may be made in 
the Lesser Antilles, through or over which they proceed to South 
America, en route to their winter quarters in southwestern Brazil and 
the La Plata region. 

In returning to their Arctic home these Plover pass northward 
through Central America and the Mississippi Valley, the main hne 
of their fall and spring routes, therefore, being separated by as much as 
1,500 miles. 

The explanations advanced to account for the gradual develop- 
ment of migration routes, over which birds in the fall retrace the path 
followed in the spring, are inadequate to account for the origin of 
these phenomenal journeys, on which the pioneer voyagers must 
apparantly have embarked unguided by either inherited or acquired 
experience. Nor do we understand how birds have learned to cross 
regularly over bodies of water, hundreds or even thousands of miles 
in width. 

European birds cross the Mediterranean, to and from Africa, at 
a point where soundings indicate that a much closer land relation 
formerly existed; but the 400-mile flight from Jamaica to northern 
South America, the 600-mile flight from the nearest land to the Ber- 
mudas, or the journey regularly made by the Turnstone and Golden 
Plover to Hawaii, 2,000 miles from the nearest land, are evidently 
not to be explained in this way. 



ROUTES OF ^IIGRATIOX 



47 




Fig. 9. Migration of the Golden Plover (after Cooke). A species whirh has 
seasonal migration routes, going south from Labrador and Nova Scotia, over the 
ocean, to the Lesser Antilles and .South America, and no.-th up the Mississippi Valley. 
Dotted area — Breeding range. Black area — Winter range. .-Vrrows — Migration route-s. 



48 HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 

How Birds Migrate. — The more we learn of the marvelous semi- 
annual journeys made with such surprising regularity by many birds, 
the greater becomes our interest in the manner by which they are 
performed. It is well enough to point out on the map the routes of 
-nigration followed by Bobolink or BlackpoU, but how do the feathered 
mites traverse the thousands of miles which separate their summer and 
winter homes? 

It is evidently essential that the bird be prepared for the journey. 
Fall migration usually follows the annual post-breeding molt, and the 
birds, in fresh plumage, proceed slowly, often lingering in favorable 
feeding-grounds, as does the Golden Plover among the crowberries of 
Labrador, or the BoboHnk in the rice-fields of our south Atlantic Coast, 
until they are in physical condition to endure the strain of prolonged 
flight. 

In the spring, they have had months' exemption from family cares, 
with no other duty than to wander where food was most abundant; 
excellent preparation for the return journey to the nesting-ground. 
We know less, however, about birds' movements at this season than 
when, after breeding, they prepare to leave us. 

Some species begin to flock immediately after the nesting season 
and, as a preliminary to actual migration, develop regular and definitely 
directed movements in their daily returns to and departure from a 
certain roosting-place. Such roosting-places form stations on the 
migratory journey and are focal points for small bodies of birds which, 
later, take flight in one great company. Red- winged Blackbirds, 
Crackles, and the various species of Swallows inaugurate their south- 
ward migrations in this way. 

Less gregarious birds, at the conclusion of their post-breeding molt 
or even before it is completed, simply disappear without our knowing 
when they go. 

The adult birds, either alone or accompanied by birds of the year, 
migrate first. Later, the adults decrease in number and the last flights 
may be composed entirely of young birds. In the fall the sexes appear 
to travel together, but in the spring the males usually precede the 
females. 

Some birds migrate only by day, others only during the night, while 
a smaller number travel both by day and night. In his now classic 
Memoir on "Bird Migration" Brewster ('86) puts the matter clearly 
as follows: 

"L Species which migrate exclusively by night habitually feed in 
or near the shelter of trees, bushes, rank herbage or grass, and when 
not migrating are birds of limited powers of flight and sedentary habits, 
restricting their daily excursions to the immediate vicinity of their 
chosen haunts. As a rule they are of timid, or at least retiring disposi- 
tion, and when alarmed or pursued seek safety in concealment rather 
than by extended flights. 

"2. Species which migrate chiefly or very freely by day, habitually 



HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 49 

feed in open, exposed situations, and in their daily excursions for food 
often cover considerable distances. As a rule they are of bold, restless 
disposition, and when alarmed or pursued seek safety in long flights 
rather than by concealment. 

"3. Species which migrate exclusively by day habitually feed 
either on the wing or over very extensive areas. In disposition they 
are either trustful and unsuspecting, or wary and self-reliant. Without 
exception they are birds of strong, easy flight, and rely solely on their 
wings for escape from danger." 

A wedge of honking Geese, a close-massed flock of chattering 
Grackles or Red-wings, a straggling train of Crows or Hawks, are 
famihar evidences of diurnal migration; while the passage, by day, 
of the Wild Pigeon was one of the most pronounced and impressive 
of dayhght travels by migrating birds of which we have any record. 

Other of our land-birds ''which migrate freely, chiefly or exclusively 
by day" (Brewster, /. c.) are the Hummingbird, Cliimney Swift, Horned 
Larks, Blue Jay, Waxwing, Shrikes, Swallows, Pipit, Robin and Blue- 
bird. To this list may be added certain gregarious Finches, like Cross- 
bills, Siskins, Redpolls, Pine and Evening Grosbeaks, Purple Finches 
and Snow Buntings. I have also seen Dickcissels, high in the air, 
traveling in compact bodies by day, though they apparently also 
migrate by night. 

Ducks, Shore -birds (Limicolae) and Sea-birds (Alcidae, Longi- 
pennes, and Tubinares) migrate both by day and by night. The sports- 
man is first made aware of the passage of Plover or Yellow-legs by their 
mellow calls, as they journey through the air beyond the reach of 
unaided vision. 

An interesting note on the diurnal migration of birds at an appar- 
ently high altitude, is supplied by R. A. Bray ('95) who records a 
flight of birds observed through a telescope, directed toward the sun, 
at 3 p. M. on September 30, 1894, at Shere, England. Every few seconds 
a bird was seen to pass slowly across the sun, and there was no decrease 
in their numbers during the ten minutes of observation. The birds 
were flying in a southerly direction and were invisible to the naked 
eye. 

The daily flight of vast numbers of Sea-birds along the Pacific 
coast is recorded in detail by L. M. Loomis ('OG, p. 280) who states 
that on one occasion (September 23, 189G) "not less than a quarter of 
a million" Dark-bodied Shearwaters "passed in review during two 
hours and a half." "There were several divisions — each a solid phalanx 
about an eighth of a mile deep — following closely one upon the other," 
low, over the water. 

Loons may be seen migrating by day, but the weaker wingcnl Grc'b(>s, 
relying on their diving powers for safety, evidently travel ))y night. 
Other water-birds, like the Bitterns, Woodcock, Wilson's Snipe, Rails, 
Coots, and Gallinules, whose habits do not lead them over the sea or 
its shores, migrate, as Brewster has said, by night. 



50 HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 

Our knowledge of the nocturnal migration of birds is based on 
evidence supplied by the call-notes of passing birds, on data from 
light-houses, on observations through telescopes and on field-work 
on days succeeding flights. 

It is a common experience, during the season of migration, to hear 
the notes of birds which are passing overhead. From an elevation in 
a line of flight, or where the city hghts may attract birds, such notes, 
when birds are moving in numbers, are almost continuous. O. G. 
Libby ('99) states that on the night of September 14, 1896, on "a small 
elevation west of the city of Madison, Wisconsin," a total of 3,800 
bird-calls were recorded. The average was twelve per minute, but 
the rate "varied greatly, sometimes running as high as two or three 
per second, and again falling to about the same number per minute. 
.... The great space of air above swarmed with hfe. Singly, or 
in groups, large and small, or more seldom in a great throng, the 
hurrying myriads passed southward." 

Lighthouses, because of their location on the coast, on promon- 
tories or outlying islets, are often situated in the path of migrating 
birds. This fact, in connection with the fatal attraction which the rays 
of the light possess for migrating birds during stormy weather, has 
supphed an extended and definite series of records, which also emphasize 
the high mortality often prevailing in the ranks of night-migrating 
birds. Shortly after its erection, 1,400 dead birds are said to have been 
picked up at the base of the Bartholdi statue, in New York harbor, 
which had been killed by striking the statue the preceding night. 

For years Hght-keepers have reported to the Biological Survey 
at Washington on the birds seen about or striking the hghts in their 
care and, in not a few instances, our knowledge of the migration of a 
species rests largely on this class of data. (Allen, '80, p. 131.) 

We have also the testimony of ornithologists who have visited 
lighthouses especially for the purpose of observing the nocturnal 
journeys of birds. Brewster {L c. p. 7), who visited Point LePreaux 
Lighthouse, in the Bay of Fundy, for this purpose, gives an impressive 
picture of observations made there on the night of September 4. 

Observations through telescopes, though limited in number, when 
one considers how easily they are made and how interesting and val- 
uable are the results to be obtained, supply probably our most satis- 
factory data on nocturnal migration. They can be made only on 
clear, moonlight nights, when the current of migration, flowing smoothly 
through the air above, is viewed under wholly normal conditions. 

A low-power telescope is focused on the moon, the glowing surface 
of which forms a background against which the birds, in passing, are 
clearly silhouetted. On September 3, 1886, at Tenafly, N. J., with the 
aid of a 62 inch equatorial glass, 262 birds were seen to cross the narrow 
angle subtended by the limits of the moon between the hours of eight 
and eleven (Chapman, '88). Subsequent observations from the obser- 
vatory of Columbia University and at Englewood, N. J., have revealed 



HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 51 

the vast numbers of birds which throng the upper air during nights of 
active migration. 

At Madison, Wisconsin, on the nights of September 11-13, 1897, 
Libby (I. c.) saw 583 birds through a 6-inch glass, the largest number 
counted during a fifteen minute period being forty-five. Additional 
data of this nature are included in a paper by H. A. Winkenwerder 
('02), while Stone's ('06) observations on birds seen migrating at night 
by the Ught of a great conflagration in Philadelphia have exceptional 
interest. 

The height at which migrating birds fly has been variously esti- 
mated. Many diurnal migrants may be seen traveling from a few 
yards (e. g. Shearwaters) to several hundred yards (e. g. Geese) above 
the earth, but Shore-birds evidently seek a greater altitude, and the 
experience of Bray, referred to above, hints at a diurnal fhght of which 
we know practically nothing. 

Our knowledge of the height at which nocturnal migrants journey 
is based on the telescopic observations already mentioned. As intimated 
in the article itself (/. c), the conclusions presented in my paper on 
birds seen flying over Tenafly, were not satisfactory. More recently, 
the problem has been attacked by F. W. Carpenter ('06) and Stebbins* 
with results which seem far more worthy of acceptance. Their calcu- 
lations show that while an altitude of 4,000 to 5,000 yards may occas- 
ionally be reached, the greater number of birds observed were not 
over 1,600 yards above the earth, while many passed considerably 
below this elevation. The ease with which the calls of night-flying 
birds may be heard also argues for a lower altitude than has been com- 
monly accredited to them. 

The speed at which migrating birds fly has also been greatly over- 
rated. Two observations with theodolites give to migrating Ducks 
a speed of 47.8, and to migrating Geese a speed of 44.3 miles an hourf. 
Homing Pigeons do not often exceed forty to forty-five miles an hour. 
It is a common experience, when traveling in a train at a rate of thirty- 
five to forty-five miles an hour, to pass birds which are flying parallel 
to the track. I have had this occur repeatedly with such compara- 
tively large and swift birds as the Mourning Dove. It seems probable, 
therefore, that our smaller birds do not average more than thirty miles 
an hour when migrating. 

Gatke's estimate of 212 miles per hour as the speed of the Golden 
Plover when migrating, is based wholly on the assumption that fifteen 
hours is "the longest spoil during which a bird is able to remain on 
the wing without taking sustenance of any kind." The Plover, how- 
ever, does not fly from "Labrador to northern Brazil," as he stated, but 
from Nova Scotia to the Lesser Antilles; as we have seen, it makes 
special preparation for the journey, is extremely fat when it starts and 
thin when it arrives. 

♦"Popular Astronomy," XIV, 1900, pp. 05-70. 
tCluyton, Science, 1SU7, pp. 20, 585. 



52 HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 

The rate at which a bird migrates, however, is of course not to be 
considered its hmit of speed. The migrating bird, hke the long-distance 
runner, must adopt a pace which will enable it to reach the goal without 
danger of exhaustion by the way. Should necessity arise, it doubtless, 
for a time, could more than double the speed at which it normally 
travels. 

The rate of progress of the individual must not be confused with 
that at which the species advances. Nocturnal migrants probably 
cover 200 to 400 miles in a single night's journey; but, as Cooke ('03) 
has shown, "The average speed of migration from New Orleans to south- 
ern Minnesota for all species is close to 23 miles per day." From this 
latitude northward, however, in response to the more rapid develop- 
ment of the season, the speed is constantly accelerated until the breed- 
ing-place is reached. Thus, the same author remarks, "Sixteen species 
maintain a daily average of forty miles from southern Minnesota to 
southern Manitoba, and from this point twelve species travel to Lake 
Athabasca at an average speed of seventy-two miles a day, five others 
to Great Slave Lake at 116 miles a day, and five more to Alaska at 
150 miles a day." 

The slow rate at which a species moves, when compared with that 
at which the individuals composing it travel, is evidence that its mi- 
gration is not performed continuously, night after night, until the haven 
is reached, but that after a flight birds pause to rest, to await favorable 
weather conditions, and the further seasonal change which such con- 
ditions hasten. The observations of Wright ('09) in the Boston Public 
Garden, where, as in other city parks, local conditions are exceptionally 
favorable for the correct interpretation of migration phenomena, also 
confirm this view, if indeed further confirmation be required. 

The impelling motive being more powerful, the object more definite, 
and the seasonal influences more pronounced, the spring migration 
of birds is a more orderly and regular movement than the return in 
the fall. Clear nights and a rising thermometer are most likely to 
induce birds to travel, a 'wave' of migrants coming often on the crest 
of a 'wave' of warmer temperature. When such a movement is checked 
by cold or stormy weather, the result is an overflow of migrants which 
flood the woods. Ordinarily rare species may then become compara- 
tively common, and the impression is produced of an actual increase in 
bird-life. In the fall, when physiological factors incident to reproduc- 
tion are not potent and seasonal changes are less marked, birds travel 
more leisurely. Clear nights and a falling thermometer are then most 
favorable for a general movement. 

The high mortality in the ranks of migrating birds occasioned by 
the storms they encounter is evidence of their inability to anticipate 
changes in the weather. On the coast of Texas I have known birds to 
migrate northward in great numbers directly into the face of a 'norther,' 
with evidently no warning of the unfavorable conditions toward which 
they were hastening. Again, under the influence of exceptionally 



HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 53 

warm weather, Tree Swallows have been induced to travel northward 
and appear near New York City in numbers late in December. 

And now we ask the question to which any consideration of the 
phenomena of migration inevitably leads, "How do birds find their way?" 
What faculty directs them over thousands of miles of land and water 
through the darkness of the night with a regularity and accuracy that 
brings them to the same locahty, even the same nest-site, on essentially 
the same date year after year? 

Granted that in birds, sight, hearing, and the power of association 
are exceptionally developed; that the chirping and calUng of night 
migrants is an effective means of holding them to the main traveled 
way; that diurnal migrants are guided by prominent topographical 
features; still something far more potent than eye, ear, and memory 
is evidently required to lead birds over journeys where landmarks are 
wanting. 

While at sea on May 24, 1905, a Curlew (Numenius sp.) boarded 
the steamer when we were 140 miles south of Fastnet Light. While 
photographing the bird, I alarmed it, when it took wing and headed 
for Ireland with as much confidence as though land had been visible, 
and was soon far beyond us. There was here no estabhshed line of 
flight in which to join, no evident external guiding influence; never- 
theless the bird set its course without hesitation. 

Terns, Murres, and other sea-birds go out to feed and return to 
their breeding-grounds through dense fog and with unfailing precision. 
Tropic-birds reach Bermuda, 600 miles from the nearest land, regularly 
each spring; Turnstones and Pacific Golden Plover travel twice each 
year over at least 2,000 miles of water in their journey to and from 
Hawaii. The Eastern Golden Plover strikes boldly out over the Atlantic 
bound from Nova Scotia to the Lesser Antilles; vast numbers of birds 
of many species cross the Gulf of Mexico, others fly from Jamaica to 
South America. 

This power of 'distant orientation' is apparently only to ho. explained 
through the bird's possession of a 'homing instinct' or 'sense of dircc;- 
tion' which, when the impulse to migrate is active, automatically 
induces them to follow a certain route. 

The experiments of Reynaud ('00) and otluTS with Homing Pig(M)ns 
appear to have d(;finitely established the existence of the sense; of 
direction in this species, and more recently Watson ('09) has demon- 
strated in a most noteworthy manner its evident possession by Sooty 
and Noddy Terns. Among other tests, Reynaud transjxjrtcd five 
Pigeons, under the influence of chloroform, from Orleans t(j Kvreux, 
France, a locality which they had not visit (k1 before. Two days lalcT, 
having evidently recovered from the effects of the drug, they were 
released and all returned to Orleans. While the senses of siglit, smell, 
taste, touch, and hearing were not functional during the time when 
the birds were under the influence of chloroform, Reynaud expresses 
his belief that "the sense of direction, on the contrary, whose; action 



54 HOW BIRDS MIGRATE 

is based on the automatic and mechanical registration of the road 
followed, continued to work, in spite of the chloroform, absolutely 
like other mechanical functions — the circulation of the blood, the 
digestive organs, and respiration — ^in some way, without the knowl- 
edge of the animal." 

Watson's experiments were made with Sooty and Noddy Terns, 
among which he passed the breeding season of 1907 on their nesting- 
ground on Bird Key, Dry Tortugas. He first captured and marked six 
Noddies, and had them released at distances varying from 19.5 to 65.8 
miles from the Key. All returned within from one and three-quarters 
to about three and a half hours after being released. 

July 8, two Noddies and two Sooties were captured and marked 
and sent to Havana (108 miles) where they were released early on the 
morning of the 11th; all returned to the Key on the 12th. 

None of these birds, however, were sent beyond the normal range 
of their species and it may be claimed that they were simply traveling 
over a route with which they were famiUar. In any event, the journey 
was made unassisted by any trend of migration or established migratory 
movement which they had simply to join. When breeding, these birds 
are closely confined to the vicinity of their homes. Watson found that 
they rarely went further than 15 knots from Bird Key. Some of the 
birds returned alone, evidently dependent only on themselves for 
guidance. 

A third test, in which the surrounding conditions were ideal, was made 
with three Noddies and two Sooties which were captured and marked 
on June 13, and sent from Bird Key to Key West. Here they were 
transferred to the hold of the steamship 'Denver' where they were 
both watered and fed while en route. On June 16, the birds were 
released about 12 miles east of Cape Hatteras, approximately 1,081 
miles by water from Bird Key. Both the Sooties were found on their 
respective nests on the morning of June 21, and one of the Noddies 
was observed several days later. 

Neither the Noddy nor Sooty Tern range, as a rule, north of the 
Florida Keys. There is small probability, therefore, that the individuals 
released off Hatteras had ever been over the route before and, for the 
same reason, they could not have availed themselves of the experience 
or example of migratory individuals of their own species; nor, since the 
birds were released at the height of the nesting season, was there any 
marked southward movement of birds in the line of which they might 
follow. 

Even had there been such a movement, it is not probable that it 
would have taken the birds southwest to the Florida Keys and thence 
west to the Tortugas. This marked change in direction, due to the 
fact that the birds' maritime habits would force tham to take a course 
over the water, removes the direction of the wind as a possible guiding 
agency, while the birds' unfamiliarity with the coast-line makes it 
improbable that sight was of service to them in finding their way. In 



WHY DO BIRDS MIGRATE? 55 

short, we cannot but feel that this experiment constitutes the strongest 
argument for the existence of a sense of direction as yet derived from 
the study of wild birds; with this estabhshed, the so-called 'mystery 
of migration' becomes no more a mystery than any other instinctive, 
functional activity. 

Why Do Birds Migrate? — Any attempt to reply to this question 
should be prefaced by the statement that birds have been migrating 
for an incalculable period. The existing phenomena are not therefore 
to be explained solely by observable causes, but they may often have 
their origin in influences which have long ceased to be potent. In 
other words, the migration of birds, as well as the birds themselves, 
is an outcome of those gradual adjustments between an organism and 
its environment which has led, on the one hand, to activities which 
existing causes only in part explain, and on the other to the evolu- 
tion of certain types of form and color the reason for which we cannot 
now wholly determine. We observe that bird migration is most highly 
developed in those parts of tHe world which are subjected to marked 
seasonal changes. In endeavoring, therefore, to ascertain the factors 
governing migration either north or south of subtropical regions, we 
find our problem greatly complicated by questions of temperature and 
food which seem to exert a powerful influence on the movement of 
birds. 

Fortunately we are not obliged to begin our examination of the 
Bubject in this, its most complex form, but in the tropics may find 
perfectly well-defined instances of bird migration in which the matters 
of food and temperature seem to play no part. 

With tropical land-birds there is, as a rule, no well-marked migra- 
tion; while their numbers may fluctuate in response to an increasing 
or diminishing supply of food, they make no journeys to a nesting- 
ground. 

Tropical s^a-birds, however, are often great wanderers and, dur- 
ing the year, many cover vast distances, within the tropic zone, in 
their search for food. They cannot, however, nest on the water, and 
when the season of reproduction approaches, they are, of necessity, 
forced to go to the land. Now it is of the highest importance for ua 
to know that their visits to their breeding resorts are made with the 
same regularity which attends the journey of Oriole, Bobolink or 
Warbler. They return each year to the same place and they all roach 
it, almost to the day, at the same time. The Brown P(!li(;ans of eastern 
Florida come in thousands to I'elican Island the first week in Novoinl)er; 
Boobies and Man-o'-war-birds return to certain Bahama keys in 
January; the Noddy and kSooty Terns appear on Bird Key in the Tor- 
tugas, the last week in April. 

Temperature, obviously, has nothing to do with these journeys, 
since with the Pelicans the average daily temperature is decreasing, 
with the Terns increasing, while the Boobies and Man-o'-war Birds 
have probably experienced no change of temperature. Nor arc thq 



56 WHY DO BIRDS MIGRATE? 

birds induced to travel by a more abundant supply of food. Indeed, 
the focusing of so large a number of individuals in a comparatively 
limited area doubtless increases the severity of the competition for 
subsistence. As I have said in discussing the return of the Brown 
Pehcans,* 'The immediate cause of the journey is doubtless physio- 
logical and the prompting comes from within. With birds, the season 
of reproduction is periodic, and with migratory species, whether the 
journey be to a nearby islet or to another zone, the return to the breed- 
ing ground is only one phenomenon in a cycle of events which 
includes, in regular order, migration, courtship, nest-building, egg-laying, 
incubation, the care of the young, the molt, and the retreat to winter 
quarters" — or, as might be better said of these tropical and subtrop- 
ical birds, the desertion of the nesting-ground. 

The yearly life-cycle in the vegetable world parallels, in a sense, 
that which exists in the world of birds. In orderly succession the 
plant develops leaf, blossom and fruit, sheds its foliage, and, after a 
period of rest, the phenomena are repeated. With birds it is the return 
of the season of physical fruition which arouses not only the sexual 
but also the homing instinct under the guidance of which these mobile 
creatures repair to the place of their birth. 

Migration, then, in its simplest form, is merely a journey to the 
nesting-ground, made without apparent relation to either food or 
temperature. 

When, now, we turn from these birds which migrate only a few 
miles to others which travel thousands, there is no reason to doubt 
that with both the initial impulse to migrate is in the annual recurrence 
of the period of reproduction. The migration of fish to their spawning- 
ground, and of seals to their 'rookeries,' are further examples of jour- 
neys made solely to reach certain breeding-grounds. 

It is not difficult for us to understand why the Pelicans, Boobies, 
Terns and other birds return to certain isolated islets within the area 
of their winter wanderings, but the reasons why birds travel beyond 
subtropical zones to the shores of the Arctic or Antarctic seas are less 
evident. Temperature, as it affects environment and particularly 
as it controls the food-supply, is, with these, a powerful factor. Not 
only must we consider existing climates, but we must take into account 
those profound climatic changes incident to the development and 
passing of the Glacial Period, and which have apparently exerted so 
great an influence on the distribution of life in the northern parts of 
the world that Allen believes we have here the origin of bird migra- 
tion itself. He writes ('80, p. 151): "Nothing is doubtless more thor- 
oughly established than that a warm temperate or sub-tropical climate 
prevailed down to the close of the Tertiary Epoch nearly to the North- 
ern Pole, and that climate was previously everywhere so far equable 
that the necessity for migration can hardly be supposed to have existed. 
With the later refrigeration of the northern regions, bird life must 
*"Campa and Cruises of an Ornithologist," p. 88. 



WHY DO BIRDS MIGRATE? 57 

have been crowded thence toward the tropics; and the struggle for 
hfe thereby greatly intensified. The less yielding forms may have 
become extinct; those less sensitive to climatic changes would seek to 
extend the boundaries of their range by shght removal northward 
during the milder intervals of summer, only, however, to be forced 
back again by the recurrence of winter. Such migration must have been 
at first 'incipient and gradual,' extending and strengthening as the 
cold-wave Ice Age receded and opened up a wider area within which 
existence in summer became possible. What was at first a forced migra- 
tion would become habitual, and through the heredity of habit give 
rise to the wonderful faculty which we call migration." 

While it is by no means certain that "the necessity of migration" 
did not exist prior to the Glacial Period, it seems probable that, whether 
or not this period actually gave rise to bird migration, it affected the 
movements of birds much as Allen has suggested. 

It is to the influence of the Glacial Period that we must attribute 
the presence, in the warmer parts of the globe, today, of such physi- 
cally closely related, but geographically widely separated birds as 
Ibises, Spoonbills, Pelicans, Frigate Birds, Anhingas and Flamingoes. 

It is out of the question to believe that birds, so like each other and 
so unlike other birds, can have originated independently in the old 
world and in the new; whence it follows, of course, that they have 
descended from a common ancestor, or, in other words, that their 
ranges were at one time continuous. This time we may well believe 
to have been that portion of the Tertiary Period preceding the Glacial 
Epoch, when the warm climate of the polar regions was adapted to 
their wants. With the climatic change which culminated in the Ice 
Age, their boreal representatives either became extinct or were forced 
southward, vsome in the Old World, some in the New, and the territory 
thus deserted has never been reacquired. The White Pelicans, and 
many other species closely related to Old World forms, and now breed- 
ing north of the most southern limit of the great Ice Field (for instance, 
the Eared Grebe, Gannet, Great Blue Heron, Gallinulc, Oyster-catcher, 
Crossbill and Brown Creeper), have, however, evidently extended their 
summer ranges to the northward of the area which they occupied 
during the maximum development of the Ice Age. To speak of only 
the White Pelican, the reasons have just been stated for believing 
this species to have formerly inhabited the shores of the y\rctic Ocean, 
whence it was forced southward, b(^low possibly the fortieth degree 
of latitude, by the rigors of the climates of the Ice Age. Nevertheless 
it now breeds regularly as far north as latitude 01°, and has therefore 
.regained at least a thousand miles in latitude, of the region from 
which it has been forced; but each year the individual rei)eats the 
history of the species, by retreating before what may be termed a 
seasonal Ice Age, as winter seals the lakes and rivers on which it has 
passed the summer. 

In a similar manner the migrations of each of our birds may be 



58 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT 

studied with reference to its distribution, relationships and the climatic 
influences to which it has probably been subjected, opening a most 
suggestive and instructive field for speculation on the origin of exist- 
ing conditions. 

Suggestions for the Student 

Returning now to the more practical and personal side of bird migra- 
tion, I append here a few hints to the local student for observing and 
recording it. 

Too much time cannot be spent in the field during the migration sea- 
son. If possible, one should go out both in the early morning and late 
afternoon, visiting as great a variety of ground as opportunity permits. 
It is desirable also to follow the same route daily, in order that changes in 
bird-life, other than the first arrival of certain species (for example, increase 
or decrease, flocking, roosting, pairing, etc.,_ of species which have already 
been noted), may be more readily and definitely ascertained. 

Weather conditions should be observed as closely as the migration 
itself and the charts issued by the Weather Bureau at Washington should 
be studied. Examine also published tables of migration. One's chances of 
finding a given species are greatly increased if one knows where to look 
for it. 

The blooming of plants, shrubs and trees and the advance of vegetation 
in general, together with the appearance of various forms of insect life, 
calling of hylas, etc., should all be recorded. 

The record of each species of bird should show its date of arrival, with 
the number and, if possible, sex of the individuals observed, if migrating 
singly, in scattered companies or in flocks. Succeeding records of the same 
species should be entered with as much detail as the first one, in order that 
the whole record may show the rise and fall of its migration. 

Try to observe closely the movements of the same birds — a certain 
flock of Robins, for example, which is found day after day near the same 
place, or an isolated Red-winged Blackbird or two, which appear to remain 
in some small marsh — with the object of learning whether the first individuals 
to come, among sunimer resident species, are the birds which nest with us, 
or those which continue their journey northward. 

Note the movements of winter birds — Juncos, Tree Sparrows, and 
others — indicating that their migration is under way. Do the winter resi- 
dent individuals of these species start before their ranks receive additions 
from the South? 

Observe the connection between the time of a bird's arrival and the 
character of its food; for example, water-fowl appearing when the ice breaks; 
Woodcock when frost leaves the ground and worms can be secured; Phcebes 
when aerial insects appear. 

At night listen for the calls of birds passing overhead as evidence of a 
general movement, or use a low-power telescope in the manner before 
described. 

By day note the extended migratory flights of such birds as Hawks, 
Crows, and other diurnal migrants. Are they dependent on the direction 
of the wind? Do they follow certain routes regularly? 

Observe also the more restricted movements of such night-fliers as 
Warblers and Vireos, which as they feed still move toward their goal. 

During the summer note the gathering of birds in flocks and the forma- 
tion of regularly frecun^nted roosts, as a first step in their southward migra- 
tion. Be on the lookout also for certain more southern species, which may 
wander northward after their breeding season has closed. 

Close observation is required to detect the arrival of the first Warblers, 
Vireos and Flycatchers from the North ; as well as to determine when our 
earlier departing summer residents leave us. 



REFERENCES 59 

When possible, the age of first comers from the North should be recorded ; 
but the plumage of adult and j'oung are now often alike, and a bird's age 
can be ascertained with exactness only bj^ dissection, the condition of the 
bones of the cranium furnishing one of the most dependable clues. 

References 

1836. Bachman, J., On the Migration of the Birds of North America, 
Sillim. Am. Journ. Sci., XXX, pp. 81-100. Reprinted in The Warbler II, 
1907, 24.— 1866. Baird, S. F., The Distribution and Migration of North 
American Birds, Am. Journ. Sci., XLI, pp. 78-90; 184-192, 339-347. — 1880 
Allen, J. A., Destruction of Birds by Lighthouses, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, V, 
pp, 131-138. — 1880. Allen, J. A., Origin of the Instinct of Migration in 
Birds, Ibid, 151-154. — 1881. Allen. J. A., The Migration of Birds. Scrib- 
ner's Mag., XXII, pp. 932-938.— 1881. Scott, W. E. D., Some Observa- 
tions on the Nocturnal IMigration of Birds, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, VI, pp. 
97-100. — 1884. DuTCHER, AV., Migration at L. I. Lighthouses, Auk, I, pp. 
174-179.— 1885. Merriam, C. H., Preliminary Rep. of the A. O. U. Comm. 
on Bird Migration, Auk, II, pp. 53-64. — 1886. Brewster, W., Bird Mi- 
gration, Mem. Nutt. Orn. Club, I, 22 pp.— 1888. Chapman, F. M., The 
Nocturnal Migration of Birds, Auk, V, pp. 37-39.— 1888. Cooke, W. W., 
Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley, Bull. 2, Biol. Surv., 313 pp. — 1889 
Stone, W., Graphic Representation of Bird Migration, Auk, VI, pp. 139-144. 
VIII, 1891, pp. 194-108.— 1892-1894. Loomis, L. M., Observations on Mi- 
gration in South Carolina, Auk, IX, pp. 28-39; XI, 1894, 26-39, 94-117.— 

1893. Mackl\y, G. H., Fly Lines, Auk, X, pp. 245-249.-1894. Chapman, 
F. M., Remarks on the Origin of Bird Migration, Auk, XI, pp. 12-17. — 

1894. Stone, W., Bird Migration in the Vicinity of Philadelphia, Birds E. 
Pa. and N. J., pp. 15-28.-1895. Bray, R. S., A Remarkable Flight of Birds, 
Nature, LII, p. 45. — 1895. .Jones, L., Bird Migration at Grinnell, la.. 
Auk, XII, pp. 117-1.34; 231-244.-1895-1900. Loomis, L. M., California 
Water Birds, Proc. Acad. Sci., 2d ser., V, pp. 177-224; VI, 1896, 1-30; 
353-366; 3d ser., 1900; 277-322; ,349-363.-1896. Allen, J. A., The Mi- 
gration of Birds, Papers Presented to the World's Congress of Ornithology 
pp. 31-38. — 1898. Stone, W., Methods of Recording and Using Bird 
Migration Data, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,Phila., pp. 128-156.-1899. Libby, 
O. G., The Nocturnal Flight of Migratory Birds, Auk, XVI, pp. 140-146.— 
1900. Reynaud, G., The Orientation of Birds, Bird-Lore, II, pp. 101-108; 
141-147.— 1901. Cole, L. J., Suggestions for a Method of Studying the 
Migration of Birds, 3d. Rop. Mich. Acad. Sci., pp. 67-70.— 1902. Winken- 
WERDER, H. A., The Migration of Birds with Special Reference to Nocturnal 
Flight, Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc, II, pp. 177-263.— 1903. Bonhote, J. L., 
Bird Migration at Some of the Bahama Lighthouses, Auk, XX, pp. 169-179. 
— 1903. Cooke, W. W., Some New Facts about the Migration of Birds, 
Yearbook, Dept. of Agric, pp. 371-386.-1904. Cooke, AV. W., Distribu- 
tion and Migration of N. A. Warblers, Bull. 18, Biol. Surv., 142 pp. See also 
pp. 14-20, Warblers of N. A., 1904. Cooke, W. W., The Effect of Altitude 
on Bird Migration, Auk, XXI, pp. 338-341.— 1904. Taverneu, P. A., A 
Discussion of the Origin of Migration, Auk, XXI, pp. 322-333. — 1905. 
Allen, J. A. (Review), Auk, XXII, pp. 325-328.— 1905. I^lshop, L. li., 
The Direction of Flight in the Fall Migration at New Haven, Conn., Auk, 
XXII, pp. 372-377.— 1905. Cooke, W. W., Routes of liird Migration, 

•Auk, XXII, pp. 1-11.-1906. Carpenter, F. W., An Astronomical Determi- 
nation of the HcMghts of Birds During Nocturnal Migration, Auk, XXI II, 
pp. 210-217.— 1906. Cooke, W. W., Distribution and Migration of N. A. 
Ducks, Geese, and Swans, Bull. 26. Biol. Surv., 90 pp. — 1906. Stebbins, 
J., A Method of Determining th(> Heights of Migrating Birds, Pop. Astron- 
omy, XIV, pp. 65-70. — 1906. Stone, W., Some Light on Night Migration, 
Auk, XXIII, pp. 249-2.52. Exceptionally interesting.— 1908. Cooke. W. W., 
Bird Migration in the District of Columbia, Proc. Biol. Soc, XXI, pp. 107- 



60 THE VOICE OF BIRDS 

118. — 1909. Watson, J. B., Some Experiments on Distant Orientation. 
Papers from the Tortugas Lab. of the Carnegie Inst., II, pp. 227-230. — 
1909. Wright, H. W., Birds of the Boston Public Garden. A Study in 
Migration, 229 pp. (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.). — 1910. Henshaw, H. W., 
Migration of the Pacific Plover to and from the Hawaiian Islands, Auk, 
XXVII, pp. 246-262.— 1911. Cooke, W. W., Our Greatest Travelers, Natl. 
Geog. Mag., XXII, pp. 346-365, 12 maps. 



The Voice of Birds 

Call-Notes 
Song 

The gift of song is the bird's most appealing and charming attribute; 
but, wholly aside from their esthetic importance, the notes of birds have 
an especial interest for every one who would attempt to interpret and 
ascertain their significance. The weird cries and enraptured warbles 
which are often so strangely expressive of nature itself and which so 
strongly appeal to the vd\d and primitive within us constitute, in truth, 
the language of birds, to understand which is to bring one to a new and 
intimate knowledge of bird-life. It is out of the question to present 
here anything like an adequate essay on the calls and songs of birds, 
but the subject is so attractive, and its investigation is so well within 
reach of the local or isolated student, that it must at least be treated 
in sufficient detail to suggest lines of study. 

Call-Notes. — The term call-notes is somewhat loosely applied to a 
great variety of bird utterances, including true call notes as well as 
notes or 'calls' of alarm, anger, etc. 

The student may first consider the origin of voice in birds, begin- 
ning with silent species, like the Man-o'-war-bird and Brown PeHcan 
(though the young of both are noisy enough), through others, like the 
Cormorant, Water-Turkey, or Black Vulture, which utter only the 
most rudimentary sounds, to those which have acquired an extended 
vocabulary, like the Crow or Jay. Then may follow a study of the calls 
of young birds. With altricial birds, which are reared in the nest, the 
hunger or food-call with which the returning parent is greeted is the 
most characteristic, and is common to such unlike birds as Thrushes 
and other Oscincs, Swifts, Pelicans and Herons, in fact, doubtless, to 
all birds which arc fed in the nest. 

On the other hand, with pra)cocial birds which follow the parent 
shortly after birth, what may be termed the 'lost' or 'location' call is 
the most important. Here the chick is quickly taught to feed itself, 
and its life depends chiefly on its ability to keep up with the flock and 
receive parental care and guidance. The peep of a chick or duckling 
will be readily recalled as a note of this kind. 

When threatened by danger, both altricial and praecocial young, as 
a rule, try to avoid observation by squatting and remaining motionless, 
but young Vultures hiss in the most curious manner; young Pelicans 



CALL -NOTES 61 

and young Boobies scream; young Man-o'-war-birds squeal and rattle 
their bills; and all three species strike at one most viciously. Possibly 
the size and snowy plumage of these young birds renders them so con- 
spicuous that they cannot expect to escape observation by remaining 
motionless, and therefore adopt a more direct and aggressive means 
of self-preservation. 

As the young bird develops, its range of calls increases until finally 
we have the full vocabulary of maturity. This varies widely with differ- 
ent species, and it may, I think, be truly said that no exhaustive study 
has as yet been made of the calls of a single species of wild bird. 

When the young bird is old enough to care for itself, the language 
of the nursery is forgotten, and the recognition call, by which individuals 
of the same species are brought together in flocks or companies, is 
doubtless its most valuable and most frequently employed vocal asset. 
This is particularly true with migratory species, whose oft-repeated 
notes, while winging their way through the night, serve to mark the 
line of flight and keep stragglers in line. The yink of the Bobolink, the 
liquid j)urt of the Olive-backed Thrush, the fine but far-carrying cheep 
of Warblers, are familiar illustrations. 

Calls of this nature, by which a bird simply announces its presence, 
together with those of alarm, are uttered by most birds, and it is probable 
that they constitute a common language, the significance of which is 
generally understood. That is, a migrating bird may be guided by the 
notes of other species, without necessarily knowing to what species 
the call it follows belongs, just as it will recognize as an alarm call the 
warning note of a bird of a different species, which has been the first 
to see and give notice of the presence of a Hawk or Owl or other form 
of danger. 

Crows, however, immediately recognize the hoot of a Barred Owl 
as such, and on hearing it at once utter a certain caw-caw which may 
be termed their 'rally call,' and which is so quickly responded to by 
other Crows that within a few minutes a throng of them has surrounded 
the cause of the disturbance. This example serves well to illustrate 
the difference between the common or characteristic call of a certain 
species, its simple "I am here" or "This is I," and others possessing a 
special significance. That the rally call of the Crow is clearly under- 
stood by all the Crows that hear it, no one will doubt who has observed 
its effect; while further attention to Crow caw^ will reveal a surprising 
variation in their character and the manner in which they arc uttered; 
all of which doubtless possesses an exact significance to Crows and 
may some day be intelligible to man. 

The Robin also supplies a familiar illustration of a bird possessing 
a wide variety of calls, each one of which has its own uKnming, and indeed 
one need go no further than the hen-yard to find opjiortunitics for the 
study of bird language and to be convinced of the i)ossibilities which 
may arise from close, sympathetic observation of this phase of the bird's 
life. 



62 SONG 

Each species will offer its own problem, but in every instance the 
greatest interest will center about the life of the nest, where the com- 
plex relations of parent with parent and of both "svith offspring, supply- 
occasions for the utterance of notes heard under no other conditions. 
Not the least interesting of these will be the warning calls by which the 
adult conveys to her inexperienced, or even blind, young, knowledge of 
a threatening danger, in the presence of which they must betray no 
sign of life. Perhaps no one case more strongly illustrates the impor- 
tance of a means of exact communication among birds, for failure to 
understand and obey may here be followed by death. 

Song. — As a rule, the songs of birds are uttered by the male alone 
and mainly or only during the nesting season. It is true that in rare 
cases the female sings; the female Cardinal and Rose-breasted Gros- 
beak, for example, sometimes sing to a limited extent, and the female 
of a certain tropical American Wren {Pheugopedius rutilus) sings a 
delightful duet with her mate. It is also true that some birds sing more 
or less throughout the year, while many have a short, second song- 
season after the postnuptial molt. But song in its full development, and 
with its real significance, is restricted to the nesting-season. It is, 
therefore, a secondary sexual character, an irrepressible manifesta- 
tion of the greatly increased vitality of the bird during the period of 
reproduction. 

The systematist classifies as Oscines, or true singing birds, those 
species which have the "syrinx with four or five distinct pairs of intrinsic 
muscles, inserted at ends of three upper bronchial half-rings and thus 
constituting a highly complex and effective musical apparatus" (Coues) ; 
but while this group contains the most gifted singers, it does not by any 
means contain all our song birds, many species having a less highly 
developed syrinx with fewer muscles, which are inserted into the middle, 
not the ends, of the bronchial half-rings, still being able to produce both 
pleasing and complex vocal sounds. Note, for example, the songs of 
certain Snipe and Plover or of Goatsuckers. On the other hand, some 
true Oscines, like Crows, Magpies, and Jays, with a highly developed 
vocal apparatus, are practically songless, while the Cactus Wren, a 
member of a family of noted songsters utters only harsh squawks. 

Song, therefore, is not restricted solely to the Oscines, but in a 
broad sense is the attribute of every species of birds which gives expres- 
sion to the emotions inspired by the nesting-period. The whistling of 
Grebes, the 'bleating' of Snipe, the 'booming' of Bitterns, the 'trumpet- 
ing' of Cranes, the 'whinny' of Soras or 'cooing' of Doves, the hooting 
of the Owls, are, therefore, types of songs, and we may even include 
here such mechanical forms of bird music as the 'drumming' of Grouse, 
tapping of Woodpeckers or 'booming' of Nighthawks. 

Through the exercise of these vocal and instrumental gifts, which so 
delightfully voice the joys and hopes of spring, the male bird rephes to 
the challenge in kind of a rival, and what is of far more importance, 
informs the female of his presence. 



SONG 63 

It does not follow that lie deliberately woos her in musical terms, 
since not only caged birds but those species in which the males arrive 
in advance of the female, sing with or without an audience. 

Recall, as example, a sohtary captive whose notes day after day, 
and possibly spring after spring, never arouse response from others of 
his species, or the more pleasing picture of a flock of male Redwings, 
chanting their gurgling chorus with no streaked female to hear them. 
Even when the flock has broken and its individuals have taken pos- 
session of their own special bit of marsh or swamp-land, they sing alone 
until their notes attract the later migrating females and the match is 
made. 

Attention is often called to the fact that the best songsters are dull 
in color, while brightly plumaged birds are poor singers, but the musical 
standard here adopted is wholly human, and so far as we know harsh 
tones may be just as effective in winning a mate as sweet ones. (See 
also, under Color.) 

While the main object of song is now accomplished, fortunately 
for the nature lover the singer continues to voice his passion during the 
period of nest-building, while his mate is incubating, and rarely (e. g. 
the Warbling Vireo and Rose-breasted Grosbeak) while he himself sits 
upon the nest. 

With the appearance of the young the song wanes, and with one- 
brooded species it now soon ceases, but the excess vitality possessed 
by those birds which rear a second brood is manifested also in their 
renewed vocal efforts, and their song season is prolonged to midsummer 
or early August. 

As has been said, many species have a second song-period, at the 
conclusion of the annual post breeding molt, but it lasts only for a few 
days and the song rarely reaches the fullness of springtime. As dimin- 
ishing vigor of the later nesting-season ceases to demand full expression, 
the song may decrease in volume and, at times, is uttered solto voce 
with closed bill, when, though perfect in form, it may be heard only at 
close range. 

The time of the day, as well as the time of the year in which a species 
sings, is also to be noted. Early morning and late afternoon are the 
periods of greatest activity in the bird's day, and it is then that most 
species are heard singing, but each species will be found to be more or 
less regular in regard to the time of its singing. Some l)ogin earlier and 
sing later, some sing more or less throughout the day, others only before 
sunrise and after sunset, others still by night as well as by day. 

. In recording a bird's biography one should also learn the duration 
of the song itself, noting whether it is a short, definite effort, like, for 
example, that of the Meadowlark or House Wren, or a more or less 
continuous performance like that of the Red-eyed Vireo, Mockingbird 
or Robin. Nothing so stimulates song as song, and the frequency of 
song in its relation to the abundance of the spc^cies should be observed. 
The partial or complete cessation of song during periods of cold or 



64 SONG 

inclement weather will further illustrate the connection between song 
and the bird's physical condition. 

Singing usually claims all a bird's attention. Some birds, it is true, 
like the Red-eyed Vireo or Black and White Warbler, sing as they work, 
but in most instances the bird seeks a point of vantage from which to 
deliver his message. The Bro"\^Ti Thrasher mounts to the topmost 
twig of the tallest tree, the Mocker often takes his stand on a chimney, 
Bob-white mounts to a fence-post, while most of the song birds of 
prairie and plain, like the Horned Larks, Pipits, Longspurs and Lark 
Bunting, for lack of other perch, dehver their songs from the air. 

Other birds, like the Bobolink and Rose-breasted Grosbeak, sing 
while flying as well as while perching, and observation will show that 
each species of bird has a more or less well-defined taste in the selection 
of its song-perch. 

The flight-song of birds inhabiting treeless regions must not be con- 
fused with the exceptional and infrequent flight — or ecstasy — song of 
certain birds, Hke the Ovenbird, Water-Thrushes^ and Maryland 
Yellow-throat, which usually sing from a perch, but which, on occasion, 
bound into the air, rising only a few feet in the case of the Yellow- 
throat, but a hundred or more ^ath the Seiuri, and on trembling wing 
utter a hurried, ecstatic outbiu-st of twittering notes wholly unlike their 
normal song. The Meadowlark has such a flight-song, but in my ex- 
perience the bird of the plains {Sturnella neglecta) utters it far more 
frequently than does our eastern Sturnella magna, a variation possibly 
due to the difference in the nature of their haunts. 

A further study of Meadowlark songs opens the subject of geograph- 
ical variation in the songs of the same species. Its widely different 
song is one of the Western Meadowlark's best claims to specific dis- 
tinctness from the eastern bird, but even among the slightly differ- 
entiated forms of Sturnella magna, there are striking variations in voice. 
The songs of some Florida Meadowlarks are scarcely recognizable to 
one familiar only with the Meadowlark in the north, while the Meadow- 
lark of Cuba would not be known to him by its notes. 

The 'musical' ear '^dll detect more or less pronounced variations 
in the voices of other widelj^ distributed species, as they are heard in 
the various parts of their range, and, in addition to this geographical 
variation, a variation with age may be detected. This is ob^dous enough 
with species Hke the Song Sparrow, the young of which, while still 
wearing in whole or part their nestling plumage, sing an evidently 
immature song; and is still apparent with birds like the Orchard Oriole 
or Indigo Bunting, whose first spring plumage betrays their age and 
explains why their songs are less finished, less developed than those of 
the adults of their kind. 

Birds inherit at least the calls they utter when in the nest, just as 
a child cries instinctively, but they apparently do not inherit their 
songs any more than the child inherits the language of its parents, and 
in many recorded instances they have learned the notes of the birds 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT 65 

within sound of whose voices they have been reared. There are, for 
example, a number of cases in which young House or Enghsh Sparrows 
when reared with Canaries have learned the Canary's song. Two 
Baltimore Orioles, reared by W. E. D. Scott ('04) apart from all other 
birds, developed a song of their own which was wholly unhke that of 
their species, and this song was learned by four other Baltimore Orioles 
which were subsequently reared in the companionship of the first two. 

It is this strong tendency to imitate which has given rise to the 
theory of the mimetic origin of bird song, and which is no doubt largely 
responsible for much of the individual variation so prevalent in birds' 
songs. There is, for example, a Maryland Yellow-throat now (May, 
1910) living near my home, the first half of whose song is that of the 
Yellow Warbler, while the remainder resembles that of its own species, 
evidence that the inherent predisposition toward the acquisition of the 
song of its ancestors was not sufficiently strong to prevent its song from 
being modified by the notes of another species. 

It would be interesting to determine just when this presumably 
inherent tendency is active. Is the nestling unconsciously influenced by 
the song of its parent during the period of its infancy? Single-brooded 
birds may not hear the song of their species from the time they leave 
the nest until the following spring song again announces the opening 
of the nesting-season. It seems probable, therefore, that their song is 
acquired during the formative period of immaturity and before they 
come into contact with other species whose notes their strong mimetic 
gifts might lead them to adopt as their own, as doubtless did the Mary- 
land Yellow-throat mentioned above. 

With some species the tendency to imitate is functional long after 
it has served its universal purpose of giving them the notes character- 
istic of their species. Among our birds the Mockingbird takes first 
rank as a mimic, and L. M. Loomis tells me of one with a repertoire 
containing no less than thirty-two songs of other species of birds; but 
on the other hand some Mockingbirds sing only their own song. The 
Catbird, White-eyed Vireo, Blue Jay and introduced Starling are also 
to be numbered among the mimics. 

Suggestions for the Student 

What North American birds are voiceless? Which possess rudimentary 
voices? Trace the development of voice. Define the difference between 
call-notes and song. Note the development of call-notes in the young of 
praecocial birds; of altricial birds. Interpret, as far as possible, the call-notes 
of certain species. Give illustrations of different types of anger calls (e. g. 
spitting of brooding Chickadee, snapping of bill by Screech Owl, hiss of 
Duck, etc.); of alarm notes; of scolding notes. How are call-notes used 
by migrating birds? Do birds understand the call-notes of other than their 
own species? Do the young understand the notes of their parents? What 
relation exists between voice and character (e. g. scream of Hawk, coo of 
Dove)? Define Oscines. Give instances of song in non-Oscines; in the 
female. Define the song season. What species have been heard singing in 
the fall or winter? What is the relation between song and the advance of 



66 THE NESTING SEASON 

the nesting-season? Among single-brooded species? Among double-brooded 
species? Mention types of mechanical and other forms of bird music. 
What is the function of song? What are the earliest and latest dates on 
which certain species have been heard singing? What species arrive in 
song? What is the relation between song and the color of a bird's plumage? 
What birds sing sotto voce? Note the hours at which certain birds sing. 
What relation exists between the song-perch, haunt and habit (terrestrial 
or arboreal)? What birds sing at night? What birds sing on the wing or 
have a true flight-song? Give instances of individual variation in song; 
of variation with age; of geographical variation. Do young birds sing 
their first fall? Do birds inherit the call-notes and songs? When does the 
young bird acquire its song? Give instances of mimicry in birds. 

References 

1871. Darwin, C, The Descent of Man.— 1884-5. Bicknell, E. P., 
A Study of the Singing of Our Birds, The Auk, I, pp. 60-71, 126-140, 209- 
218, 322-332; II, pp. 144-154, 249-262.— 1889. Rhoads, S. N., The Mimetic 
Origin and Development of Bird Language, Am. Nat. XXIII, pp. 91-102. — 

1895. Shaler, N. S., Domesticated Animals, 155 pp, 8vo., (Scribner's). — 

1896. WiTCHELL, C. A., The Evolution of Bird-Song, lOmo., 253 pp., 
(Black, London). — 1901. Scott, W. E. D., Data on Song in Birds, Science, 
N. S., XIV, p. 522.-1904. Mathews, F. S., Field Book of Wild Birds and 
Their Music, 16mo., 262 pp., illus., (Putnam's).— 1904. Scott, W. E. D., 
Inheritance of Song in Passerine Birds, Science, N. S., XIX, p. 154; XX, p. 
282. — 1908. Craig, W., The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of 
Social Control, Am. Journ. Sociology, XIV, pp. 86-100. 

The Nesting Season 

Date The Egg, continued 

Number of Broods Colors 

Courtship Shape 

The Nest Variations 

Enemies of Nesting Birds Incubation 
Nesting-site The Young Bird 

Material Condition at Birth 

Construction Food 

Character of the Nest Nest Sanitation 

Inheritance Defence of the Young 

Parasitism Voice 

The Egg Nest Exercises 

Number Laid Fear 

Size Flight 

Date. — Why should a bird build its nest at a certain time of the 
year? Some variation in nesting dates, it is true, is shown by all birds, 
but this does not affect the truth of the statement that most species 
have a definite nesting season. 

In a general way it may be answered that the nesting period, as a 
whole, is determined by those chmatic changes, which, independent 
of latitude, divide the year into seasons. In the extreme north, where it 
is possible for birds to nest only during a small portion of the year, the 



NESTING DATE 67 

relation between nesting time and season is obvious enough. But in the 
south, so far as climate is concerned, birds might rear their young any 
month in the year; nevertheless, even in the tropics most species 
appear to have a more or less well-defined nesting-season. 

So we look for a deeper reason why there should be this regular, 
annual, nesting period, and we apparently find it in the bird itself. In 
the bird-world as in the plant-world there exist cycles of physiological 
development. The tree buds, leaves, blossoms, fruits, loses its foliage 
and rests ; then, all in due time, the same events are repeated in proper 
order. Thus the bird migrates (if it be migratory), mates, builds its 
nest, lays its eggs, incubates, rears its young, molts, and retreats to 
winter quarters. There are exceptions to this program, as where a 
bird raises more than one brood, or has more than one molt, but they 
are only the results of variations in the underlying physiological pro- 
cesses which, through a regular series of events, prepare the bird for 
the nesting season. 

Insect-, seed- or fruit-eating birds require an abundant supply of 
food during the nesting-season, when, within a comparatively limited 
area, they must find sustenance for their young as well as for themselves. 
Now while it is true that in the tropics food is to be had throughout 
the year, it is far more abundant and varied during the spring or early 
summer. There, with the coming of rains, the trees renew their foliage, 
then insects become more numerous, and coincidentally the instincts of 
the nesting-season become active in birds. 

Confining our attention to our own birds, we observe that some 
species nest early and some late in the nesting-season. Why is this? 
The character of the food of the young is the most obvious cause 
determining the exact date of a bird's nesting. Hence those birds of 
prey which feed their offspring on mammals or birds are the first 
birds to nest, while those birds that rear their brood on insects or fruit 
nest later. 

But is not a bird's nesting-time also dependent on whether it be 
migratory or resident? This is a difficult question to answer, since it is 
by no means easy to determine whether or not a species is resident, 
in the strict sense of the word. Among resident species of not dissimilar 
feeding habits, there is often much difference in nesting dates. The 
White-breasted Nuthatch near New York City, for instance, nests in 
the middle of April, while the Downy Woodpecker waits until a month 
later. The Bluebird nests in the first half of April, the Cedar Waxwing 
the latter half of June. Possibly a study of the food of their young may 
explain this difference in dates. 

' Some migratory birds which arrive at about the same time also 
nest on widely different dates. Robins and Red-winged Blackbirds, 
for instance, reach New York City in late February or early March, 
but the Robin nests nearly a month earlier than the Redwing. Haunts 
may here exert some influence. The early nesting Robins find favorable 
sites in evergreens, long before the vegetation in the marshes the Red- 
7 



68 NUMBER OF BROODS 

wings frequent affords concealment for their nests. The Woodcock, 
on the other hand, nests shortly after its arrival; possibly because a 
site is at once available. 

Consequentl}^, in addition to those physiological factors which 
induce an annual nesting-season as one of the phenomena in the cycle 
of the bird's year, the exact date of a bird's nesting appears to be 
governed by (1) the nature of the food of its young; (2) whether it 
is resident or migratory, though this remains to be determined; and 
(3) the condition of its nesting haunts. To these will doubtless be 
added other causes, as we become more intimate with the facts involved. 

Number of Broods. — Why do some birds raise only one brood and 
others two or even three? We should look for a partial answer to this 
question in the length of time required by a species to rear a brood. If 
the period from the beginning of the nest-building to the date when the 
resulting young are able to care for themselves is so short that the 
parents are still in the physiological condition incident to reproduction, 
a second family may be expected, and under similar circumstances a 
third may follow. The eggs of the English Sparrow hatch in about 
twelve days, the young remain in the nest only about a week, and the 
species is reported to have reared six broods in a season near New York 
City, but this number is doubtless exceptional. Robins' eggs hatch in 
thirteen days; the young leave the nest when about two weeks old, 
and the species raises two or even three broods. But the eggs of Fish 
Hawks, for example, require four weeks' incubation; the young do not 
fly until about six weeks old, and the species is one-brooded. These 
facts, however, fail to explain why many birds in which the periods of 
incubation and rearing of the young are quite as short as those of the 
Robin, should have only one brood. The time of a bird's arrival on 
the nesting-ground doubtless has some bearing on the question, and we 
should also take into account the time of return to its winter haunts, 
without in the least being able to say why it should come and go at a 
certain time. Still, among permanent residents and migrants, which 
arrive and depart at about the same season, some are single-brooded 
while others raise two or even three broods. For instance, of the former, 
the Song Sparrow rears two and on occasions, three broods, while the 
Chickadee has but one. Here size of the brood may be a factor. Among 
migrants, the Robin is two- or rarely three-brooded, while the Purple 
Grackle, which comes just as early and remains nearly as long, is one- 
brooded. Possibly there are here temperamental differences not to be 
explained by observable influences. 

The question, not infrequently asked, whether any of our migrant 
birds nest in their winter homes, makes it necessary to add that a bird 
has only one nesting-season, and with those species which rear more 
than one brood there is no appreciable interval of rest between the first 
and succeeding broods. 

A table of dates showing when one may expect to find full sets of 
birds' eggs of the first laying near New York City is appended: 



NESTING DATES 



69 



Feb. 28. 


Great Horned Owl. 


May 17. 


Wood Thrush. 


Mar. 12. 


Barred Owl. 


18. 


Red-winged Blackbird. 


28. 


Carolina Wren. 


18. 


Black and White Warbler 


30. 


Duck Hawk. 


18. 


House Wren. 


Apl. 1. 


Woodcock. 


19. 


Tree Swallow. 


3. 


Red-shouldered Hawk. 


19. 


Bank Swallow. 


3. 


Screech Owl. 


19. 


Chickadee. 


6. 


Red-tailed Hawk. 


20. 


Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 


9. 


American Crow. 


20. 


Worm-eating Warbler. 


9. 


Long-eared Owl. 


20. 


Oven-bird. 


10. 


Bluebird. 


20. 


Veery. 


17. 


White-breasted Nuthatch. 


21. 


Sharp-shinned Hawk. 


18. 


Broad-winged Hawk. 


21. 


Downy Woodpecker. 


20. 


Robin. 


21. 


Least Flycatcher. 


25. 


Mourning Dove. 


22. 


Northern Parula Warbler. 


25. 


Purple Grackle. 


23. 


Hairy Woodpecker. 


28. 


Phoebe. 


23. 


Chat. 


29. 


Song Sparrow. 


24. 


Spotted Sandpiper. 


May 1. 


Black-crowned Night 


25. 


Chimney Swift. 




Heron. 


25. 


Baltimore Oriole. 


1. 


Cooper's Hawk. 


25. 


Purple Martin. 


1. 


Kingfisher. 


25. 


White-eyed Vireo. 


2. 


Osprey. 


25. 


Maryland Yellow-throat. 


3. 


Cardinal. 


26. 


Bob-white. 


5. 


Cowbird. 


26. 


Marsh Hawk. 


6. 


Wood Duck. 


28. 


Grasshopper Sparrow. 


6. 


Green Heron. 


28. 


Red-eyed Vireo. 


7. 


Flicker. 


28. 


Yellow-throated Vireo. 


8. 


Barn Swallow. 


29. 


Black-billed Cuckoo. 


10. 


Clapper Rail. 


29. 


Kingbird. 


10. 


Ruffed Grouse. 


29. 


Bobolink. 


10. 


Sparrow Hawk. 


29. 


Indigo Bunting. 


10. 


Vesper Sparrow. 


29. 


Chestnut-sided Warbler. 


11. 


Louisiana Water-Thrush. 


30. 


Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 


12. 


Ruby-throated Humming- 


30. 


Orchard Oriole. 




bird. 


30. 


Seaside Sparrow. 


13. 


Red-headed Woodpecker. 


30. 


Sharp-tailed Sparrow. 


14. 


Acadian Flycatcher. 


30. 


Rough-winged Swallow. 


14. 


Blue Jay. 


30. 


Cliff Swallow. 


14. 


Chipping Sparrow. 


30. 


Warbling Vireo. 


14. 


Towhee. 


31. 


Long-billed Marsh Wren. 


15. 


Virginia Rail. 


31. 


Least Bittern. 


15. 


Meadowlark. 


June 1. 


Nighthawk. 


15. 


Field Sparrow. 


1. 


Kentucky Warbler. 


15. 


Swamp Sparrow. 


3. 


Whip-pof)r-will. 


15. 


Hooded Warbler. 


3. 


Crested Flycatcher. 


16. 


Blue-winged Warbler. 


3. 


Scarlet Tanager. 


16. 


Brown Thrasher. 


5. 


Wood Pewee. 


17. 


Fish Crow. 


7. 


Short-billed Marsh Wren. 


17. 


Redstart. 


19. 


Cedar Waxwing. 


17. 


Catbird. 


20. 


American Goldfinch. 



70 COURTSHIP 

Courtship. — The first evidence of the near approach of the nesting- 
season among birds is furnished by the phenomena of courtship. Chief 
among these are song and the sounds produced in various ways which 
take the place of song; display of plumage, fighting, dancing, and other 
often remarkable activities through which birds give vent to their 
emotions at this period of maximum vitality. As a rule, these vocal or 
physical exhibitions are given by the male; and the question at issue is, 
are they simply expressions of irrepressible vigor or are they designed 
to attract the attention or stimulate the interest of the female and thus 
aid the bird to win a mate. 

The function of song is discussed in another chapter, but in fighting 
for a mate, action and cause are so closely connected that the develop- 
ment of spurs, for instance, is generally considered a result of that 
form of natural selection which awards success to the strongest, best- 
armed fighter and enables it to transmit its own desirable characters to 
its offspring. This matter is, however, primarily to be settled by the 
males. Two or more males meet, battle, and the victor gets the prize 
of a mate; but has this mate any voice in the matter? In those more 
peaceful contests where rival males attempt to outdo one another 
through display of plumage or violent actions, it is even more difiicult 
to decide to what extent the female is influenced, but it seems probable 
that there is less actual selection than passive acceptance on her part 
of the male which is most active in battle or display. 

It is much less difficult to make observations in this field than to 
interpret them. What, for example, is the significance of the squabbles, 
struttings and irrepressible vociferousness of the English Sparrow when 
courting? 

Most of our birds are monogamous and doubtless take a new mate 
for each nesting season ; but some of the larger birds, notably among the 
Hawks and Owls, are known to be more constant and are believed to be 
mated for life. In either case, however, the mate, if lost, is usually 
soon replaced, at least in the earlier stages of the nesting-season. 

Exceptions to the rule of monogamy are shown by the Anis (Croto- 
phaga) which are communistic, and by certain species which are polyg- 
amous. The Anis live in small flocks throughout the year. The 
females lay in a common nest and all share the family duties. 

Among our North American birds the Wild Turkey is polygamous, 
though all association with the female ceases after incubation begins, 
while the male of the Prairie Hen and of some other members of the 
Grouse family are said to have more than one mate. The Great-tailed 
Grackle in Mexico has, at least, as many as five or six wives, and our 
Red-winged Blackbird has been suspected of Mormonism. 

The males of our Cowbirds are believed to outnumber the females, 
and as this parasitic species apparently never pairs, its sexual relations 
may be described as representing a kind of promiscuous polygamy. 



THE NEST 71 

The Nest 

Enemies of Nesting Birds. — It will add to our appreciation of a 
bird's resources and most assuredly to our sympathy with birds, if 
before discussing their nesting habits we merely mention some of the 
enemies and dangers which threaten birds at this season. These are 
of two kinds; first, the elements; second, predatory animals including 
parasites. High winds, heavy rains, prolonged wet or cool periods and 
hail-storms are among the weather phenomena often fatal to the life 
of the nest; while chief among the animals that prey upon the eggs or 
young of our birds, are Crows, Jays, Grackles, cats, squirrels, opossums, 
minks, weasels, skunks, snakes, and man, who either directly, as an 
egg collector for the table or cabinet, or indirectly, in mowing fields, 
clearing hedgerows and in other ways, has won a prominent place among 
the enemies of nest-life. 

With such an array of adverse conditions and relentless foes, the 
bird which reaches maturity may be said to have escaped nine-tenths 
of the dangers to which bird-flesh is heir. One realizes, therefore, how 
important it is for birds to select a site, build a nest, and care for their 
young in a way which has proved to be most desirable for their species ; 
and how readily imperfect inheritance of the proper activities or in- 
ability to conform to new conditions may mean failure to rear a brood, 
and in the end extinction of the species. 

Nesting Site. — The nature of a bird's nesting site appears to be 
determined by (1) the necessity for protection; (2) condition of the 
young at birth; (3) temperament, whether social or solitary; (4) 
habit, whether arboreal, terrestrial or aquatic; (5) haunt, whether in 
woodland, field, marsh, etc. 

Protection may be secured by hiding the nest, by placing it in more 
or less inaccessible situations in trees or on cliffs, or by frequenting some 
isolated islet uninhabited by predatory animals. As I have elsewhere 
said ("Camps and Cruises of an Ornithologist," pp. 35-37), "So far as my 
experience goes, all colonial ground-nesting birds breed only on islands." 
Auks, Murres, Skimmers, Petrels, Tropic Birds, Gannets, Cormo- 
rants, Pelicans and Flamingoes are examples among North American 
birds, with which Bank Swallows appear to be the only exception. It 
is less to their terrestrial habit than to their gregariousness that we must 
attribute the necessity of an island home for these birds. When nesting, 
all the individuals of a given species, which at other seasons arc scat- 
tered over a wide area, are focused in a small space. To find one nest 
is to find all, and to a large degree the fortune of one nest is also the 
fate of its neighbor. 

Even when arboreal, colonial birds like Herons, Spoonbills, Anhingas, 
and Cormorants usually breed in trees growing in water and which are 
thus insulated. The birds just mentioned are all exceptions to the rule 
that terrestrial feeding birds usually nest on the ground, while arboreal 
feeders nest in trees. But here the condition of the young at birth exerts 



72 NESTING SITE 

an influence. The young of Herons, Spoonbills, Anhingas, Cormorants 
and Ibises are altricial, hence require the protection of a more or less 
inaccessible nest during the comparatively long period they are con- 
fined to it. On the other hand, the Whip-poor-will is, in feeding habit, 
a bird of the air, but the eggs are laid on the ground, the prajcocial 
young apparently not requiring the shelter of a nest. 

Exceptions to the rule that exclusively terrestrial feeding birds 
usually nest upon the ground have already been referred to under 
Herons, Ibises, Spoonbills, etc., whose gregariousness in connection 
with the condition of the young at birth evidently demands an arboreal 
site; but the reasons why such terrestrial birds as the Quail and Grouse, 
Snipe and Plover or the Loons and Grebes nest on the ground are 
obvious. It is equally to be expected that birds, like the Catbird, which 
live among bushes, should nest among them, and that arboreal species, 
like Tanagers, should nest in trees, though we shall always find inter- 
esting variations or departures from the normal; as, for example, the 
nesting of the Solitary Sandpiper in the old homes of such arboreal 
species as the Robin, or of the Wood Duck and Golden-eye in trees, 
while such purely individual variations as a Wild Goose occupying a 
Fish Hawk's nest or a Mallard laying in a Rough-leg's nest, occur 
without number. 

It is to be expected, too, that the character of a bird's haunts should 
be reflected in its nesting-site, and as a result we have some most inter- 
esting variations in site among birds of the same family but which live 
in unlike haunts. Many Hawks, for example, are wood-dwellers, and 
the ideal Hawk's nest is placed in a tree; but the Marsh Hawk lives in 
treeless areas and nests upon the ground. So the Burrowing Owl of 
the prairies nests in holes in the ground ; while the forest-haunting mem- 
bers of its family usually select hollow trees. Consequently it follows 
that when there is a marked difference in the range of the same species 
there is apt to be a corresponding variation in the nature of its nesting- 
site. The Red-winged Blackbirds living in reedy marshes weave their 
nests to the reed-stems, while those Redwings of the adjoining alder 
growths place their nests in alder bushes. Mourning Doves nest in 
trees in the East, and on the ground in treeless areas of the West. Night 
Herons, which in the East may build seventy or eighty feet from the 
ground, in the West build at water-level among reeds. Even more 
surprising is it to find the Great Blue Heron in treeless areas nesting on 
the bare ground or on rocks, rarely, or never, however, using a terres- 
trial site except upon islands. While many birds show little or no varia- 
tion in the character of their nesting-sites, others place their nests in 
many and widely different situations, even under the same conditions. 
Robins, for example, aside from nesting in trees at varying heights, 
place their nests on window-sills, in arbors, summer-houses or barns, 
on fence-rails, etc., and in cases of this kind it is interesting to learn 
the fate of those nests which in site depart from the prevailing type. 

Civilization, which while it has added the cat to the Robin's enemies, 



NESTING SITE 73 

has also decreased the number of its natural foes, is no doubt respon- 
sible for much of this variation; few of our native birds have so pros- 
pered through the change from forest to farm; though even more 
marked departure from feral nesting habit has been shown by the 
Chimney Swift, Barn and Cliif Swallows, Martin, House Wren and 
Bluebird; not to mention the irrepressible English Sparrow. Herring 
Gulls, on the same islet, build in trees as well as on the ground, and as 
Dutcher and Baily have shown, the tree nests have a solid foundation 
of sticks and twigs which is lacking in those nests built on the ground. 
{The Auk, XX, 1903, p. 419.) 

On Gardiner's Island, where there are no predatory mammals, and, 
with the exception of Crows, practically no enemies of nesting birds, 
Robins build their nests in almost any situation, even on the ground, 
with apparently equal chances of rearing their young. Here too Fish 
Hawks nest, not only in trees, but also in the most exposed situations 
on the beach; and because of the protection afforded by an insular 
home, their eggs and young are as safe as those of the tree-nesting in- 
dividuals of their kind. 

As I have elsewhere said ("Camps and Cruises," p. 37, also pp. 38-61 ; 
and Bird-Lore, V, 1903, p. 59), it is not probable that in instances of 
this kind certain birds have with deliberate intent abandoned the 
customs of their species, but the tendency to vary, being unchecked, 
finds tangible expression under conditions where new habits may be 
successfully formed. Doubtless the same tendency exists in the Fish 
Hawks nesting on the mainland; but there the struggle for existence 
is so much more intense that any wide departure from the standard 
may be attended by disastrous results. Environment is thus the mold 
in which habit is cast. 

Through these generalizations we come to the more practical, 
definite side of the question of nesting-site, and ask which sex selects 
it. With some species it is known to be the female, with others the 
male, and with others still the situation must evidently be satisfactory to 
them both; but exact observations on this subject are few. 

More difficult it will be to learn whether the same individual occu- 
pies the same site and even the same nest season after season. Fish 
Hawks and birds which return (to the same islet year after year 
are known to do this, and the habit is probably common to many 
species. Doubtless the present-day practice of banding birds with 
numbered metal tags will, in time, yield much valuable information in 
this field. 

With birds which have more than one brood in a season, a new nest 
is usually built. It is then of interest to compare its site with that chosen 
for the earlier nest, to ascertain how much variation in site-selection 
the same individuals may exhibit. 

Material. — The material of which a bird builds its nest depends 
in most cases upon the nature of the bird's haunts. The nests of marsh- 
haunting birds are usually made of reeds or woven of wet marsh grasses; 



74 MATERIAL 

woodland birds generally employ twigs, rootlets, bark, leaves, mosses, 
etc., while field-inhabiting species, as a rule, use chiefly dried grasses. 
It follows, therefore, that a change in the nature of a bird's haunts 
often causes more or less variation in the character of its nesting mate- 
rial. In the North, for example, the Acadian Flycatcher builds its nest 
of plant-stems, grasses, and dried blossoms, but in Florida it uses the 
Spanish or Tillandsia 'moss,' a material, by the way, which enters into 
the nests of many birds. In the East, Night Herons, building in trees, 
use sticks; in the West, where they nest in marshes, the nest is composed 
of reeds. There are many similar instances. 

A familiar case of local variation, due to change in environment, 
is furnished by the Baltimore Oriole, which gathers string, worsteds, 
etc., in place of plant fibers; and experimenters have tried to determine 
the bird's choice of colors by supplying it with worsteds of varied hues, 
without, however, other result than a demonstration of range in choice 
among different individuals, since some selected gay and others dull 
colors. 

The use by birds of rags, paper, horse-hair, etc., also clearlj^ illus- 
trates the influence of civilization on the bird's selection of material 
with which to build- a nest. 

The necessity for concealment is, in some cases, a potent influence 
in the choice of nesting material. What is generally spoken of as 'nest 
decoration,' if it have any significance, is assuredly not designed to 
make the nest conspicuous through display, but inconspicuous by 
matching it with its surroundings. The lichen-covered nests of the 
Wood Pewee, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, and Hummingbird are examples 
of this class. 

The Great-crested Flycatcher introduces a bit of cast-ofT snake- 
skin into its nest, it has been said, to serve the purpose of a scare-crow. 
The explanation is important if true but lacks evidence to support it. 

The student should try to observe the methods employed by birds 
in gathering and carrying the material for their nests, noting, for 
example, Robins, Barn and Eave Swallows picking up billfuls of mud, 
a Chimney Swift breaking off dead twigs with bill or feet, a Humming- 
bird collecting lichens from a tree-trunk, an Oriole tugging at a plant 
fiber, etc. 

Construction. — Then follows a study of nest-construction, from the 
simple method of the Skimmer which bj^ squatting low and turning 
around again and again hollows a nest in the sand, to the more complex 
activities of Swallows, Swifts and Orioles, which respectively exhibit 
the arts of the mason, joiner and weaver. Herrick's detailed and, so far 
as I am aware, unique study of a pair of Robins while nest-building, 
should be road in this connection. The work may be performed by one 
or both sexes. In the former case the female is usually the builder when 
the male may assist by bringing material. The nest may be completed 
in a day and occupied at once, or a longer time may be required and it 
may apparently be deserted for days after its completion. The weather, 



Plate II 




Well-formed Nest of Red-winged Blackbird — an Altricial Species 
Englewood, N. J. 




Simple Nest of PHEA^A^rT (Phasiamis) — a Pr^cocial Species 
Gardiner's Island, L. I. 



CHARACTER OF THE NEST 75 

particularly if the temperature is much below the average, is a factor 
here. In some species, notably the Long-billed Marsh Wren, the nest- 
building instinct does not seem to be satisfied by the maldng of a single 
structure, and the male continues his work after the female is sitting, 
building one or more additional homes in which possibly he may sleep, 
and which are sometimes called 'cock-nests.' 

Character of the Nest. — From an architectural point of view, nests 
may differ greatly even when the material of which they are composed 
is the same. The tools (bill and feet) with which a bird is provided do 
not often bear any relation to the character of the home their owner 
builds. A Swallow, it is true, could not construct a Woodpecker's 
dwelling; but a momentary comparison of the widely different kinds 
of nests built by various species of Swallows and Swifts (which so far 
as nesting tools are concerned may be classed with Swallows), readily 
shows how little the structure of the bird has to do with nest archi- 
tecture. 

Most of the causes determining the nature of site and material 
are also more or less active in shaping the nest itself, but of them all 
by far the most important is the condition of the young bird at birth. 
Indeed in considering this question we are brought very near to an 
inquiry concerning the origin of birds' nests. 

As regards their condition when leaving the egg, birds may be 
roughly classified in two groups: First, those which leave the nest shortly 
after hatching; second, those which are reared in the nest. Birds of 
the first class are termed praecocial; those of the second, altricial. Com- 
pare the newly hatched young of a Grouse and a Robin and we have 
two excellent examples of praecocialism and altricialism ; while a further 
comparison of the Grouse's simple bed of leaves with the Robin's 
firm, deep cup of mud and grasses equally well illustrates the difference 
in the nests of praecocial and altricial birds. The former serve only to 
hold the egg°, the latter perform not only this function but must also 
house the young during their period of helplessness. 

The significance of the condition of the young at birth is doubtless 
far-reaching, but unfortunately, it is not as yet understood. It appears 
that most of the older or lower forms of birds — that is, those which 
most closely approach the reptilian types, whence it is believed birds 
have descended — arc priccocial. On the other hand, all the higher 
birds, that is those farthest removed from reptilian ancestors, are 
altricial. For example, among North American birds the Grebes, 
Loons, Gulls, Terns, Ducks, Rail, Coots, Snipe, Plover, Quail, and 
Grouse, are praecocial, and build, as a rule, nests of the most rudimen- 
tary kind, while the great group of Perching Birds (Passcrcs), con- 
taining half the known birds, arc altricial, and all build more or less 
complex nests. 

It is possible, therefore, that as altricialism has been evolved from 
prsecocialism, so the type of nest has changed, keeping pace with the 
demands which the young birds make upon it. There are, however, 



76 INHERITANCE 

some exceptional cases of birds, like Pelicans, Water-Turkeys, and 
Cormorants, which, while low in the evolutionary scale, have altricial 
young, and in consequence build well-formed, complex nests. TJie 
Noddy Tern, sole tree nest-builder of its group, usually constructs in 
bushes a nest of sufficient strength to harbor the young for two 
months. (Thompson, Bird-Lore, V, 1903, p. 81.) 

Other low types of altricial birds secure shelter for their helpless 
young without actually building a nest, but by using a natural cavity 
in tree or cliff, or by making a burrow, and we doubtless have here a 
primitive type of bird home. 

It is impracticable to go into further detail here, but the study of 
birds' nests may be indefinitely extended by taking up certain species 
of birds and considering their nesting-habits in the hght of what appears 
in this chapter. 

Inheritance. — There is no reason to doubt that nest-building is 
as much an instinctive activity with birds as it is with bees or wasps. 
Some writers would have us believe that the young bird in the nest 
makes mental notes of its surroundings for use the following spring; 
but even man himself could not tell how certain birds' nests were built 
merely by looking at them. The young bird, therefore, builds its first 
nest without ever having seen one made and with no other experience 
with nests than is implied by having lived in one. 

There can be no question that the impulse to build is as much the 
result of a physiological prompting as the impulse to mate which pre- 
cedes it, or the impulse to lay which follows it. Inherited habit directs 
the impulse in normal channels and, allowing for the range of individ- 
uality present in a greater or less degree in all birds, the bird, in its 
proper environment, selects a site and constructs a home after the man- 
ner of its species. When, however, the environment is changed and new 
conditions of site or material are introduced, the nest-building impulse, 
unchecked, and inevitably demanding an outlet, finds expression through 
new media. Possibly it is governed to some extent by intelhgence, but 
any departure from type is usually an experiment, and the progressive 
individual pays the price or gains the reward of the pioneer by dire 
failure on the one hand, or exceptional success on the other. 

It is not unusual to observe evidences of sexual activity among 
birds in the fall — a mere reflection of the instincts of the nesting 
season — and among them is what might be called 'play' at site-hunt- 
ing and material gathering. So I have seen Tree Swallows, in August, 
investigate the openings in piles and pick up bits of dried grass only 
to drop them after a flight of fifty yards or more; and in this connection 
it is of significance to learn that they were all birds of the year ("Bird 
Studies with a Camera," p. 103; see also Brewster, The Auk, 1898, p. 
194). 

Parasitism. — In a comparatively few cases, the instinct to build a 
nest is wanting, when the bird entrusts its egg to the care of another 
species. The European Cuckoo and our own Cowbird are examples of 



THE. EGG 77 

this kind of parasitism. The former lays its egg in some convenient 
place and, taking it in its bill, inserts it into the foreign nest; but the 
Cowbird, as far as is known, lays its egg in the nest selected. 

Of the nearly one hundred species of North American birds in whose 
nests the egg of the Cowbird has been found, one fourth are Warblers, 
indicating how often the Cowbird chooses as a foster parent a bird 
smaller than itself. The Warbler may nest upon the ground, or eighty 
feet above it, and still be preyed upon by the Cowbird, which never 
having had a home of its own has formed no attachment for any particu- 
lar site. Many theories have been advanced to account for the lack of 
the nest-building instinct in the Cowbird, but none is conclusive (see, 
however, Herrick '11). In any consideration of the subject, however, it 
shouJd be remembered that some of our Cowbird's seven tropical Amer- 
ican relatives have advanced toward the prevalent custom of monogamy, 
Molothrus badius of Argentina always incubating its own eggs and 
sometimes building a nest, (See Bendire, "The Cowbirds," Rep. U. S. 
N. M. for 1893, pp. 587-624.) 

The Egg 

Number Laid. — The number of eggs comprising a full 'set' or 
'clutch' ranges from one to as many as twenty. No law governing 
this number is known, though birds of temperate zones usually lay 
more eggs than their representatives in the tropics. Our northern 
Terns (Common, Roseate, Arctic), for example, usually lay three eggs, 
while southern Terns (Noddy, Sooty, Bridled) lay but one. Our 
Thrushes lay normally four eggs, but tropical Thrush*es lay only two or 
three. 

Generally speaking, birds of the same family lay approximately 
the same number of eggs, but there is much variation between birds 
of closely related families (e. g. Loons and Grebes, Thrushes and Wrens), 
while birds of similar nesting-site may not lay the same number of 
eggs (e. g. Bob-white and Meadowlark). 

The young of prtccocial birds require less care than do those which 
are wholly dependent on their parents, and among Grouse, Quail, and 
Ducks we find the largest families. But, on the other hand, the eminently 
prajcocial Snipe and Plover have but four young. Th(;s(^ birds, how(;ver, 
are too small to cover more than four of their disproport ionatcily large 
eggs, while the gallinaceous birds can readily cover a dozen or more. 
Therefore, size of the parent, as well as condition of the young at birth, 
is here a governing factor. 

The number of eggs laid is no indication of the fecundity of the 
bird. At the time of laying, the ovary contains a large number of partly 
formed eggs, of which, normally, only the required numlx'r will bocomo 
fully developed. But if the nest be robbed, the stoUm eggs will 
frequently be replaced. The oft-cited case of the Flicker which laid 
seventy-one eggs in seventy-three days is in point, while the long con- 



78 THE EGG 

tinued laying of our domestic fowls is a familiar illustration of the 
results following unnatural stimulation of the ovaries caused by per- 
sistent robbing. 

Size of the Eggs. — Primarily, the size of the egg depends upon the 
size of the bird that lays it. Hummingbirds, the smallest birds, lay 
the smallest eggs, while Ostriches, the largest birds, lay the largest 
eggs. This scale, however, is not always maintained, the eggs of prseco- 
cial birds being relatively larger than those of altricial birds of the same 
size, obviously because of the more advanced, larger young they hold. 
Compare, for example, the eggs of a Meadowlark with those of an 
Upland Plover, or a Robin's eggs with those of a Spotted Sandpiper. 

The Colors of Eggs. — The colors of eggs are due to pigments deposited 
by ducts while the egg is receiving its shell in the lower or uterine 
dilation of the oviduct. One or all the layers of the shell may be pig- 
mented, and variation in color may be caused by a superimposed 
stratum of carbonate of lime, producing hlac tints and 'clouded' or 
'shell' markings. In the earlier stages of their descent from reptilian 
ancestors all birds doubtless laid white eggs, as do all reptiles, and color 
is believed to have been acquired for purposes of protection, as the 
bird has departed from the reptilian habit of covering its eggs or laying 
them in covered situations and has adopted a more or less open nest. 
Hence, where the eggs are still placed in holes or hollowed trees, they as a 
rule are white, and where they are laid in exposed situations they are 
usually protectively marked. Compare, for example, the eggs of King- 
fishers, Woodpeckers, and Owls, with those of Terns, Snipe, or Plover. 
There are, however, numerous exceptions to this rule; for instance, 
Doves lay white eggs in frail, open nests. But here both sexes incubate 
and the eggs are rarely exposed. Again, Grebes lay white or whitish 
eggs in fiat, open nests, but they generally cover them with nest 
material before leaving the nest. 

While we cannot so readily explain why Chickadees or Cliff Swal- 
lows lay pigmented eggs, it is obvious that the significance of the colors 
of eggs can be ascertained only by a study of them where they were 
laid. 

Sha-pe of Eggs. — Birds' eggs are usually ovate, but may be ellip- 
tical, spherical, pyriform or conical. The pyriform egg of the Murre, 
when moved slowly, describes a circle about its own point, and is 
therefore less apt to roll over the narrow, rocky ledges on which Murres 
usually lay, than an oval egg. The conical eggs of Snipe and Plover 
are placed in the nest point downward or inward, thus fitting together 
so closely that they can be easily covered by the comparatively small- 
bodied parent. Thus with form, as with color, it is clear that the egg 
should be studied where the bird placed it. 

Variations. — Although, generally speaking, the eggs of the same 
species resemble one another, there is a wide range of variation in color, 
size and shape, and to a lesser degree in number. Doubtless these varia- 
tions are in the main an index of the physical condition of the bird 



Plate III 




Eggs of Meadowlark and Upland Plover 
Size of eggs in relation to condition of young birds when hatched. Note that, while 
the birds are of about the same size, the eggs of the Meadowlark, an altricial bird, are 
much smaller than those of the Upland Plover, a prajcocial bird. 





■^^ 


m 


^ ^ 


^^^^^^^r^ « V 


^ 


^ 


^^ 



Eggs of Common Tern 

Collected in a small colony on an island in Shoal Lake, Man., to show variation in 

color and pattern. 



I 



THE YOUNG BIRD 79 

concerned. Fully adult, vigorous birds probably lay larger and more 
heavily pigmented eggs and more of them than their younger or weaker 
fellows. Again, the first eggs of a set, as well as those of first sets, where 
more than one is laid, may be more strongly pigmented or larger than 
those laid later. But whatever their cause, the cataloguing of these 
variations constitutes no small part of the labors of the oologist, whose 
delight in finding an unusually large set, or one containing 'runt' eggs, 
or colored eggs which should be plain, or plain eggs which should be 
colored, is somewhat out of proportion to the scientific value of the 
'discovery.' 

Incubation. — The period of incubation is more or less closely related 
to the size of the egg. With the Chipping Sparrow it is twelve days, 
but with the Ruby-throated Hummingbird fourteen; the English 
Sparrow requires twelve or thirteen, the Robin thirteen or fourteen, 
the Fish Hawk about twenty-eight, but the exact period has been 
ascertained for comparatively few of our birds. 

Incubation is usually performed by the female and is sometimes 
equally shared by the male; or the male may merely cover the eggs 
during the female's absence; or again, as with the Ruby-throated 
Hummingbird, he may not be seen near the nest after the eggs are 
laid. With the Phalaropes the male alone incubates. 

The treatment of their eggs by sitting birds is a subject concern- 
ing which we have not much information, though some birds are known 
to turn them with their feet and others with their bills. I have seen a 
Least Bittern calmly eat two of her five eggs which had been punc- 
tured by a Marsh Wren, and then settle herself on the remaining three. 
("Bird Studies with a Camera," p. 75.) 

The disposal of the egg-shell is also a matter of interest. Most 
birds carry it some distance from the nest before dropping it, but young 
Flamingoes eat it! 

The Young Bird 

Condition at Birth. — The treatment of the young bird during its 
period of dependence on parental care is determined primarily by its 
state on leaving the egg. If it be pra^cocial and hence runs or swims 
with the parent the day it is born, its early life will differ greatly 
from that of the altricial bird, which hatched naked, blind and help- 
less, is reared in the nest. 

In either case, the act which in natural succession follows incubating 
is brooding. Pra^cocial birds are usually hatched within a few hours 
of each other, and are as a rule brooded in the nest only until the water- 
proof sheath, in which their natal down is enclosed, is dry and slits, 
transforming the nestling from an apparently scantily haired little 
creature to one thickly covered with down. After that they are brooded 
only at night or when, tired, they are permitted to 'snuggle' beneath 
the parental breast. 



80 FOOD OF THE YOUNG 

But altricial birds which may be hatched at longer intervals are 
brooded more or less constantly for days or until their own feathers 
are sufficiently grown to protect them. Even then, when exposed to 
rain or sun, the parent may stand above them with half-spread 
wings. 

Food. — The young of praecocial birds feed themselves, but either 
learn by experience or are taught by their parents what they shall eat. 
Recall a Hen clucking to her chicks and picking up and dropping bits 
of food she desires them to have. Even the act of drinking is not 
instinctive. (See especially Lloyd Morgan's ''Habit and Instincts.") 

The young of altricial birds, not only when they are in the nest, but 
as long as a month after leaving it, are fed by the parents. The nature 
of the food and the manner in which it is given are subjects of far too 
great import to be adequately treated here. The food, at first, is usually 
more or less digested in the crop or stomach of the parent whence it is 
regurgitated into the mouth of the young. With Passerine birds, this 
method, when employed, is soon abandoned, and food in a more or 
less natural state is captured and given directly to the open-mouthed 
offspring; but the Flicker, Hummingbirds, and Doves, for example, 
feed only by regurgitation, inserting their bill far into the mouth of 
their young. 

Young Pelicans, Cormorants, Water Turkeys, Spoonbills, and 
Ibises thrust their bill down the throat of their parents. Flamingoes 
introduce the tip of their great bill into that of their single chick, giving 
it, by regurgitation, a few drops of predigested liquid food, an exceptional 
method of feeding among praecocial birds; young Herons grasp the bill 
of their parent at the base with their own, as one would with a pair 
of scissors, when the old bird either disgorges food into the nest or skill- 
fully into the mouth of the young. Hawks tear the food into bits 
and give it to their young, and larger insects are beaten or pulled 
apart by Passerine birds, both parents sometimes working together at 
the task. 

The young of Passerine birds are fed every few minutes throughout 
a greater part of the day, but the young of larger birds are waited on 
less frequently, hours often elapsing between meals, at which, however, 
they receive large portions. 

The rate of growth of young birds, particularly of young perching 
birds, is little short of marvelous. Herrick ('OS, p. 187) writes of a 
young Cedar Waxwing the weight of which "doubled on the first day, 
more than trebled on the second, and nearly quadrupled on the third. 
On the twelfth day, when it weighed approximately one and one-fifth 
ounces, and had increased in weight thirteen-fold, it left the nest." 
"At a corresponding rate of growth," he adds, "a ten-pound baby when 
one day old would weigh twenty-one poimds, and at the age of twelve 
days one hundred and thirty-four pounds." A young Song Sparrow, 
studied by Owen, weighed, on hatching, 2.9 grams, and when at the 
age of seven days it left the nest, 16 grams. {The Auk, 1899, p. 222.) 



• DEFENCE OF THE YOUNG 81 

Herrick ('05, p. 181), whose continued, systematic studies have 
added so greatly to our knowledge of the hfe of the nest, was among 
the first to discover that admirable adjustment of the young bird's 
nervous system which prevents it from being overfed. He writes: 
"The food is placed not simply in the mouth of the young bird but well 
down the sensitive throat, and if the bird does not immediately respond, 
it is withdrawn and passed to another, and often to a third, until a 
throat is found which has the proper reaction time. If the gullet is 
already full, the swallowing reflex is inliibited, and the bird must wait." 

Nest Sanitation. — Second only in importance to the subject of food 
is that of nest-sanitation. The young of altricial birds as unlike as 
Hawks and Hummingbirds void their excreta far over the edge of the 
nest, but with probably all our Passerine birds, and with some others, 
it is enclosed in a membranous sac, which is removed and, in some 
cases, devoured by the parent. 

Defence of the Young. — Just how birds defend their young from their 
natural enemies we cannot always say, but before man as a possible 
nest-robber, some species (e. g. Pelicans, Flamingoes, Cormorants, 
Ibises, Spoonbills, Herons, and most Raptores) desert the nest without 
protest; others (Gulls, Terns, some Raptores) protest loudly and dart at 
the enemy, sometimes actually hitting him; the Passeres, vnih. some 
exceptions (e. g. Crows and Jays), utter loud alarm or call notes, 
which more often betray their secret than conceal it, and the Thrasher 
will occasionally strike the intruder; while many ground-nesting birds 
(e. g. Ducks, Snipe, Grouse, Nighthawks, Doves) seek to draw atten- 
tion from their nest or young, by feigning partial helplessness and 
fluttering painfully before the marauder, always, however, keeping 
just beyond his reach; a wonderful exhibition of parental devotion the 
origin and development of which it is difficult to explain. 

Voice. — Some suggestions for a study of the notes of young birds 
are made in the chapter on the ''Voice of Birds." Their instinctive 
obedience to parental command is also mentioned. Observe, for ex- 
ample, how young Gulls, Terns or Grouse squat and remain perfectly 
motionless in response to a certain alarm note; and how, under the 
same stimulus, a brood of young Ducks scatters. 

Certain birds have a feeding note which induces the young bird to 
open its mouth in preparation for the coming morsel. On leaving the 
nest some young birds (c. g. Baltimore Oriole, Yellow-headed lilack- 
bird) develop a food-call, which is lost when they have learned to care 
for themselves. 

Nest Exercises. — While in the nest, young birds devote much 
attention to their newly grown feathers, preening them carefully and 
repeatedly. The parasites which infest some birds, notably Phcpbes, 
while in the nest, also give the young bird much occupation. The fre- 
quent stretching of the wing is a characteristic nest activity, and, 
according to Scott, the grasping of the nest-lining with the toes is an 
important nest exercise. 



82 FEAR— FLIGHT 

Fear. — Herrick (Z. c. p. 227) considers the instinct of fear to be 
inherited, but it apparently is often wanting in birds which have never 
known parental care. I have seen young Wild Geese, which were 
hatched from eggs taken from a wild bird's nest and placed under a 
hen, so devoid of the sense of fear that when two weeks old they would 
attempt to crowd into a hand basin when it was being used; while 
innumerable instances of birds raised from the nest, which have never 
developed a sense of fear, could be mentioned. In a state of nature, 
the young bird does not evince fear until it has acquired sufficient 
strength to respond to the impulses born of fear; in other words, until 
it can run, swim, or flutter in the first attempts at flight. 

Flight. — Some young birds remain in the nest only a week (e. g. Song 
Sparrow, House Sparrow), while the wandering Albatross is said not 
to leave its nest until forced to by the parents at the beginning of the 
nesting season succeeding its birth. 

It is of interest to note the stimulus which finally induces flight; 
whether supplied by the parent, for example, through a refusal to 
bring further food to the nest, or through increasing strength which 
prompts the bird to make its initial venture in the world. The first 
flight may be a mere flutter to an adjoining limb, or so well directed 
that the young bird (e. g. Swallows) directs its movements with the 
ease, grace, and precision of the adult. 

The nest may now be used as a roosting place ; and the young 
remain under the care of the parents for as much as a month. With the 
Robin, the male is said to frequent the summer roosts formed by these 
birds, with the young, while the female incubates the second set of eggs. 

Suggestions for the Student 

Necessity for Concealment. — If one would study the habits of birds 
under natural conditions, it is of the first importance that they be unalarmed 
by one's presence. With birds, as with man, the consciousness of being 
under observation induces more or less artificiality of behavior, and if one 
would gain true insight into either bird-Hfe or human life one's subject 
should be unaware that it is an object of scrutiny. 

Some nests may be built within range of already existing hiding-places, 
but in the end it will be found desirable to employ a portable blind such as 
has been described. During ten years' experience this blind has met 
many and widely different demands, and whether one uses a camera or only 
a notebook it will enable one to reach a point of vantage from which either 
I)hotographs or observations can be satisfactorily made. It is unnecessary 
to speak of the value of the camera as a means of securing graphic, com- 
municable records of the life of the nest, but in any event I cannot too 
strongly urge the use of a blind. When one wishes to have several nests 
under observation, a blind may be placed and left near each one, and with 
extremely wary species it may be erected at night. It is then not associated 
with any cause of alarm, and is more quickly accepted than if the birds 
were disturbed when it was being set up. It will usually save much time 
to have a companion accompany you to the blind and depart as you enter it. 
The impression of fear caused by your approach will be largely dispelled 
by his withdrawal, since birds do not distinguish between two and one. 

Professor Herrick's plan of cutting off the limb containing the nest 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT 83 

and removing it to the blind may be employed by careful, conscientious 
students, who are in a position to assume the responsibilities involved and 
who desire not merely to photograph but to see at close range the details 
of the later phases of nest-life, but it is not a method to be recommended 
to the general public. In the beginning, at any rate, one will find abundant 
opportunity afforded by nests which can be studied without moving them 
or unduly disturbing their surroundings. 

Do not imagine that the most thorough history of the life of one nest 
completes your studies of that species. It may serve for the individuals 
concerned, but the beha\aor of many individuals must be learned before 
one can assert what are the habits of the species. Again I emphasize the 
need for specialization. Better a mass of data which permit one to judge 
of the significance of the facts involved, than an accumulation of isolated, 
unrelated observations. 

The preceding annotated outline of the principal phases of bird study 
in the nesting season will be of greater value to the student if read with 
the nesting habits of some particular species in mind, and as a further guide 
to the study of nest life there is appended a summary of the more im- 
portant problems confronting the local student. 

Date. — What species are among the first to nest? Why? How long 
after its arrival does a migratory species nest? Are there any relations 
between the development of foliage and nesting-date? Between food and 
nesting-date? W^hat appear to be the local factors governing the nesting- 
date? What species raise more than one brood? Do you know of any defin- 
ite cases of third broods? Why are some birds single- and others double- 
brooded? 

Courtship. — Does the male arrive in advance of the female? Do the 
birds ever arrive mated? What evidences of courtship are noted? Does 
the male display before the female? Does the female appear to be inter- 
ested? Does she select or accept a mate? Does the sexual display continue 
after mating? Does display precede a second brood? 

Nest Enemies. — To what forms of danger are nesting birds subjected 
in your vicinity? 

Nesting-site. — What factors influence the choice of nesting-site? Which 
of them are potent in your vicinity? Why do gregarious ground-builders 
nest on islands? What variations in site have been noted? How are they 
to be accounted for? With what species has civilization affected the nature 
of the nesting-site? Which sex selects the site? Is the same site used for 
the nests of second broods? or in succeeding years? 

Material. — What factors govern the bird in the choice of material? 
What variations have been noted? What birds use artificial material, 
string, etc.? How is it gathered? How far from the nest? By one or both 
sexes? How is so-called "nest decoration" to be explained? 

Nest-Building. — Is the nest made by one or both sexes? If the male 
does not build, docs he bring mat(!rial? How is the nest constructed? 
How much time is required for its completion? Is it delayed b>' inclement 
weather? Is more than one nest built? If the nest is abandoned, state why. 

The Nest. — What relation exists between the nest and the structure 
of its builder? What causes determine the appearance of the nest? What 
variations in form have been noted? How are they to be explained? Which 
nests are of the most priniitiv(! kind? Which nests an; most advanced? 
How do new conditions chang(^ the; character of t\u) n(!st? Do birds inherit 
their nest-building abilities? Do second nests resemble those built for the 
first brood? 

The Egg. — How long after the completion of the nest is the first egg 
laid? Are the eggs laid at regular intervals? At certain liours? How many 
are laid? What factors appear to govern the number? the size? the shape? 
the color? What variations hav(> l)een noted? If an egg sliould b(! removed 
will the bird replace it? Will a ('owbird's egg be rejected? How? 

Incubation. — When does incubation begin? How long does it continue? 

8 



84 THE PLUMAGE OF BIRDS 

Is it performed by one or both sexes? Is there any regularity in the daily 
periods of sitting? Does one sex ever feed the other while on the nest? 
Will the sitting bird permit a near approach? Does the bird return to the 
nest directly or with much caution? Are the eggs turned in the nest? Are 
they covered when left? How is the egg-shell disposed of after hatching? 
The Young Bird. — What is the condition of the young bird at birth? 
If blind, when do the eyes open? What notes does it utter? How long is 
it in the nest? How is it fed? on what? how often? Is the food prepared? 
What prevents the young bird from being over-fed? At what rate does it 
increase in weight? How is it brooded? How is the nest cleaned? Do the 
young obey the parent? When is fear first shown? Is it instinctive? What 
nest exercises are manifested? How long after leaving the nest is the young 
bird dependent on the parents? What induces it to leave the nest? Does 
it fly at once? Does it return to the nest? Does it frequent roosts? Does it 
flock with other young or with adults or both? How do the parents protect 
the young? 

References 

(Restricted largely to the more recent studies of the nesting habits of 
birds.) 

1844. Rennie, J., Bird Architecture (London), — 1878. Allen, J. A., 
An Inadequate Theory of Birds' Nests, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, III, pp. 22- 
32.— 1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 12mo., 218 pp. 
ills., (Appleton). — 1900. Dugmgee, A. R., Bird Homes, 4to., 183 pp., 
ills., (Doubleday).— 1902. Jgb, H. K., Among the Water-Fowl, 12mo., 224 
pp., ills., (Doubledav). — 1905. Jgb, H. K., Wild Wings, 8vo., 341 pp., 
ills., (Houghton, Mifflin).— 1905. Herrick, F. H., Home Life of Wild 
Birds, rev. ed., 255 pp., ills., (Putnam's). (Important.) — 1907. Finley, 
W.L., American Birds, 12mo., 256 pp., ills., (Scribner's) . — 1907. Chapman, 
F. M., Camps and Cruises of an Ornithologist, 8vo., 432 pp., illus., (Apple- 
ton).— 1908. Watsgn. J. B., The Behavior of the Noddy and Sooty Terns, 
Papers from Tortugas Lab. of Carn. Inst., II, pp. 189-255, (Important). 
— 1910. Herrick, F. H., Ipstinct and Intelligence in Birds, Pop. Sci. 
Monthly, June, July, and August. — 1911. Herrick, F. H., Nests and 
Nest-building in Birds, Journ. of Animal Behavior, Vol I, (Holt). 



The Plumage op Birds 

The Molt 

Plumage Wear 

The Colors of Plumage 

Color and Age 

Color and Season 

Color and Sex 

Color and Climate 

Color and Concealment 

Banner Marks 

Albinism and Dichromatism 

Feathers are the only character which birds do not share with 
other forms of life. No ofrlicr animals are feathered and no birds are 
featherless. 

It is apart from our object to describe here the development and 
structure of feathers, but rather to discuss their function, as in their 



Plate IV 




r<«r 










Plumages of the Scarlet Tanager 

1. Adult male, summor. 2. Adult male in post-nuptial (fall) molt, by which it 

passes into (3) winter plumage. 4. Young male, first winter. 5. Female, which, after 

the post-juvenal molt, undergoes no changes in color. 6. Juvenal, or nestling plumage, 

which, in the male, is followed by plumage No. 4, and, in the female, by plumage No. 5. 



THE MOLT 85 

form they fit the bird for locomotion (see beyond, under Uses of the 
Wing and Tail) or in color adapt it to the special needs of its haunts 
and habits. In the first place, however, the field student should have 
Bome knowledge of the laws of feather change included under the general 
term of molt. 

The Molt. — WTien hatched, a Passerine bird is naked except for a 
scanty growth of filmy down on the feather tracts of the upper half of 
the body. This is the 'natal down' of Dwight ('00) whose terminology 
I adopt. The natal down is quickly succeeded by the 'juvenal' or nest- 
ling plumage, which is sufficiently grown in from eight to fourteen days 
to enable the bird to leave the nest. The tail is still only about half- 
grown and the wings, as a rule, barely large enough to permit of short, 
uncertain flight. 

Some birds (e. g. Sharp-tailed and Seaside Sparrows) wear this juvenal 
or nestling plumage between two and three months, but most species 
lose it shortly after leaving the nest. In either case, it is followed by 
the first winter plumage, which is acquired by molt (post juvenal) 
of all the body feathers, most of those of the wings and tail usually 
being retained. If the young bird now resembles its parent, their 
plumage changes are thenceforth the same. 

In the fall all birds molt, but in the spring there is no regularity 
as to feather renewal, even among closely related species. The Bobo- 
link and the Sharp-tailed Sparrow have a complete spring molt (pre- 
nuptial), even to the wings and tail; the Scarlet Tanager and Gold- 
finch molt only the body feathers; other species acquire some new 
feathers about the head and chin, and with many there is no feather 
growth at this season, the differences between the winter and breeding 
plumages being due to wear or fading. 

After the breeding season, all adult birds pass through a complete 
molt (postnuptial), and the bird is again in winter plumage. 

In its simplest form, and ignoring the comparatively few cases in 
which an essentially adult plumage is not acquired at or before the first 
prenuptial (spring) molt, the molt among the Passeres may be summar- 
ized as follows: (1) Natal down, lost by postnatal molt which brings 
the (2) juvenal or nestling plumage; lost by postjuvenal molt which 
brings the (3) first winter plumage; lost to a greater or less extent in 
some species by prenuptial molt which brings the (t) nuptial 'plumage; 
lost by postnuptial molt which brings the (o) second and subsequent 
winter plumages. 

With some minor variations this is the general order of molt among 
other than Passerine birds. Except the Ducks and Ptarmigan all birds 
have a complete postnuptial molt, and with many Snipe the spring or 
prenuptial molt is complete. Some Snipe wear the juvenal plumage 
until winter or even until the prenuptial molt, the postjuvenal molt 
being omitted. 

Among the praecocial Gulls, Terns, Ducks, Shore-birds and Galli- 
naceous birds the natal down thickly covers the body and the chick 



86 PLUMAGE WEAR 

swims or runs about in it shortly after hatching. In the GaHinae the 
wing-quills are large enough to permit of short flights while the body 
of the chick is still in the downy plumage. They are lost at the suc- 
ceeding postnatal molt, which is entire, new wing- and tail-feathers, 
as well as body feathers, being acquired. 

Ptarmigan unmistakably demonstrate the need of a protective 
coloration by undergoing only a limited instead of complete molt at 
the close of the nesting season. It affects solely the upperparts and 
breast, or exposed surfaces, and is obviously a transition plumage, -of 
neutral browns and grays, designed to prevent the acquisition of the 
wholly white winter dress until the coming of snow, at which time a 
complete molt follows and the bird becomes as white as its surround- 
ings, 

Male Ducks have a not dissimilar supplementary or partial post- 
nuptial molt which is apparently also acquired for protective pur- 
poses. It affects chiefly the scapulars, head, neck and breast, and is 
worn only while the bird is deprived of the power of flight through the 
loss, in the postnuptial molt, of its wing-quills. In this 'eclipse' plu- 
mage, as it is called, the male resembles the female, but when the 
new wing-quills are grown and the power of flight returns, this eclipse 
plumage is shed and the male plumage regained. (See Plate V.) 

The simultaneous loss of the flight-feathers is common to swim- 
ming birds which have a secondary means of locomotion in their natato- 
rial powers, but with other birds the wing-quills are molted slowly and 
symmetrically from the middle of the wing both inwardly and out- 
wardly. As the old feathers are lost new ones grow, and the bird can 
therefore fly during the whole period of feather renewal. 

In other feather tracts, also, normal molt follows an orderly sequence, 
feather succeeding feather and plumage plumage throughout the life of 
the individual. The minor variations of molt within the limits above 
outlined for the Passeres are endless, but they can be considered 
adequately only by treating of each species separately. For further 
details the student is therefore referred to the succeeding descriptions 
of plumage, and pa icularly to the papers of Dwight ('00) cited 
beyond. 

Plumage Wear. — Molt, wear and fading are the only processes by 
which the color of a bird's plumage is changed. The claim that a feather 
may be repigmented, and that consequently a bird's plumage may 
undergo radical changes in color without the growth of new feathers 
and without the aid of wear and fading, has never been substantiated, 
and by students of the development of the feather from germ to ma- 
turity such a change is declared to be impossible. (See, especially, 
Strong.) 

Striking changes are, however, eff"ected by wear, chiefly of the tips 
or margins. These difi'er in color from that of the base of the feather 
which is wholly or in part concealed. The loss of these margins may | 
completely alter the bird's a^^pearance, as where the brown Snow 



Plate V 




Adult Male Wood Duck in 'Eclipse' Plumage 

Note the absence of primaries, indicating inability to fly. From a specimen collected 

by E. A. Mearns, at Fort Snelli-tg, Minn., July 24, 1888. 



THE COLORS OF PLUMAGE 



87 



Bunting of October is transformed to the black and white bird of 
June, and this without the acquisition of a feather. (Fig. 10.) The 
Bobolink, Red-winged and Rust}^ Blackbirds also illustrate color change 
by wear. 

With the Purple Finch and Indigo Bunting, as Dwight ('00) has 
shown, wear increases the brightness of the bird's colors. 





October January March June 

Fig. 10. Feathers from back of Snow Bunting, showing seasonal changes in form 

and color due to wearing off of tips. (Natural size.) 



The Colors of Plumage . — Color is nature's last touch in adapting a 
bird to the needs of its own special environment. In many instances it 
apparently has been given during the prevalence of existing conditions 
of haunt and habit; consequently, in studying color, there is a greater 
possibility of associating cause and effect than exists when we attempt 
to determine the origin of the older, more stable characters of form. 
One, therefore, may reasonably ask what is the significance of the mani- 
fold shades and tints, marks and patterns, not to mention various 
appendages found in the plumage of birds? But before a reply is justi- 
fied, the bird must be studied in nature, its food, its foes, its general 
habits and special actions learned ; and at all times the student should 
avoid the human viewpoint, but imagine himself in the position of food 
or foe, an individual of the same species or one of a species with which 
the bird under consideration may come in contact. 

It is not to be expected that any color character should invariably 
achieve its end; if it does so more than half the time, it will in the aggre- 
gate prove beneficial to the species. (See A. H. Thayer, "Concealing 
Coloration," p. 8.) 

In the study of color, there is a wide field for laboratory experiment 
on captive birds to determine the laws of molt, the effects of food, 
humidity, hybridizing, artificial selection, etc., into which it is not 
possible to enter here. (See Beebe, '08.) 

Color and Age. — Most passerine birds acquire an essentially adult 
plumage not later than their first prenuptial (spring) molt. Prominent 
exceptions are the Orchard Oriole, Crossbills and Redstart, which breed 



88 COLOR AND SEASON 

in a plumage more like that of the female than of the adult male and 
acquire their mature plumages at the first postnuptial (fall) molt. 

Less striking instances of failure to acquire a fully adult plumage at 
the first spring molt are shown by birds like the Scarlet Tanager, which 
at its first prenuptial molt retains most if not all the brownish wing- 
quills and some of their coverts of its first winter plumage, the black 
wing-quills of maturity not appearing until the first postnuptial molt; 
or the American Goldfinch, which does not gain the yellow shoulder 
patch until after the first breeding season. (Plate IV.) 

When the adults of both sexes are alike in color, the young in Juvenal 
plumage more or less closely resembles them (e. g. Flycatchers, Jays, 
Crows, most Sparrows, Chickadees, Thrushes); when the male differs 
from the female, the young in juvenal plumage more nearly resembles 
its mother {e. g. Red- winged Blackbirds, Orioles, Purple Finches, Gold- 
finches, Hooded Warblers, Redstarts). (Plate VI.) 

The juvenal plumage often gives interesting clues to relationships 
and ancestry. The nestlings of the Blackpoll and Bay-breasted Warblers, 
for instance, are almost indistinguishable, as are indeed the first winter 
costume of these species; while the spotted breasts of nestling Robins 
and Bluebirds betray their relationship with the Thrushes. 

Color and Season. — Dull or inconspicuously colored birds, having 
once acquired the plumage of. maturity, exchange it only for another 
of the same kind at their respective molts; but birds of striking colors 
frequently change their bright breeding costume for one less likely to 
expose them to danger while migrating. The male Scarlet Tanager, 
for instance, at the postnuptial molt takes the olive-green body plumage 
of his mate, only the black wings and tail coming in the same color 
as before. At the same molt, the male Bobohnk assumes a plumage 
practically indistinguishable from that of his mate. With both birds 
this dull plumage is worn until the prenuptial molt the following spring. 
Other examples are the American Goldfinch, Bay-breasted, Blackpoll, 
and Myrtle Warblers. (Plates IV, XX.) 

Among Gallinaceous birds the Ptarmigan alone have marked sea- 
sonal changes in plumage, but in the Shore-birds, Gulls, Terns, and 
Grebes, they are more or less pronounced. 

Here should be mentioned the various appendages like the plumes 
of the Night Heron and Egrets, and crests or other head decorations in 
the White Pelican and Grebe, which are usually acquired at the prenup- 
tial molt and are worn only during the nesting season. 

Color and Sex. — When there is a sexual difference in color among 
birds, with few exceptions the male is the brighter. In North America 
the exceptions are the three species of Phalaropes. No conclusive 
reason why the male should be brighter than the female has been ad- 
vanced. Darwin's theory of sexual selection endows the female with an 
esthetic sense, making the most brightly plumed male more acceptable 
in her eyes than his less effectively attired rivals. No one who has 
watched a bird display its charms before the female (and this is done 



'^^-JOi 



\ 



Plate VI 




Red-winged Blackbirds in Juvenal Plumage 

Illustrating the law that when the adults differ in color the young of both sexes 

' usually, resemble the; female. ^, 



)i-< 



'^d4^^^^ 



^cu« : 




■K 



Chickadees in Juvenal Plumage 
Illustrating the law that when the adults are alike the young resemble them. 




h -4v, 




QAm 



I 



COLOR AND SEX 



89 



more commonly than is generally supposed, and by species which do 
not possess pronounced sexual characters of color or plume), will doubt 
the ardor or objects of the suitor; but it seems probable that the effect 
of such displa}^ is to stimulate the female to the point of accepting 
rather than of selecting a mate. It should not be forgotten, how^ever, 
that if this theory be true the male which breeds in immature plumage 
(e. g. Orchard Oriole; Redstart) is placed at a distinct disadvantage. 

Wallace ('91) attributes gay colors and showy plumes to the action 
of the surplus vital energy which, because of a bird's perfect adaptation 
to its environment, can expend itself in the production of brilliant 
colors and ornamental appendages without endangering their ow^ner; 
but in this connection w^e should recall that when, as mth the Phalar- 
opes, the male plays the part of the female, incubating unaided by her, 
then it is the female that wears the brighter colors. 

Thayer, without positively committing himseK on the subject of 
sexual coloration, contends that, whatever be the minor uses of the 
distinctively male costumes, their main function is for the purposes of 
concealment; but it is difficult to believe that the male of the Red- 
winged Blackbird, Bobohnk, Scarlet Tanager or Lark Bunting, for 
example, is as protectively colored as his dull-plumaged mate, which 
lives in the same environment. If, however, his brighter colors increase 
his chances of death, there must be born a greater number of males than 
females, to offset the higher mortality. 

Again, it has been suggested that it is only the female's plumage 
which has an especial significance, the task of incubation requiring in 
her a concealing coloration which will protect the contents of the nest 
as well as herself. The whole subject is as attractive as it is difficult. 
It should be studied in connection with other secondary sexual char- 
acters of which a synopsis from "Bird-Life" is appended: 

Synopsis of the Secondary Sexual Characters of Birds 
I. Structural 



g- f Male larger than female (usual). 

I Female larger than male (rare). 



Plumage 



Of the body. 

Of the feet. . 
OfthebiU. . 



Color 



Form. 



I Male brighter than female. 

( Female brighter than male (rare). 

(Assumption of plumes, ruffs, crests, trains, etc.; 
special modification of wing- and tail-feathers. 
a. Worn by male alone. 
6. Worn by both sexes. 

Sole or greater development in male of brightly colored 
bare tracts of skin, combs, wattles, caruncles, and other 
fleshy or horny appendages. 

. Sole or greater development in male of spurs. 

. Male with more highly colored or larger bill than female. 



90 COLOR AND CLIMATE 

II. Functional 

Pursuit I -^^ male when similar to or brighter than female. 

' ■ * I By female when brighter than male. 

Display By male of accessory plumes and other appendages. 

Battle By male using spurs, wings, bill, etc. 

Music I ^oc^l' ^y ^^^^^ 3,nd rarely female. 

I Mechanical, by male and sometimes female. 

Dances, mock fights, aerial evolutions, construction of 
bowers, decoration of play-grounds, attitudinizing, strut- 
ting, etc. 



Special 
habits . 



a. By male before the female. 

b. Among the males alone. 



Color and Climate. — The immediate effect of climate on a bird's 
plumage is to increase or decrease its general tone of color; thus, those 
representatives of a species living in arid regions are paler than repre- 
sentatives of the same species living in humid regions. The degree of 
difference is closely related to the annual rainfall, as it indicates rela- 
tive humidity; and where there are no abrupt changes in climate, these 
climatic variations change as gradually as the conditions which cause 
them. At first so slight that only the expert systematic ornithologist, 
with access to large series of specimens, can detect them, they become, 
in some instances, so pronounced that not only the general tone of 
color but pattern itself is affected. It is on such variations that most 
subspecies or geographical races of birds are based. (See Allen, 77.) 

Among North American birds, they are best illustrated by the oft- 
cited case of the Song Sparrow. (See Diagram A and Plate VII.) Twenty- 
three races of this exceedingly plastic species are recognized. They are 
distributed from the Valley of Mexico northward throughout the 
United States and a large part of Canada to the Aleutian Islands. 
Note, however, . that only two of them are found east of the Rocky 
Mountains, where climatic conditions are comparatively uniform; 
while California alone has ten resident races, an indication of its great 
diversity of climate. 

The Desert Song Sparrow (Diagram A. 8; Plate VII) the palest 
race, inhabits the Colorado desert region where the average rainfall is 
about six inches; the Sooty Song Sparrow (Diagram A. 19; Plate VII) 
the darkest race, is found on the northwest Pacific Coast where the 
annual rainfall averages over ninety inches. 

Again, observe that the Mexican Song Sparrow (Diagram A. 1) at 
the southern extremity of the range of the species is one of the smallest 
races, measuring some six inches in length, and that there is a gradual 
increase in size northward until the maximum is reached at the northern 
extremity of the range of the species, where the Aleutian Song Sparrow 
(Diagram A. 23; Plate VII) attains a length of nearly nine inches. 



Plate VII 




'"-S^t^ 



y^//^<?f//^ %^y^s. 



Song Sparrows 

1. Aleutian Song Sparrow. 3. Samuels's Song Sparrow. 

2. Sooty Song Sparrow. 4. Desert Song Sparrow. 

5. Eastern Song Sparrow. 




DIAGRAM A. ILLUSTRAriNG THE DISTRIBUTION OF 
SONG SPARROWS. 



Mexican Song Sparrow. 
Michoacan Song Sparrow. 
Durango Song Sparrow. 
Mountain Song Sparrow. 
Dakota Song Sparrow. 
Eastern Song Sparrow. 
Merrill's Song Sparrow. 
Desert Song Sparrow. 
Brown's Song Sparrow. 
San Clemento Song Sparrow. 
Santa Barbara Song Sparrow. 
Cooper's Song Sparrow. 



1.3. Herrmann's Song Sparrow. 

14. Alameda Song Sparrow. 

15. Suisun Song Sparrow. 

16. Samuel's Song Sparrow. 

17. Menriocino Song Sparrow. 

18. Rusty Song Sparrow. 

19. Sooty Song Sparrow. 

20. Yakutat Song Sparrow. 

21. Kenai Song Sparrow. 

22. Bischoff's Song Sparrow. 

23. Aleutian Song Sparrow. 



(91) 



92 COLOR AND CONCEALMENT 

If we compared only the palest Song Sparrow with the darkest, we 
might well believe, so unlike are they, that each form represents a 
distinct species; but when we include in our comparison representatives 
of all the twenty-three races of Song Sparrows we find complete inter- 
gradation in color and in size. Nowhere can one draw the line. As 
the climatic conditions under which the birds live change, the birds 
keep pace. Cause and efTect go hand in hand. Here we have a species 
in flower, as it were, a single Song Sparrow stalk with its twenty-three 
blossoms, any one of which might make an independent growth as a 
species it if were separated from the parent stem. Doubtless some day 
the separation will come, when we shall have several species of Song 
Sparrow, each with its group of races, but at present we have only 
one species, divided into some twenty-three sub-species, or species in 
process of formation. 

A variety of reasons may be advanced to account for the pronounced 
geographical variations shown by the Song Sparrow. Its wide range 
indicates physical adaptability and ready adjustment to differences in 
food and habitat. Its variations in size, while they conform to the 
general law of increase in size northward, are exceptionally marked, 
and are not equalled by those of any other North American bird — a 
further indication of an inherent plasticity. 

The species is comparatively non-migratory. Several races, notably 
in California, are permanently resident in contiguous and restricted 
areas. Such strictly non-migratory species are continuously subjected 
to the influences of their environment, which are heightened by perma- 
nent isolation. But even the most migratory forms come early and stay 
late, and are thus in the breeding area for a much greater part of the 
year than, for example, many Warblers which come in May and leave 
in August. 

But, suggest as we may the various factors which appear to be active 
in producing such geographic variations as the Song Sparrows exhibit, 
they are not potent with all birds, even when other things are equal, 
and it seems probable that some species are in an active state of de- 
velopment and readily respond to the influences of their surroundings, 
while others are fixed and make no such response. The latter represent 
older types of birds, which are, so to speak, near to or a part of the 
trunk of the bird's family tree, while the former class includes the birds 
at the terminal branches of this tree. 

Color and Concealment. — It is clear that the life of the individual 
bird, and hence the continued existence of its species, depends pri- 
marily on its success in securing food and in escaping from its foes. The 
colors of predaceous species must, therefore, tend to conceal them from 
their prey (aggressive or deceptive colors), while the colors of those 
that are preyed on are designed to conceal them from their enemies 
(protective colors) . 

When, however, a bird's food may be secured without the exercise 
of caution, when it apparently is not preyed upon, or when it is protected 



COLOR AND CONCEALMENT 93 

by the character of its haunts, its colors, unchecked by any need for 
conceabnent, may make it conspicuous.* 

Inconspicuousness is achieved primarily, not alone in birds but 
also in most other animals, by that disposition of color which makes 
them darkest where they receive the most light, and palest where they 
are most in shadow. This is the far-reaching principle of counter- 
shading discovered by Abbott H. Thayer and announced by him in 
1896 {The Auk, 1896, pp. 124, 318) . Of it Poulton remarks : 'Tor ages the 
artist has known how to produce the appearance of sohd objects stand- 
ing out on his canvas, by painting in the likeness of the shadows. It 
has remained for this great artist-naturahst to reahze the logical anti- 
thesis, and show how solid objects may be made to fade away and 
become ghost-like, or even invisible, by painting out the shadows." 

Thayer's experiments in conclusive demonstration of this law may 
be repeated, even if crudel}", by taking, say, four bits of wood shaped 
to resemble a bird's body, or, failing these, several symmetrical pota- 
toes of about the same size. Run a stout -^ire rod through these objects, 
leaving intervals of about eight or ten inches and, selecting a spot not 
in direct sunlight, support the rod at both ends, on uprights which will 
raise it six or eight inches from the ground. The models should be uni- 
formly colored to resemble the earth against which they are seen, and 
the resemblance may be heightened by sprinkling some of the earth 
upon them. 

If the secret of protective coloration is an exact likeness in color 
between an animal and its background, these models should be essen- 
tially invisible, whereas they are exceedingly conspicuous. Now, in 
imitation of nature, paint out the shadow on the lower half of two of the 
models by grading through earth color laterally, to pure white on the 
lower median line, when it will be seen that at a distance of thirty 
feet or more these white-bottomed models have, in a magical manner, 
become nearly if not quite invisible, although they are still the same 
color on the upper half as the untouched models, which are plainly 
visible at a distance of at least forty or fifty yards. 

To prove that this result is due to the disposition of color, as 
regards light and shade, rather than to color alone, turn the models so 
that the white is uppermost, thus reversing nature's law, and thereby 
rendering the two models which before were indistinguishable even 
more prominent than those which are uniformly colored. 

Such, in briefest outline, is an explanation of Thayer's law of coun- 
ter-shading, for a fuller description of which, as well as of its various 
modifications, the student is referred to Thayer's work on "Concealing 
Coloration." Thayer's law of obliterative markings is also presented 
in this book. This explains the pattern of coloration or markings of 
counter-shaded birds which bear on their plumage a picture of the 
background against which they are most commonly seen by their 

*In this connection see Reighard on the colors of coral-reef fishes. Papers from 
Tortugas Lab. of Carn. Inst. Wash., 1908, pp. 261-325, 



94 COLOR AND CONCEALMENT 

prey or by their enemies. Or, as Gerald Thayer puts it: the object's 
''obhteratively-shaded surface must bear a picture of such background 
as would he seen through it, if it were transparent." (1. c. p. 31.) Thus 
our Woodcock is said to bear a picture of "dead leaves, twigs and 
grasses, variously disposed over shadow-holes," while the plumage of 
Wilson's Snipe represents "sticks, grasses, etc., with their shadows at 
various distances." The plumage of the Upland Plover shows a "grass" 
pattern, a type common to many field or upland species. Certain of 
the Plover and Sandpipers wear this plumage during the summer, when 
they five among weeds and grasses, but lose it for one of pure and 
simple counter-shading when they winter along the shores and beaches. 

From these more obvious instances of obliterative picture patterns, 
Thayer leads us to an interpretation of the brilliantly colored and in- 
tricately marked plumage of birds like the male Wood Duck, Peacock, 
and Paradise Bird (Paradisea) , or of such special markings and appen- 
dages as the speculum in Ducks, gorget in Hummingbirds, tail-coverts 
in the Resplendent Trogon, etc., all of which, under certain vital con- 
ditions, are considered by him to make or to aid in making their wearers 
inconspicuous. The use of no pattern, mark or appendage is left un- 
explained by the proposer of this law, and while naturalists recognize 
the importance of his studies, Thayer's contention "that patterns and 
utmost contrasts of color (not to speak of appendages) of animals make 
wholly for their 'obliteration,' " finds few supporters. 

Flamingoes, Crows, Ravens and Turkey Vultures, for example, 
are seemingly from any point of view conspicuous. The nature of their 
food and their excessive wariness or absence of foes apparently re- 
move them from the action of the laws producing a true conceahng 
coloration. 

Protected primarily by the character of their haunts, it is not 
improbable that the striking and endlessly varied colors of Tanagers, 
Honey Creepers, Cotingas, Toucans, Trogons, Parrots and other bril- 
liantly marked arboreal birds may be explained in a similar manner. 
It is important to remember in this connection that many birds of such 
habits are dull as well as brightly colored, and we may suggest that 
among tree-haunting, and to a less extent thicket-haunting birds, the 
actual physical causes of color, uncontrolled by natural selection, have 
run riot. When, however, the nature of a bird's haunts affords it less 
adequate means of concealment, then color plays a more important 
part in protecting it, and there is consequently less variation from the 
type of color which presumably has proved to have the highest conceal- 
ing value. 

Thrushes, Ovenbirds and Doves, for example, which feed on the 
ground, may frequent the tree-tops without unduly exposing themselves 
to danger, but let a male Scarlet Tanager or other brightly-colored 
arboreal bird alight upon the ground and, even when motionless, it 
is conspicuous. 

This illustration may serve also to remind us that the protective 



Plate VIII 




Woodcock on Nest 
A protectively colored bird which, relying on its color to escape detection, may some- 
times be touched before it takes wing. 




Black Skimmek on Nest 
A conspicuou:sly colored bird which is so shy that it leaves its nest at the first indication 

of danger. 



BANNER MARKS 95 

value of any color scheme or pattern of marking is active only when 
the animal bearing it is at rest. Without regard to color, movement at 
once reveals, and bearing this in mind, the action of a bird in the pres- 
ence of danger is a supreme test of the protective or non-protective 
value of its colors. 

If the bird is wary and can be approached only with difficulty, 
we may feel assured that it realizes its conspicuousness and conse- 
quently it rehes for safety on its watchfulness and its wings. But if 
the bird attempts to hide and flies only when convinced that it has been 
discovered, then we may beUeve that it relies primarily on the nature 
of its coloring to escape observation, when we are evidently justified 
in assuming that its colors are truly protective. Compare the colors 
and actions of such 'wild' birds as Gulls, Terns, Skimmers, Ducks, 
Geese, Cormorants, Cranes, Herons, Flamingoes, Stilts, Avocets, and 
Crows, with those of birds which take wing only to avoid being stepped 
on (e. g. Bitterns, Rails, Woodcock, Wilson Snipe, Quails, Grouse, WTiip- 
poor- wills) to appreciate how closely color is here correlated wath habit. 

Compare further the colors and habits of the ffightless young of Gulls, 
Terns, Skimmers, Stilts or Avocets with those of their parents to observe 
how there may be both a protective and a conspicuous plumage in the 
same species. Enter the breeding resorts of any of these birds and the 
conspicuously colored adults at once take wing while the protectively 
colored young, squatting motionless, make no attempt to escape, even 
by running, until they are actually touched. 

Obviously, then, the significance of the colors of birds is to be learned 
only by the study of species by species in nature. The whole subject 
is preeminently within the domain of the field naturalist. Only when 
our knowledge of a bird's haunts and habits, its food and foes, and its 
actions in the presence of danger is reasonably complete are we in a 
position to determine to what factors we may attribute its particular 
colors and markings. This is the ground taken by Theodore ^oosevelt 
in his extended criticism ('11) of Abbott Thayer's theories, and while 
one may argue that Mr. Roosevelt underrates the necessity of conceal- 
ing coloration in animals, one must commend his admirable plea for the 
accumulation of further evidence from nature before giving a verdict. 

Banner Marks. — The plumage of many birds contains marks which 
are usually conspicuous only when the bird is in motion. White outer 
tail-feathers (e. g. Junco, Vesper Sparrow, Meadowlark), or wing- 
patches (e. g. Mockingbird), or a white rump (e. g. Flicker), are mark- 
ings of this type and to them the term 'banner', 'recognition' or 
'directive' marks have been applied. 

Some authors would have us believe that such flight-revealed mark- 
ings have a directive value which assists birds of the same species in 
keeping together (see Tracy, '10) but the ease with which dull-eyed man 
learns to recognize birds, even at a great distance, makes it difficult 
to believe that birds require some conspicuous mark to distinguish 
others of their own kind, as Abbott Thayer has well shown {The Auk, 



96 / ALBINISM 

1900, p. 108). On the other hand, there seems better ground for belief 
in the theory, advanced by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, that these so-called 
banner marks protect their possessors by being so strikingly evident 
Avhen their wearers are in flight that their sudden and complete efface- 
ment when the creature takes to cover, tends to puzzle the pursuer, 
which, looking in vain for a victim conspicuously marked with white, 
soon abandons the chase. 

The subject is a fascinating one and is to be especially commended to 
field students, who alone can supply the data on which a solution of 
the problems involved can be based. 

Albinism. — Albinism is not infrequent among birds and may occur 
in any species. I hare seen a white Crow and a white Turkey Vulture. 
It is, however, rarely complete but more frequently affects a part of the 
plumage, when it is usually symmetrical, that is, if a feather in one wing 
be white the corresponding feather in the other wing will also be white. 

The presence of an albino bird always excites interest. When, be- 
cause of its markings, the history of the individual may be learned, and 
possibly its return to a certain locality noted year after year, albinism 
permits of the making of observations of real value. But albinism in 
itself is a matter calling for no special record or comment. It is due to 
an absence of pigment in the part affected and may indicate a more or 
less degenerate condition in the individual exhibiting it. Albinistic 
English Sparrows are not uncommon, a fact which may be due to the 
abundance of the species and ease with which it is observed, or to exces- 
sive inbreeding among a comparatively limited number of very local 
individuals. 

Melanism, or undue blackness, implies an excess of pigment, while 
xanthochroism and erythrism are terms applied respectively to ab- 
normally yellow or red birds. These three phases of color are, as a rule, 
shown only in caged-birds and are then evidently due to unnatural 
diet or other conditions. (See Beebe, '07.) 

Dichromatism. — Dichromatism implies the existence of two phases 
of color in the same species. It is well illustrated by our Screech Owl, 
some individuals of which are gray and others rufous. (See frontispiece.) 
This difference in color is not dependent upon age, sex or season; indeed, 
gray and rufous birds may be found in the same family. It appears, 
however, to be connected with locality, since a species may be dichro- 
matic in one part of its range and less so or not at all in another part 
of its range. The rufous phase of the Screech Owl, for example, is rare 
in Florida, just as the black phase of the gray squirrel is rare in Florida. 
Beyond this relation between dichromatism and locality its causes are 
not understood. 

Suggestions for the Student 

The processes of molt and feather-p;rowth may be studied in captive 
birds provided they be kept \mder proper conditions. Change in conditions 
may advance or retard molt. (See Beebe, '08.) 



SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT 97 

Describe condition of a Passerine bird at birth and its subsequent 
plumages and molts. About how long is it in the nest? How long does it 
wear the juvenal plumage? What plumage follows? What feathers are 
usually retained at the post juvenal molt? When does the prenuptial molt 
occur? Is it usually complete? What molt is complete? How does the 
natal down of prcecocial birds differ from that of altricial birds? How long 
do some Snipe wear the post juvenal plumage? What variation in the law 
of molt is shown by Ptarmigan and most swimming birds? Describe changes 
in color due to wear or fading. Give illustrations of the acquisition by molt 
of nuptial plumes. Describe differences in color due to age. When do most 
birds acquire their mature plumage? Mention several species which do not 
reach full plumage until at least their second year. Describe the plumage 
changes of the Scarlet Tanager, American Goldfinch, and Bobolink. When 
the adults are unlike in color, which is usually the brighter? Which parent 
does the nestling usually resemble? What may be inferred from the spotted 
juvenal plumage of the filuebird? What is Darwin's theory of sexual se- 
lection? What is Wallace's theory? Describe what is meant by secondary 
sexual characters and give cases in illustration. What relations exist be- 
tween the degree of intensity of a bird's color and the climatic conditions 
under which it lives? Describe the case of the Song Sparrows. Is it believed 
that their changes in color are due to the direct influence of environment 
rather than to the influence of natural selection in establishing protective 
colors? W^hy are concealing colors necessary? To what factors other than 
color may a bird owe its comparative immunity from its foes? Are they 
required by all species? How may we account for the wide range of color 
in arboreal birds? What is Thayer's principle of counter-shading? Demon- 
strate this theory with the aid of decoys. AVhat are 'obliterative' markings? 
What are 'banner' or 'directive' marks? What theories have been advanced 
to account for their significance? Mention all the birds you know which 
reveal white marks in flight. What is alfjinism? melanism? xanthrochroism? 
erythrism? Describe an albino which you have seen. Did it act like normally 
colored birds of its own species? What may be learned from observing 
albinoes or other birds so marked that they may be recognized? Have you 
ever known a caged-bird to change in color? 

References 

1871. Darwin, C, The Descent of Man, Chaps. XIII-XVL— 1877. 
Allen, J. A., The Influence of Physical Conditions on the Genesis of Species, 
Radical Review, I, pp. 108-140. Reprinted in Smithsonian Rep. 1905, pp. 
375-402.— 1891. Wallace, A. R., Darwinism, Chaps. VIII-XI, (Macmil- 
lan).— 1890. Poulton, E. B., The Colours of Animals, (Appleton).— 1893. 
Newton and Gadow, Colors of Birds, in Dictionary of Birds, (Macmillan). 
—1896. Stone, W., The Molting of Birds, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., pp. 
108-167. — 1900. DwiGHT, J., Jr., Sequence of Plumages and Moults of the 
Passerine Birds of New York, Annals, Acad. Sci., XIII, pp. 73-300. See; also 
Auk, XVII, pp. 34, 143, 368.— 1907. Beebe, C. W., Geographic Variation 
in Birds with Especial Reference to the Effects of Humidity, Zoologica, I, 
pp. 1-41. — 1908. Beebe, C. W., Seasonal Changes of Color in Birds, Am. 
Nat., XLII, pp. 34-38.— 1909. Thayer, G. H., Concealing Coloration in 
the Animal Kingdom, 4to., 260 pp., ills., (Macmillan). — 1910. Tracy, 
H. C, Significance of White Markings in Birds of the Order Passerifornies, 
Univ. Cal. Pul). in Zool., VI, pp. 285-312.— 1910. Pycraft, W. P., A His- 
tory of Birds, (London: Methuen & Co.). — 1911. Barbour, T., and Phil- 
lips, J. C, Concealing Coloration Again, Auk, XXVIII, 179-188.— 1911. 
Thayer, A. H., Concealing Coloration, Pop. Sci. Monthly, July, pp. 20-35. 
— 1911. Roosevelt, Theodore, Revealing and Concealing Coloration iu 
Birds and Mammals, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. His., XXX, pp. 119-231. 



98 THE FOOD OF BIRDS 

The Food of Birds 

Food and Distribution 
Food and Habit 
Economic Value of Birds 

Birds and Insects 

Birds and Weeds 

Birds and Rodents 

Birds as Scavengers 

Food and Distribution. — Birds consume a large amount of food and 
they rarely store it. No one factor, therefore, exercises a greater or 
more constant influence on their activities than the ever-present neces- 
sity of securing a sufficient amount of the proper kind of nourishment. 

Not only are a bird's daily movements more or less governed by 
the search for food, with pronounced local variations in numbers, due 
to the ripening of fruits, unusual abundance of insects, supply of car- 
rion, etc., but the presence or absence of the species during certain 
seasons may depend directly on the abundance or scarcity of a certain 
kind of food. Given bayberries, and one may expect Myrtle Warblers 
to winter in numbers near New York City; buckwheat in a pile of 
chaff induced a flock of Mourning Doves to pass the winter at Engle- 
wood, N. J.; the failure of the coniferous seed crop is evidently the reason 
for the irregular occurrence of great numbers of Crossbills south of their 
usual winter range, to cite only a few of the innumerable instances 
showing how both the local and general movements of birds are influ- 
enced by the food-supply. 

Food and Habit. — From the Swifts, coursing the sky almost be- 
yond the reach of vision, to the Diver beneath the waters, birds neglect 
no spot containing food. The result is not only great diversity of fare, 
but a correspondingly wide range in the methods, or feeding habits, 
by which it is secured. (See under Uses of the Bill and Feet.) 

Economic Value of Birds. — Interesting as we shall find the study 
of a bird's food in relation to its distribution and habits, it is of even 
greater importance for us to learn in what way or ways the nature of 
its food determines its economic relations to man. 

In no branch of American ornithology has greater advance been 
made, during the past twenty years, than in the study of the value of 
birds to man based on a knowledge of their food. This is due chiefly 
to the investigations of the Biological Survey of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, and also to the researches conducted by 
certain states, notably Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Pennsyl- 
vania. The subject is too wide and too important to be treated ade- 
quately here and the student is referred to the many valuable papers 
listed beyond, particularly to those issued by the Department of Agri- 
culture (many of which can be secured from the Superintendent of 
Documents at Washington) and to Forbush's "Useful Birds." 



BIRDS AND INSECTS 99 

The nature of a bird's food can be determined by observing what it 
eats and by an examination of what it has eaten. It is, of com-se, often 
impossible to see just what a bird is eating or, even having seen, one 
still may not recognize the particular kind of insect, fruit or seed which 
has been swallowed. Expert analysis of the contents of the digestive 
tract is therefore essential to an accurate knowledge of the character 
of a bird's food. The conclusions drawn from laboratory work should, 
however, be checked by studies in nature, to which the field ornithol- 
ogist may make valuable contributions. 

Looking from my window as I write, I see five Starlings (Sturnus) 
running actively about the lawn beneath a cherry tree, picking up 
fallen fruit. An examination of the contents of their stomachs would 
unquestionably reveal the presence of cherries, but I see this ground- 
feeder gather fallen cherries far more frequently than growing ones, 
and stomach analysis alone might, therefore, in a case of this kind, 
lead to a false estimate of a bird's destructiveness. (On the study of 
food habits in the field, see especially Forbush's "Useful Birds.") 

Equally true is it that verdicts based only on casual observations 
of the bird in nature are far from the truth; and it is this kind of hasty 
conclusion that the economic ornithologist finds the greatest difficulty 
in combating. A Cooper's Hawk may be seen to catch a chicken or 
scatter a flock of Bob-whites; Robins maybe noted in the cherry trees 
or Catbirds in the strawberry bed, and without further evidence 
all Hawks are declared to be destroyers of poultry and game, and 
small birds generally devourers of fruit. But thanks to the investi- 
gations made by federal and state governments, as already mentioned, 
we are now in possession of accurate, incontrovertible data, and there is 
no excuse for signing a bird's death warrant on false or insufficient 
observation. It has thus been determined that birds arc of inestimable 
value to man (1) by eating harmful insects, their eggs and larvae; 
(2) by destroying the seeds of noxious weeds; (3) by devouring field 
mice and other small mammals which injure crops; and (4) by acting 
as scavengers. 

Birds and Insects. — Dr. L. C. Marlatt, of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, estimates that in the year 1904 the loss to 
our agricultural interests occasioned by insects amounted to $795, ()()(),- 
000 (Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1904, p. 464). Dr. A. D. Hopkins, 
also of the Department of Agriculture, estimates that insects cause an 
annual loss to our forestry and timber interests of $100,000,000. It 
is difficult for us to comprehend fully the significance of these figures, 
but at least they may serve to impress us with the value of any form of 
life which in turn preys upon insects, and in the front rank of insect 
enemies stand the birds. 

It is possible here only to give references (see beyond) to the now 

extensive literature containing exact statistics of this battle of the birds 

and the bugs. In these papers, for example, it will be found stated that 

the stomach of a single Cedar Waxwing contained 100 canker worms, 

9 



100 BIRDS AND WEEDS 

that one Cuckoo had eaten 250 caterpillars, that 454 plant-lice were 
found in the stomach of one Chickadee, that a Nighthawk had made a 
meal on 60 grasshoppers, that a Flicker had devoured 1,000 chinch 
bugs, that a Scarlet Tanager was seen to eat 630 gypsy moth cater- 
pillars in eighteen minutes, or at the rate of 2,100 an hour; while a 
Maryland Yellow-throat ate 3,500 plant-lice in forty minutes, or at 
the rate of 5,270 an hour! 

As the destroyers of insects that breed disease, birds stand in an 
even closer economic relation to man. Five hundred mosquitos, for 
example, were found in the stomach of a single Nighthawk; Swallows 
and other wing-feeding birds also feed upon this pest, which, in the 
larval form, is eaten by various marsh-inhabiting birds. It is probable, 
therefore, that as our knowledge of the history of various diseases to 
which man is subject through insect attack increases, birds will here 
be found to be correspondingly valuable. 

In spite of the immense amount of authoritative data, of which we 
are now in possession, we are far from beginning to realize the profoundly 
important part played by insectivorous birds in holding in check the 
insects injurious to vegetation and to man. We may, however, accept 
without question the opinion of Henry W. Henshaw, Chief of the Biolog- 
ical Survey, who states as his conviction that without the services of 
insect-eating birds "it is more than likely — nay, it is almost certain — 
that within a limited time not only would successful agriculture be- 
come impossible, but the destruction of the greater part of vegetation 
would follow." (Nat. Geog. Mag., 1908, p. 89.) 

Birds and Weeds. — It is not, however, only as a scourge to insects 
that the bird is of value to the farmer, but also as a destroyer of the 
seeds of weeds it performs a service of incalculable importance. Again 
we must turn to the researches of the economic ornithologist for those 
definite data (see especially papers by Judd) without which satisfactory 
conclusions cannot be reached. In passing we may merely state that 
700 seeds of the pigeon grass were taken from the stomach of a Tree 
Sparrow by Professor Beal, who estimates that this species destroys 
no less than 875 tons of weed-seed annually in the single state of Iowa; 
that 1,000 pigweed seeds were found in the stomach of a Snow Bunt- 
ing; that a Bob-white contained 5,000 seeds of pigeon grass, while a 
Mourning Dove had eaten the enormous number of 7,500 seeds of the 
yellow wood sorrel. 

Birds and Rodents. — Still we have not given the birds all the credit 
due them as powerful allies of the agriculturist. Every farmer knows 
all too well how seriously small rodents, particularly field mice, can 
damage his crops in the field as well as in the storehouse or granary; 
but few farmers know that Hawks and Owls, birds they have aways 
believed should be killed on sight, are among nature's most potent 
checks on the undue increase of these destructive little creatures. 

The loss which may follow ignorance of the economic value of 
Hawks and Owls has never been more clearly shown than by Dr. 



BIRDS AND RODENTS 101 

Merriam, who as early as 1886 made the following comments on the 
then recently passed 'Scalp Act' of the State of Pennsylvania, and 
subsequent investigations have confirmed his views: 

''On the 23d of June, 1885, the Legislature of Pennsylvania passed 
an act known as the 'scalp act,' ostensibly 'for the benefit of agricul- 
ture,' which provides a bounty of fifty cents each on Hawks, Owls, 
weasels and minks killed within the limits of the State, and a fee of 
twenty cents to the notary or justice taking affidavit. 

"By virtue of this act about $90,000 has been paid in bounties 
during the year and a half that has elapsed since the law went into 
effect. This represents the destruction of at least 128,571 of the above- 
mentioned animals, most of which were Hawks and Owls. 

"Granting that 5,000 chickens are killed annually in Pennsylvania 
by Hawks and Owls, and that they are worth twenty-five cents each 
(a liberal estimate in view of the fact that a large portion of them are 
killed when very young), the total loss would be $1,250, and the poul- 
try killed in a year and a half would be worth $1,875. Hence it appears 
that during the past eighteen months the State of Pennsylvania has 
expended $90,000 to save its farmers a loss of $1,875. But this estimate 
by no means represents the actual loss to the farmer and the taxpayer 
of the State, It is within bounds to say that in the course of a year 
every Hawk and Owl destroys at least a thousand mice or their equiva- 
lent in insects, and that each mouse or its equivalent so destroyed 
would cause the loss of two cents per annum. Therefore, omitting all 
reference to the enormous increase in the numbers of these noxious 
animals when nature's means of holding them in check has been removed, 
the lowest possible estimate of the value to the farmer of each Hawk, 
Owl, and weasel would be $20 a year, or $30 in a year and a half. 

"Hence, in addition to the $90,000 actually expended by the State 
in destroying 128,571 of its benefactors, it has incurred a loss to its 
agricultural interests of at least $3,857,130, or a total loss of $3,947,130 
in a year and a half, which is at the rate of $2,631,420 per annum. In 
other words, the State has thrown away $2,105 for every dollar saved! 
And even this does not represent fairly the full loss, for the slaughter of 
such a vast number of predaceous birds and mammals is almost certain 
to be followed by a correspondingly enormous increase in the numbers 
of mice and insects formerly held in check by them, and it will take many 
years to restore the balance thus blindly destroyed through ignorance 
of the economic relations of our common birds and mammals." 

Birds as Scavengers. — Besides destroying various species of insects 
inimical to the health of the human race, birds further increase the 
healthfulness of the world by acting as scavengers. It would be diffi- 
cult to overestimate the value of Buzzards, Vultures, and other offal- 
eating birds to the countries in which they live. In most instances the 
economic importance of these birds is too obvious to be overlooked, and 
they are, therefore, protected by law, and by what is far more powerful 
than law, public sentiment. 



102 BIRDS AS SCAVENGERS 

In our southern States the Turkey 'Buzzard' and Black Vulture, or 
'Carrion Crow,' have become so numerous and tame as a result of the 
protection there given them that they walk around the streets of the 
towns and cities in great numbers, and with no more evidence of fear 
than is shown by poultry. Every one realizes that a living Buzzard is 
of infinitely more value than a dead one, and in many years' experience 
in the South I have never seen a Buzzard molested. 

The value of Gulls as scavengers was forcibly impressed on my mind 
when, some years ago, I visited the lower harbor of New York Bay 
to see the Gulls which were attracted by the scows of the Street-clean- 
ing Department of New York City. The number of Gulls present on 
this occasion was beyond calculation, but certainly exceeded three 
hundred thousand. Before the scows began to discharge their cargo 
most of the birds were resting on the water, but at the sound of the 
whistle giving the signal to dump, they arose in clouds and clustered 
thickly over the wake of each of the eleven scows to feed on the vege- 
table and animal matter thrown overboard. It was a most impressive 
object lesson in the economic value of these birds, which until recently 
have been destroyed in enormous numbers for millinery purposes. 

Suggestions for the Student 

How may a bird's local or seasonal distribution be governed by the 
food supply? Give instances. Group our land birds under general headings 
according to the nature of their food. How is the nature of a bird's food 
determined? Give instances illustrating the importance of field observation; 
of laboratory examination. To what extent are insects believed to injure 
our agricultural and forestry interests annually? Give definite instances 
based on personal observation in which insectivorous birds were seen to 
destroy injurious insects. How may birds aid in preventing disease? 
What birds are known to feed on mosquitos? Is it probable that agri- 
culture would be possible without the service rendered by birds? Describe 
the feeding habits of aerial, arboreal, scansorial and terrestrial insectivo- 
rous birds. Is the food of young birds like that of their parents? Why are 
insectivorous birds particularly valuable in the winter? Describe the value 
of birds as weed-seed eaters and give statistics of their destructive powers. 
What birds are the natural enemies of small rodents? Give the results 
of stomach analyses of various species oT Hawks and Owls (see body of 
book). Which are considered beneficial? Which injurious? What birds 
are known to act as scavengers? 

References 

1880. Forbes, S. A., The Food of Birds, Bull. 3, Ills. State Lab. Nat. 
Hist., pp. 80-149. See also Bull. 6, pp. 3-32.— 1883. King, F. H., Economic 
Relations of Wisconsin Birds, Gool. Wise, I, pp. 441-610. — 1886-1909. 
Merriam, G. Hart, Chief and others. Reports on Investigations of the 
Biological Survey of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Some of these papers 
are cited here, others under the species to which they refer. — 1888. Warren, 
B. H., Birds of Pennsylvania with Special Reference to their Food Habits, 
266 pp. — 1889. Barrows, W. B., The English Sparrow in North America, 
Bull. No. 1, Biol. Surv., 405 pp.— 1893. Fisher, A. K., Hawks and Owls of 
the U. S. in their Relation to Agriculture, 209 pp. — 1895. Barrows, W. B., 
and ScHWARZ, E. A., The Common Crow, 98 pp. — 1895. Foebush, E. H., 



THE ADULT BIRD 103 

Birds as Protectors of Orchards, Bull. 3, Mass. Board Agric, pp. 20-.32.— 
1895. Beal, F. E. L., The Food of Woodpeckers, Bull. 7, 39 pp.— 1896. 
Palmer, T. S., Extermination of Noxious Animals bj- Bounties, Yearbook, 
U. S., Dept. Agr., pp. 5o-6S. — 1897. Beal, F. E. L., Some Common Birds 
in their Relation to Agriculture, Farmer's Bull., Xo. 54, 40 pp. — 1898. 
FoRBUSH, E. H., Nature's Foresters, Bull. No. 1, Mass. Board Agric, pp. 
27^0. — 1898. Palmer, T. S., The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals 
and Birds, Yearbook, pp. 87-110.— 1898. Nash, C. W., Birds of Ontario in 
Relation to Agric, Rep. Farmer's Inst. Ont., Dept. Agric, pp. 1-32. — 1898. 
JuDD, S. D., Birds as Weed Destroyers, Yearbook, pp. 221-232.-1899. 
Palmer, T. S., Review of Economic Orn. in U. S., Yearbook, pp. 259-292. — 
1900. Beal, F. E. L., How Birds .Affect the Orchard, Yearbook, pp. 291- 
304. — 1900. Chapman, F. M., The Value of Birds to the Commonwealth, 
Rep. Board Agric. Conn., 41 pp. — 1901. Bruxer; L., Birds in their Rela- 
tion to Agriculture, Proc Neb. Orn. Union, 18-29. — 1901. Jitdd, S. D., 
Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture, Bull. 15, Biol. Surv., 98 pp. — 1902. 
JuDD, Sylvester D., Birds of a Maryland Farm, Biol. Surv. BuU. 17, 116 
pp. — 1902. FoRBUSH, E. H., Two Years With the Birds on a Farm, 
Mass. State Board Agric, 2nd. Ed. — 1903. Chapman, F. M., The Economic 
Value of Birds to the State, Seventh Rep. N. Y. Forest, Fish and Game 
Comm., 66 pp. With bibliography. — 1903. Weed, C. M., and Dear- 
born, Ned, Birds in Their Relations to Man. A Manual of Economic 
Ornithology for the U. S. and Canada. 380 pp. With bibhography. — 1905. 
Henshaw^ H. W., Does it Pav the Farmer to Protect Birds. Yearbook, 
165-178.-1906. Hou-ELL, A. H., Birds that Eat the Cotton Boll Weevil, Biol. 
Surv. Bull. 25, 22 pp.; BuU. 29, 30 pp.; Circ. 64, 5 pp.— 1906. McAtee, W. 
L., Birds that Eat Scale Insects, Yearbook, pp. 189-198.— 1906. Beal, F. E. 
L., Birds as Conservators of the Forests, Rep. N. Y. Forest, Fish and Game 
Comm., 1902, 3 pp. 235-274.— 1907. Forbush, E. H., Useful Birds and Their 
Protection, Mass. State Board Agric, 437 pages. Comprehensive. — 1907. 
Henshaw, H. W., Value of Swallows as Insect Destroyers, Circ. 56, Biol. 
Surv., 4 pp. — 1907. Henshaw, H. W., Birds Useful in the War Against 
the Cotton Boll Weevil, Circ 57, Biol. Surv., 4 pp.— 1908. HenshaW, H. 
W., The PoUcemen of the Air, Natl. Geog. Mag., pp. 79-118.— 1911. Beal, 
F. E. L., Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States, Bull. 37, Biol. 
Surv., 64 pp. 

General Activities of the Adult Bird 

Habitat 

Habit and Structure 

The Bill 

The Wing 

The Tail 

The Feet 
The Senses 
Intelligence 
Status of the Species 

Having devoted the larger part of the space allotted to this Intro- 
duction to those features of bird study in nature which seem most 
important from the field student's point of view, our outline of a bird's 
life may be completed by briefly calling attention to certain other 
subjects, each of which must be considered if we would approach any- 
thing like a complete local biography of a given species. 

Habitat. — The range or geographical distribution of a species is 



104 HABIT AND STRUCTURE 

ascertained only by compiling the data of many workers, but its local 
distribution, or habitat, can be determined by a single observer. Won- 
derful as it is that the range of so mobile a creature as a bird should 
have more or less well defined boundaries, beyond which it rarely 
advances, even more remarkable is it that within the limits of this 
range the bird often should have still more sharply marked haunts. 
Thus, shore, salt and fresh marshes, meadow, upland, bush, deciduous 
or coniferous forests, all have birds which, when nesting, are restricted 
to them, and the mapping of the habitats of the birds in one's locality 
is one of the interesting duties of the local ornithologist. The rarer 
birds will often be found confined to certain areas where perhaps a 
small colony may be established, and one should note whether it in- 
creases or decreases and attempt to learn the reasons for its success or 
failure. 

Vegetation as it influences the food-supply or offers suitable nesting 
sites, will be found to be the chief factor in controlling the distribution 
of birds locally; and it is important to record, during the course of 
years, those fluctuations in the numbers of a species due to changes 
in the character of the country incident to man's presence as he fells 




Fig. 11. Probelike bill of Woodcock, showing extent to which upper mandible 
can be moved. (One-half natural size.) 

forests, drains marshes, permits the growth of scrub on fallow land, 
introduces new types or sources of food, furnishes new nesting-sites, 
etc. (See, especially, the Introduction to Brewster's "Birds of the Cam- 
bridge Region.") 

It is interesting, too, to observe the distribution of a bird during the 
day; where does it feed? where does it sleep? does it have regular fly- 
ways between feeding-ground and roost? 

Habit and Structure. — The relation between form and function is 
in most cases so obvious that even the casual observer is impressed by 
the admirable adjustment existing between a bird's habits and its 
structure. The subject has been dealt with at length by Headley, 
Beebe and others, and offers far less opportunity for original investi- 
gation by the local student than is found, for example, in a study of 
nesting habits. Nevertheless he should learn from personal observation, 
when possible, the part that bill, wings, feet and tail play in a bird's life. 

Uses of the Bill. — Birds' bills usually take the form of forceps or 
probes rivaling in variety of shape the combined outfits of the sur- 



USES OF THE WING 



105 




geon and dentist; but spears, awls, chisels, picks, hooks, crackers, 
trowels, needles, scoops and strainers are also represented in the bird's 
equipment. Primarily these instruments or weapons are designed to 
secure food for the adult and to feed its young, but the bill is also of 

service in preening, 
in gathering and 
placing nesting ma- 
terial or excavating 
nesting - sites, and 
as a weapon of at- 
tack or defence in 
the usually harmless 
struggles of birds. Woodpeckers use it as a drumstick. Owls rattle 
their mandibles threateningly, and PeUcans snap theirs in loud defiance. 
With some birds, the bill is the seat of some special growth or color 
during the breeding season. The AMiite Pelican then wears a keel- 
like knob on the upper mandible, and the bills of Auks, Puffins and some 
Ducks are brightly colored or modified in form. 

Uses of the Wing. — The student should observe the relation be- 
tween the shape of a bird's wing and the character of its flight and the 
further relation between the manner of its flight and its general habits. 



Fig. 12. Recurved bill of Avocet. (Two-thirds natural size.) 




Fig. 13. Long, pointed wing and small foot of Tree Swallow, an 
aerial bird. (Natural size.) 

Compare, for example, the wing of a Turkey Vulture with that of a 
Quail or Partridge; one aerial, the other terrestrial in habit. Note the 
lengthened flight-feathers and broad expanse of the Vulture's wing, 
its comparative slowness in getting under way, its ability to soar 
indefinitely, in short, to remain in the air with the least possible expendi- 
ture of effort; while the rounded wing of the Quail, although incapable 
of prolonged flight and requiring great exertion for effective use, can 
nevertheless be employed at highest speed so quickly that the bird 
is in full flight almost the moment 
it leaves the ground. Continue 
the comparison through your list 
of birds, noting not only the power 
but the rhythm of the wing-stroke, 
whether it be regular or varied, 

whether the flight be direct or , Fig if short rounded wing and large 
J T ,. . foot of Little Black Rail, a terrestnal bird, 

imdulatmg, etc. (Natural size.) 




106 



USES OF THE WING 



Auks and other members of their family fly under water and some 
Ducks also use their T\-ings v^'hen di^nug, while the true Divers use both 
feet and wings. (See Townsend, The Auk, and '*A Labrador Spring," pp. 
180-205.) The loss b}^ molting, depri^dng birds of all their flight- 
feathers at the same time, has already been mentioned (see ^Nlolt), 




Fig. 15. 



Man-'o-war-bird ; a species in which the wings have been developed 
at the expense of the feet. 



and it will be interesting to learn whether at this time the Auks use their 
feet when progressing under water or whether a vving devoid of its 
quills supplies sufficient power. Young birds rest upon their wings as 
they would upon fore-feet and in some instances (e. g. Grebes and Galh- 
nules) they are emploj'ed in chmbing about among reeds, etc., or with 
young Herons, among branches. Adult Grebes and Loons, hke the 
flightless Penguins, rely on their wings to aid them when on land. 

The whistling or humming of wings may be the accompaniment 
of regular flight, as with the Mourning Dove, certain Ducks, or the 
Hummingbirds; it may be the result of an especial evolution, as with 

the swooping Xighthawk, or 
it may proceed from some 
special structure, as with the 
narrowed outer primaries of 
the Woodcock. The drum- 
ming of Grouse and the 
'clapping' of Roosters, before 
crowing, are further illustra- 
tions of the use of the wing as 
a musical organ. 

Sitting Hens threaten with 
their wings. Swans and Pigeons strike with them. Herons use the wing 
as a shield, altricial birds protect their young from sun or rain by 
standing over them with spread ■wings, and they shelter praecocial 
birds; fledglings flutter the wnngs tremulously when begging for food. 

The Tail. — A bird's tail is primarily a rudder. Compare the direct 
line of flight of a short-tailed bird, for example, a Duck or Quail, vrith 
the darting, erratic movements of a Tern or Barn Swallow. Soaring 
birds spread the tail as an additional means of support and balance; 
and when spread and thrown downward and forward it serves as a 
brake for the bird when ahghting. 




Fig. 16. The wing as a musical organ. Wing 
of Woodcock, showing outer attenuate feathers 
which produce the 'whistling' sound in fiight. 



THE TAII^-THE FEET 



107 



With Woodpeckers, Creepers and Chimney Swift the tail is modified 
for use as a prop. 

The tail is exceedingly variable in form and is the seat of many 
interesting marks and colors which are displayed intentionally or when 





FiQ. 17. Tip of tail of (o) Downy Woodpecker and of (b) Brown Creeper, to show the 
pointed shape in tails of climbing birds of different families. (Natural size.) 

the bird is in motion. Turkeys, Sage Cocks, Woodcock, spread the 
tail when strutting; with a host of birds white on the outer tail-feathers 
is conspicuously shown in flight or when the tail is nervously 'jetted* 
or twitched by the hopping bird (see Color). Some birds not closely 
related wag the tail (e. g. Spotted Sandpiper, Water-Thrush, Palm 
Warbler, Pipit), though why 
they should so do does not 
appear to be known. 

The Feet. — Birds' feet serve 
a greater variety of uses than 
any of the four organs whose 
uses we are considering. Pri- 
marily they are of value as aids 
to locomotion, and the stu- 
dent should first note their 
length in wading birds like 
Flamingoes, Herons, and Stilts, 
and the relation between length 
of foot and length of neck. 
Aside from its length, the foot is 
variously modified by the de- 
velopment of webs and lobes 
and lengthening of the toes and 
nails, for swimming, running, 
hopping, climbing and perch- 
ing. The growth in the fall of 
horn-like marginal fringes on 
the toes of the Ruffed Grouse 
and of feathers on the toes of 
Ptarmigan, presents an unusual 

case of seasonal adaptation in p,^_ ^g. Flaminuo, .-,h.,wi„« relative length 
structure. of legs and neck in a wading bird. 




108 



THE FEET 



In short-tailed birds like Murres, the feet, when extended backward, 
act as rudders in flight. It may be added that all the Water-birds, the 
Gallinse, Columbse and Raptores, carry the feet extended backward in 
flight, while all the Passeres, or Perching Birds, carry them drawn up 
forward. In the intermediate groups (Cuckoos, Trogons, Wood- 
peckers, Swifts, Hummingbirds and Parrots) the manner in which the 





Fig. 19. Toes of Ruffed Grouse. Naked in summer, fringed in winter to serve as 
snowshoes. Illustrating seasonal adaptation in structure. 

feet are held in flight does not appear to be definitely known, though 
it seems probable that they are drawn up as in the Passeres. (See Town- 
send, "A Labrador Spring," pp. 180-205.) 

The longer-winged diving birds, like Cormorants and Water-Tur- 
keys, use only the feet to propel them when under water; Grebes and 
Loons also use the feet for a similar purpose, and to a lesser extent 
the wings. 

The relation between the two organs of locomotion, wings and feet, 
should be observed, when it will be found 
that when the former are greatly developed the 
feet are correspondingly small (e. g. Man-o'- 
war-bird; Swallows), while when the feet are 
large the wings are proportionately short and 
weak (e. g. the Rails and Gallinules). 

In securing food, feet are of service in 
scratching {e.g. Gallinse; Fox Sparrows), while in 
predaceous birds long, recurved talons and grasp- 
ing power reach their maximum among birds. 

Parrots use the foot as a hand, and many 
birds employ it to gather and place nesting 
material. With gallinaceous birds, particularly 
those that have spurs, the foot is a weapon. In 
Fig. 20. Foot of Osprey; Herons and Goatsuckers, the middle-toe has a 
to .show large, apposed lateral terminal comb or pectination the func- 

clawa and .spicules on under ,• c ^ • ^ ■ ^ 

surface of toes. tion ot which is unknown. 




THE SENSES 



109 




a. b. 

Fig. 21, Lobed feet (a) Phalarope and (b) Coot, 

swimming birds of the Snipe and Rail families. 



It should be repeated, as we close this short section on structure 
and habit, that the species mentioned in connection with the functions 
of bill, wings, tail and 
feet have been restric- 
ted mainly to North 
American birds, in 
order that the student 
may verify, by per- 
sonal observation, the 
close relation existing 
between the form of 
an organ and the 
manner in which it is 
employed. 

The Senses. — In 
order that we may 
more nearly take the 
birds' point of view 
and appreciate the significance of their actions, it is essential that we 
should have some knowledge of the development of their senses. 
Briefly, it is beheved that in birds the senses of smell, taste and touch 
are inferior to our own, but that in sight and hearing they are 
immeasurably our superiors. 

There do not appear to be on record any well-defined illustrations 
of the sense of smell in birds. Vultures are believed to find their food 
by the exercise of sight alone, and it is by no means certain that prob- 
ing birds are attracted to their prey by its scent. 

To what extent birds taste their food it is difficult for us to deter- 
mine. That certain things are pleasant and others disagreeable will be 
obvious to any one who has seen a bird vigorously wipe its bill after 
attempting to eat an ill-tasting bug; but it is also clear that the bird's 
standard of gustation is not to be measured by our own. The experi- 
ments of Judd (Am. Nat., 1899, p. 474) showed that many insects, 
which to man are both nauseating and foul-smelling, are relished by 
birds, while others are refused. It is, however, certain that the bird's 
restricted sense of smell in a large degree limits its ability to detect finer 
differences in taste. 

The bird's sense of touch is evidently more highly developed than 
either the sense of smell or that of taste. It is seated mainly in the tip 
of the bill, and the precision and delicacy with which this organ is 
used in picking up the smallest seeds, dislodging insects, their eggs and 
larva? from the crevices in bark, grasping worms or grubs out of sight 
in the ground, or catching minute forms of life in muddy water, demon- 
strates the degree of ability with which it is employed. 

When we reach the sense of hearing, we must at once concede that 
the bird is so far beyond us that we probably do not fully realize the 
extent of its powers. A Barred Owl, which alighted with his back toward 



110 THE SENSES 

me, at a distance of about fifty yards, turned his head instantly in response 
to the shghtest 'squeak' made to test its hearing. The same sound 
will often turn a passing Hawk when he might be thought to be beyond 
its reach. The snapping of the smallest twig throws a whole Heron 
colony into wildest commotion. Woodpeckers locate the grubs of 
boring beetles, and Robins apparently Usten for crawhng worms. 

That birds not only have incredibly acute hearing, but can also 
distinguish minor differences in sound, is implied by the wide range 
of sounds which birds themselves produce and which, in the economy 
of their lives, are obviously not intended to fall on deaf or inappre- 
ciative ears; as other writers have before remarked. 

A colony of Roseate Spoonbills which I have lately studied from a 
blind, were not alarmed by various noises made in manipulating a 
camera, but at a single word, spoken in a low voice, every bird sprang 
into the air. 

White Egrets, in Florida, have acquired so great a fear of a gun that 
the birds of a rookery in which my blind was placed left their nests 
with a rush at the faint report of a gun fired by a guide a mile and a 
half away. 

Crows immediately respond to an imitation of the call of the Barred 
Owl, and though this may be uttered but once, they come from some 
distance directly to the spot whence the hoot proceeded. 

In default of definite experiments, it is on casual observations of this 
nature that our knowledge of the comparative power of a bird's hearing is 
based. There is much need for further data here. 

With eyes, the relation between cause and action is more apparent, 
and without knowing exactly how well a bird can see, we have at least 
seen enough to be impressed by its marvelous power of vision. Recall 
a quietly observant Loggerhead Shrike leaving its lookout and flying 
so directly to a grasshopper in the grass a hundred feet away, that it is 
clear the insect was seen before starting; or again. Gulls and Petrels 
picking up small bits of food from waves so boisterous that a man 
would be lost to sight in them. "Observe," says Coues ('Key,' 5th Ed., 
p. 185), "an Eagle soaring aloft until he seems to us but a speck in 
the blue expanse. He is far-sighted; and scanning the earth below, 
descries an object much smaller than himseK, which would be in- 
visible to us at that distance. He prepares to pounce upon his quarry; 
in the moment required for the deadly plunge, he becomes near-sighted, 
seizes his victim with unerring aim, and sees well how to complete the 
bloody work begun. A Hummingbird darts so quickly that our eyes 
cannot follow him, yet instantaneously settles as light as a feather 
upon a tiny twig. How far off it was, when first perceived, we do not 
know; but in the intervening fraction of a second the twig has rushed 
into the focus of distinct vision, from many yards away. A Woodcock 
tears through the thickest cover as if it were clear space, avoiding 
every obstacle. The only things to the accurate perception of which 
birds' eyes appeax not to have accommodated themselves are tele- 



INTELLIGENCE 111 

graph wires and lighthouses; thousands of birds are annually hurled 
against these objects to their destruction." 

A probable sense of direction has already been considered in the 
chapter on 'Migration.' 

Intelligence. — It is the human side of bird-life which in recent years 
has most attracted bird students and has been most emphasized by 
popular writers. -With the bird's already pronounced human-like 
traits to build on, it has required only imagination, unrestrained by 
scientific method or analysis, to m^ake of the bird a creature of marvel- 
ous mental endowment, whose reasoning powers, within the limits of 
its normal activities, are equal if not superior to those of man. 

Such treatment finds favor with those whose love of birds exceeds 
their knowledge of ornithology, but it is strongly resented by others 
who, jdelding nothing in their appreciation of the birds' claims to our 
attention, would still have them regarded as birds rather than as feath- 
ered human beings. But in attempting to administer a corrective, the 
critics of the ultra-human point of view have given an overdose. They 
not only deny the bird ability to reason, but assert that all its mental 
activities are wholly instinctive; in short, that the bird is a feathered 
automaton. 

It is not possible here to discuss this question in the light of all the 
available evidence, but only to record my own views as they are based 
mainly on personal observations. These lead me to believe that neither 
point of view is wholly right nor wholly wrong; in other words, that 
there is a measure of truth in both contentions. In each case, however, 
it would appear that a fundamental error is made in speaking of the 
"mind of birds" collectively, or as a unit. We would not attempt thus 
to consider the mind of mammals, and while there is not, it is true, so 
wide a range of mental development in birds as there is in mammals, 
the difference between the least intelligent and the most inteHigent 
is far too great for us to discuss the mind of the Class Aves without 
distinction as to species and even individuals. 

For example, a prolonged, intimate study of Pelicans seems to em- 
phasize the low order of their intelligence. Perfectly as they are adapted 
to their own environment, they exhibit, when confronted by new con- 
ditions, what, judged by human standards, can only be called stupidity. 

On the other hand, the Blue Jays, Crows, Jackdaws, and otliors of 
their near kin, often exhibit so high a degree of intelligence that the 
bird-lover, unmindful of exact definitions, is tempted to assert that 
they show ability to reason. 

The Herons of Cuthbert Rookery were alarmed into hurried flight 
by the firing of a gun a mile and a half away, but the Crows which were 
with them paid no attention to the report. The Herons' experience 
with firearms has developed an unreasoning fear, while Crows show 
the nicest judgment in estimating the range of a gun. 

The Herons of this rookery permitted the Crows to rob them of their 
eggs by the hundred without the slightest indication of protest or 



112 INTELLIGENCE 

resentment, but Kingbirds attack every Crow which ventures near their 
nest, often pursuing them for several hundred yards. 

Similar instances, illustrating the wide range of intelligence among 
birds of difTerent species, might be multiplied endlessly, but any consider- 
ation of the subject renders this variation so evident that it is assuredly 
unnecessary to present further proof. 

Variation in intelligence is not confined to these differences between 
species, but within narrower limits is shown by the individual. To those 
who study birds as individuals rather than as species, this statement 
will seem superfluous, but advocates of automatic bird-life would have 
us believe that, in the same species, one bird is essentially the duplicate 
of another. Birds which nest, closely associated in colonies, where a 
certain standard of behavior is developed by similarity of environment 
and imitation, show less individuality than those species of more sol- 
itary habits ; but it requires only intimate experience with representatives 
of either class to convince one that pronounced characteristics are often 
shown by certain individuals, and indeed one rarely finds in the latter 
group two birds which act exactly alike. It is the range of intelligence 
among the individuals which, in the end, determines the degree of 
success of the species. It is among the Passerine birds that we shall find 
birds possessing the highest intelligence, and the Passeres are the birds 
of the day, the dominant group in the Class Aves, outnumbering the 
members of all other orders combined. 

Admitting then that some species of birds exhibit barely a glimmer 
of intelligence, and are indeed very near to being feathered automata, 
are there not at the other end of the scale birds which possess the power 
to reason? 

By reason, accepting Lloyd Morgan's definition, is meant the "pro- 
cess of drawing a logical inference," the ability "to think the therefore." 
We can of course determine the bird's mental status only on the basis 
of its actions. Birds' notes, so far as we understand them, express only 
primary emotions. If birds then can draw an inference, we can be 
aware of it only through its efTect on their behavior. Those direct 
responses to conditions which lead to change of action, or of habit, 
as where a bird becomes shy through persecution or tame through pro- 
tection, are not to be attributed to reason, as the term is here used, but 
are unreasoning exhibitions prompted by sense associations which 
occasion no sequence of thought on the part of the bird, no drawing of 
conclusions or performance of acts made with such indubitable reference 
to other following, dependent acts, that it is evident the latter were con- 
ceived of as the logical consequence of the former. The bird, with truly 
wonderful quickness, learns to associate a certain thing with danger, 
another thing with safety. The Pelicans of Pelican Island, Florida, 
for the first time in their known history, failed to return to their island 
because a sign had been erected on it. This illustrates the keenness of 
the birds' perception, but it also demonstrates their inability to infer 
that a piece of board was harmless. 



STATUS OF THE SPECIES 113 

A pair of Blue Jays, after an absence of nearly two hours, imme- 
diately returned to their nest and fed their young, their suspicions com- 
pletely allayed by the presence of a mounted Jay in the nest tree. Here 
was a response so quick and satisfactory that it might be considered 
evidence of the bird's abihty to draw an inference, but the bird's failure 
to distinguish a poorly mounted, discarded museum specimen of its 
own kind, and later of an Owl, from the living bird, indicates its inabil- 
ity to reason. (See ''Camps and Cruises," pp. 5-14.) 

Using the word reason, therefore, as psychologists commonly define 
it, I may say at once that I have seen no conclusive evidence of reason- 
ing power in my study of birds. But in place of this characteristic 
of the human mind, one finds in birds certain other senses and faculties 
so much more highly developed than they are in man that we doubt- 
less have but a faint conception of their value. Birds exhibit a truly 
surprising power of memory — implying also association of experiences 
— while in their hearing, sight, and probable sense of direction, they 
are incomparably our superiors. In my judgment, then, it is to the 
keenness of these powers rather than to an alleged gift of reason that 
the bird owes its success in life. Before their manifestation, reason, 
following the slower channels of logical inference, may often well stand 
aghast. What form of reason would lead a bird night after night on a 
journey of thousands of miles with such nice precision of movement 
that the goal is reached on a certain day? For men, with only the bird's 
physical equipment, the feat would be impossible. 

In thus denying the bird's power to reason, we add rather than 
detract from the interest with which we study the evidences of its own 
pecuhar and remarkable gifts; and our interest is intensified by the 
wide range of variation in the mental development among individuals 
as well as groups, which often renders it uncertain just what response 
will follow a certain stimulus. 

Nor, in denying the birds close association with us on the higher 
planes of intelhgence, should we lose our feeling of kinship with them. 
We have distanced them in the race of mental development; but that 
should not render us any the less eager to discover in some of their 
traits those which characterized the childhood of our race. 

Status of the Species. — The mc^asure of a bird's success in life is 
determined not alone by its powers as a migrant (if it be migratory); 
its attractiveness when wooing a mate; its skill as a nest-builder; its 
devotion and courage as a parent; the nature of its physical and mental 
endowment, or the degree of its intelligence, but also by the extent of 
its adaptability and the character of its temperament. When, there- 
fore, we ask why some birds are abundant and others rare, all th(^se 
factors are to be considered in connection with all the conditions under 
which the bird lives; and to do this with due attention to the many 
influences involved, is one of the ultimate objects of the study of orni- 
thology; for, to determine the causes of the success and failure of life 
is second only to determining the origin of life itself. 



114 STATUS OF THE SPECIES 

Species which are the direct object of man's unbridled greed, must 
succumb to an enemy before which neither swiftness of flight nor exces- 
sive wariness avail. Thus the Wild Pigeon and White Egrets, however 
well they were fitted to contend with nature, could not escape man. 

But when man enters the bird's life only indirectly, altering its 
environment without actually killing the bird itself, the species in 
undiminished numbers is left to face the problem; and its ability to 
adjust itself to new conditions is now put to a vital and immediate test. 

The Pileated and Ivory-billed Woodpeckers have decreased with 
the forests; but the Crow and the Robin, both naturally forest-inhabit- 
ing species, have more than held their own. Both, in different ways, 
have adapted themselves to the new order of things ; the Crow meets the 
distinctly hostile if not actively aggressive attitude of man by wariness . 
and more than average intelligence; the Robin, through its fearless- 
ness, has won man's friendship and protection. Near his dwellings its 
natural enemies have been reduced in number, and the normal food 
supply greatly augmented by fruits of various kinds, a more accessible 
supply of worms on close-cropped lawns, and various insects which 
also thrive on man's bounty. 

The introduction into this country of the House or English Sparrow 
has, from a biological point of view, been an overwhelming success. 
Not only did the bird fill an unoccupied place in our cities, but when 
brought into competition with native species, its hardiness, general 
adaptability, pugnacity and continuous presence have all been in its 
favor. When the migratory Bluebirds or Purple Martins returned, they 
often found the Sparrows in possession of their nesting-boxes, and the 
decrease in the numbers of both these species is unquestionably to be 
attributed to their inability to compete with the Sparrow. 

In the changes wrought by man, directly or indirectly, we may 
find many similar illustrations of sudden alterations in the bird's 
environment, and the manner in which they are met demonstrates what 
is meant by adaptability. In nature, equally great changes may occur, 
but they take place more slowly, and the adjustment between them and 
the bird, while not the less essential, is not so severe and sudden a tax 
on the bird's resources. 

But aside from these external influences, which may remain un- 
changed and hence inactive for long periods of time, there are certain 
internal influences which are constantly potent. Chief among these is 
temperament as it is expressed in sociability or desire for solitude. It 
is obvious that only birds of social, or at least peaceable, disposition 
could live in such close juxtaposition as do colonial birds, like Gannets, 
Murres, Flamingoes, CUff Swallows and many others, where nests or 
nesting birds almost touch one another. Such social species are usually 
represented by numerous individuals, while on the other hand the 
relative abundance of solitary species is related to the extent of the 
area over which they claim guardianship while nesting, to the exclusion 
only of other birds of their own kind. Hence, Hawks and Owls, for 



STATUS OF THE SPECIES 115 

example, which resent the intrusion of other individuals of the species 
into their nesting area, are comparatively rare ; while Robins and Chip- 
ping Sparrows, which, though not colonial, often nest near others of 
their kind, are comparatively abundant. The abundance of a species 
is, therefore, doubtless more dependent upon the number of nests 
which, under favorable conditions of environment, constitute the normal 
number for a given area, than upon the supply of food in that area. 

On this subject, Brewster ("Birds of the Cambridge Region," pp. 62, 
63) remarks, "In my opinion the desire for exclusive possession so con- 
spicuously shown by the male, and often by him alone, is usually 
the direct result of sexual jealousy. This, as is natural, makes him intol- 
erant, during the breeding season, of the near presence of rival males. 
If his concern were chiefly in respect to the food supply, it would be 
equally manifested at every season and towards all birds who subsist 
on the same food that he and his mate require, which is certainly not 
the case." 

When in possession of all the essential facts, we may, therefore, 
in many instances, present more or less conclusive reasons for the 
success or failure of a species; but there will remain many others which 
are apparently inexplicable. Species will be observed, practically alike 
in structure and habits, some of which in incalculable numbers flood 
the land, while others are represented by but a few individuals scattered 
here and there in small colonies or concentrated in a narrow area. 

All other explanations failing, such cases tempt the belief that 
species as well as individuals have a life, that some full of the vigor 
of youth are advancing, while others past their prime are declining; 
that some in short are dominant, and others decadent. Dominant 
species are possessed of the vitality which admits of adaptiveness and 
power to overcome unfavorable conditions to which decadent species 
would succumb. 

Thus we may think of a dominant species as an expansive force 
which is preeminently fitted to fill, with the utmost precision of ad- 
justment, its own place in nature, and is also constantly pressing against 
all the governing influences which go to make up its environment, to 
increase its number and extend its range. Up to a certain point it meets 
a degree of success in proportion to its mental and physical endowment; 
beyond that it advances or retreats only after a struggle. 

In February, 1895, the South Atlantic States were visited by a 
blizzard which practically annihilated the Bluebirds wintering or resi- 
dent in them, and the following spring the species was absent from large 
areas, where the preceding year it had been common. The loss of a 
beautiful bird, so intimately associated with man, was deplored as 
irreparable, but within three years the species was as abundant as 
ever, so quickly did the expansive force of the species bring it to the 
limit where contact with environment checks further advance. 

Less evident, but in the end of greater significance, is the Bluebird's 
struggles with the English Sparrow and the European Starling, both 
10 



116 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT 

growing, expansive species. The conflict is not over food, for all the 
species are of different feeding habits, but over the nesting-site. We 
cannot imagine that the Bluebird will, even through force of circum- 
stances, exhibit the Sparrow's adaptability, and, in default of a normal 
site, build in branches, vines, electric light hoods — in short, any place 
which will hold nest-material — nor has it strength to compete success- 
fully with the Starting. 

Let us, therefore, join forces with this gentle- voiced messenger of 
sky and earth, by providing it with suitable homes in which these ene- 
mies, for whose presence we are responsible, shall not be permitted to 
abide. 

Suggestions for the Student 

Habitat. — Define the difference between 'Range' and 'Habitat.' Describe 
the habitat of a given species. What are the more important factors in 
determining the nature of a bird's habitat? Can you mention an instance 
where a change in the character of the habitat has been followed by a change 
in the character of the bird-life? Give instances of daily change in habitat. 

Habit and Structure. — Name the principal functions of the bill, and 
give illustrations of each. Describe the feeding habits of Woodpeckers, of 
Hawks, of the Woodcock, of Flycatchers, of Sparrows in relation to the 
character of their bill. What birds use the bill when climbing? In what birds 
is the bill adorned by bright colors or appendages in the breeding season? 
Name the functions of the wing. Describe the flight of Ducks, Quail, 
Hawks, Vultures, Woodpeckers, Purple Finches, Swallows, etc. Describe 
the relation between the shape of their wings and their manner of flight. 
What relation exists between the size of the wing and foot? What North 
American bird was flightless? What North American birds use their wings 
as muscial instruments? Which use them under water? How are they used 
in defence? Describe their use in sheltering the young. 

Name the functions of the tail. Which of our birds use it in display? 
Which as a prop? Describe its relation to manner of flight. 

What are the functions of the feet? Describe the various means of 
locomotion employed by birds. What birds use only the feet under water? 
In what way is a Coot's (Fulica) adapted to its wants? Why is a Phal- 
arope's foot webbed? In what birds does the structure of the foot change 
with season? How is the foot held in flight by various birds? What is the 
relation of length of foot to length of neck? (There is almost no limit to 
the questions which may be asked in regard to the form and function of 
birds, and the student is urged to draw largely on local material to stimu- 
late his powers of observation in this direction.) 

The Senses. — How do the senses of birds compare with those of man? 
Is the sense of smell well developed in birds? Can you mention any in- 
stances illustrating the bird's power of taste? Its powers of touch? Is the 
power of hearing well developed in birds? Mention several instances. Do 
birds learn quickly the significance of certain sounds? Mention several 
instances illustrating the bird's power of sight. Define what is meant by 
intelligence in birds. Are some species more intelligent than others? What 
is the difference between intelligence and reason? What is Lloyd Morgan's 
definition of "reason"? Have you found any evidence illustrating the bird's 
ability to reason? Why is it desirable to base stories of bird-life presented 
as "true" on known facts in their habits? 

Status of the Species.— What are the most important factors in de- 
termining whether a bird is rare or common? How may man directly or 
indirectly affect the members of a species? Give illustrations. Why does 
the English Sparrow present an interesting biological problem? How may 



REFERENCES 117 

a bird's temperament affect its numbers? Give illustrations. When were 
Bluebirds destroyed by a blizzard? How long before their numbers reached 
normal? What is the probable reason of their sudden increase? 

References 

1883. Martin and Moale, How to Dissect a Bird (Macmillan). — 1884, 
CouES, E., Key to North American Birds (Dana Estes) rev. ed. 1902, Vol. 
I, pp. 59-233 (important). — 1893-1896. Newton, A. and others, A Diction- 
ary of Birds, 1 vol., 1088 pp. (Macmillan). — 1894. Morgan, C. L., An 
Introduction to Comparative Psychology, 12mo., 382 pp. (Scribner's). — 
1895. Headley, F. W., The Structure and Life of Birds, 12mo. 412 pp., 
ills. (Macmillan). — 1898. Beddard, F. E., Structure and Classification of 
Birds, 8vo., 548 pp., ills. (Longmans). — 1897. Basket, J. N., The Story 
of the Birds, 12mo., 263 pp., ills. (Appleton).— 1906. Beebe, C. W., 
The Bird. Its Form and Function, 8vo., 496 pp., ills. (Holt).— 1910. 
Pycraft, W. p., a History of Birds, 8vo., 458 pp., ills. (Methuen, London). 
— 1910. Herrick, F. H., Instinct and Intelligence in Birds, Pop. Sci. 
Monthly, June, July, and August. — 1911. Various Authors, Journ. of 
Animal Behavior (Holt). 



THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA 
EAST OF THE NINETIETH MERIDIAN 

KEY TO ORDERS AND FAMILIES 
1. THE WATER BIRDS 




Fig. 22. 

Order I. Pygopodes. — Grebes, Loons, and Auks. 

Ducklike birds, but with the bill usually •pointed, never feathered and 
wider than high; never with fiutings, 'gutters,' or serrations on its 
sides; wings short, never with a bright-colored patch or speculum; 
tail insignificant; feet placed far back (most species, when standing, 
usually rest on their entire length, thus including the tarsus); tarsus 
flattened to present least resistance when swimming; toes webbed or 
lobed. Color, usually blackish above, white below, the throat often dark. 
Grebes and Loons, when pursued, usually dive; Auks generally fly. 

A. Toes four, nail fla' or rounded. 
a. Toes with lobate webs; tail absent. (Fig. 22, a) 

. . . Family Colymhidce: Grebes, p. 138. 
h. Toes webbed, tail present. (Fig. 22, h. ) 

Family Gaviidae: Loons, p. 142. 

B. Toes three, webbed, nails sharply pointed; tail present. 



(Fig. 22, c). 



and Puffins, p. 145. 



Family Alcidce: Auks, Murres, 




(t---^ 



Order II. Longipennes. — Jaegers, Gulls, 
and Terns. 
Birds generally seen on the wing, usually 
over or near water. Bill strong, thick; 
hooked in the Gulls and Jaegers, sharply 
pointed in the Terns; bladelike in the Skim- 
mers; often in part yellow or red; wings 




Fig. 23. 



(118) 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



119 



very long and pointed, the outer feathers being much the longest; 
toes webbed. Adult Gulls and Terns are usually pearl-gray above, 
white below; Jaegers and most young Gulls are dark. 
A. Bill hooked and hawklike. 

a. Bill with a naillike hook, its base with a scaly shield; plumage 
dark; central tail-feathers longest. (Fig. 23, a). . . . Family 
StercorariidcB: Skuas and "Jaegers, p. 150. 
6. Hook continuous with bill, no scaly shield, tail-feathers usually 
of about equal length (Fig. 23, h) . . . , Subfamily Larince: 
Gulls, p. 152, 




Fig. 24. 



Fig. 25. 



B. Bill not hooked. 

a. Bill straight, usually slender and sharply pointed; tail usually 

more or less forked. . . . Subfamily 5^ernm(K; Terns (Fig. 24), 

p. 162. 
6. Bill thin and bladelike, the lower mandible longer than the 

upper (Fig. 25). . . . Family EynchopidcB: Skimmers, p. 172. 





Fig. 26. 



Order III. Tubinares. — Albatrosses, Petrels, and Fulmars. 

Gray, sooty, or black and white soa-birds; living, except when nesting, 
well off shore; flying low, often skinmiing the waves. Nostril-openings 
tubelikc; bill hawkhke, its 'hook' often prominent; front-toes webbed, 
hind-toe small or absent; wings long and pointed; tail short. 

A. Size very large, nostril-tubes separated, on sich^s of bill (Fig. 20, a). 

. . . Family Diomedeidce: Albatrosses, p. 172. 

B. Size smaller, nostril-tubes joined on top of bill (Fig. 26, 6). . . . 

Fsimily Procellariidae: Petrels,Fulmar3, Shearwaters, p. 173. 



120 



KEY TO FAMILIES 




Fig. 28. 



Fia. 31. 




Fig. 29. 



Fig. 32. 



Order rV. Steganopodes. — Gannets, Cormorants, Pelicans, etc. 

Large birds, two feet or more in length, differing widely in appearance 
and habits; in external structure agreeing in having all four toes con- 
nected by webs (Fig. 29), though in the Fregatidce and Phaethontidos 
this character is poorly developed. 

A. Bill unhooked, more or less sharply pointed (Figs. 27, 28, 30). 
a. Chin feathered, adult with very long central tail-feathers; 
maritime; general appearance ternlike; rarely enters United 
States. . . FamilyP/iaef/ioM^tdce; Tropic Birds (Fig. 28), p. 178. 
h. Chin bare; central tail-feathers not greatly lengthened. 



h\ 



bills, central tail- 
Family Sulidce: 



h\ 



B 



Sea-birds with thick necks and stout 
feathers without transverse flutings. . 
Gannets (Fig. 27), p. 179. 
In whole or part black or blackish; fresh-water or coast 
birds, with straight, slender bills (Fig. 30), central tail- 
feathers fluted. . . . Y BxriViY Anhingida: Darters, p. 181. 
, Bill hooked (Figs. 31, 32). 
o. Lores bare, tail not forked. 

fli. Bill over 12- 00, with a large pouch. . . . Family Pelicanidce: 

Pelicans, p. 183. 
a^. Bill under 4'00 (Fig. 31), no large pouch; black or blackish 
birds. ... Family Phalacrocoracidce: Cormorants, p. 182. 
b. Lores feathered; tail deeply forked (Fig. 32). . . . Family 
Fregatida: Man-o'-war-birds, p. 185. 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



121 



Order V. Anseres. — Ducks, Geese, and Swans. 

Toes four; tarsus rounded not flattened as in the Grebes; tail well 
developed; bill rounded and with tooth-like projections, or flattened 
and with fluted ridges. Unlike the Grebes, most Ducks when pursued 
fly rather than dive. 




Fig. 33. 

1. Bill, long, narrow and rounded, with tooth-like projections (Fig. 

33). . . . Subfamily Mergince: Mergansers, p. 187. 

2. Bill more or less flattened and ducklike. 
A. Lores feathered. 

a. True Ducks; tarsus shorter than the middle-toe without 
nail; scales on its front transverse more or less square 
(Fig. 34, a, h). 
aK Hind-toe Tvdthout a flap or lobe (Fig. 34, o) . . . . Sub- 
family Anatincs: River Ducks, p. 190. 
a\ Hind-toe lobed (Fig. 34, &). . . . Subfamily Fuligulinas: 
Sea and Bay Ducks, p. 198. 




Fio. 34 



6. Tarsus generally longer than middle-toe, without nail; scales 

on its front rounded. . . . Subfamily AnserincB: Geese, 
p. 210. 
B. Lores bare. . . . Subfamily CygnincB: Swans, p. 215. 



122 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



Order VI. Odontoglossse. — 

Flamingoes. 
Long-legged, long-necked, 
red or pink - and - white 
birds; bill bent downward, 
with lateral ridges (Fig. 
35); toes four, front ones 
webbed. With the charac- 
ters of the Order 

F a m i ly Phosnicopteridcs: 
Flamingoes, p. 216. 




Fig. 35. 



Order VII. Herodiones. — Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc. 

Long-legged, wading birds usually found along shores, on muddy flats 
or in marshes. Herons and Bitterns fly with a fold in the neck; Ibises 
and Spoonbills with the neck straight. Toes four, slightly or not 
webbed, all on the same level; lores bare. 



^^■^ 




Fig. 37. 




Fig. 38. 



A. Bill straight and sharply pointed; inner border of middle toe- 

nail with a comblike edge (Fig. 36); neck curved in flight. . . . 
Family Ardeidce: Herons, Egrets, Bitterns, p. 219. 

B. Bill not sharply pointed, cylindrical or flattened (Figs. 37, 38); 

no comb on toe-nail ; neck straight in flight. 
o. Bill rounded, more or less curved downward. 

ai. Size large, tarsus over 5*00; whole head bare in adult. . . . 

Family Ciconiidce: Storks and Wood Ibises, p. 219. 
a2. Size smaller, tarsus under S'OO; face bare (Fig. 37). . . . 
Family Ihididce: Ibises, p. 218. 
h. Bill flattened and much broadened at the end (Fig. 38), our 
species pink. . . . Family Plataleidce: Spoonbills, p. 217. 



KEY TO FAJNIILIES 



123 




Fig. 39 

Order VIII. Paludicolse. — Cranes, Rails, Gallinules, etc. 

Neck extended in flight ; toes four without webs (except in lobate Coot, 
Fig. 39, e) or a comb on toe-nail; hind-toe generally small and higher 
than the front one; or if on the same level (Gallinules and Coots only), 
the bill is then comparatively short (Fig. 39, d, e) and the forehead 
bare; lores feathered or (Cranes) with hairlike bristles. 




A. Smaller, bill under S'OO (Fig. 39). . . . Family Rallidce: Rails, 

Gallinules, Coots, p. 230. 

B. Larger, bill over 3-0() (Figs. 40, 41). 

a. Tarsus over ()-00 (Fig. 40.). . . Family Gruidce: Cranf^h, p. 229. 

b. Tarsus under 6"00 (Fig. 41). . . . Family Aramidce: Courlans, 

p. 230. 



124 



KEY TO FAMILIES 




Order IX. Limicolse. — Phalaropes, Snipes, Plovers, etc. 

Long-legged, often slender-billed 'Shore-birds,' usually less than a 
foot in length, which frequently utter piping whistles in flight or as 
they take wing; toes four or (Plovers) three; the hind-toe, when present, 
less than half the length of the inner, and always elevated; bill soft; 
nostrils opening through slits or grooves; wings long and pointed, 
tertials much elongated. 




Fig. 43. 

1. Tarsus over 3*50; noisy, conspicuous, black and white or black, 

and white and brown birds. . . . Family RecuvirostridcB: 
AvocETS (Fig. 12) and Stilts, p. 241. 

2. Tarsus under S'SO. 

A. Toes lobate (Fig. 43 a). . . . Family Phalaropodidcs: Phalar- 

opes, p. 239. 

B. Toes not lobate (Fig. 43, b, c, d, e). 

a. Front of tarsus with square, transverse scales (Fig. 43, b, c); 
toes four" except in the Sanderling, 
o^. Whole lower back white, a black band across the rump; 
bill short, stout and slightly recurved. . . . Family 
Aphrizidce: Surf Birds and Turnstones, p. 268. 
h^. Whole lower back not white; bill a probe, softer, pro- 
portionately longer, not recurved (Fig. 42, a, b) . . . 
Family Scolopacidcc: Snipes, Sandpipers, etc., p. 242. 
6. Front of tarsus with rounded scales; toes three (except in 
Blark-bellied Plover). (Fig. 43, d, e.) 

61. Bill under 2-00 (Fig. 42, c, d) Family Charadriidce: 

Plovers, p. 263. 
b^. Bill over 2"00. . . . Family HamatopodidcB: Oyster- 
catchers, p. 268- 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



125 



II. THE LAND BIRDS 



Order X. Gallinse. — Turkeys, Grouse, Bob-whites, etc. 
Terrestrial, scratching birds of henlike form; 
bill stout and short, its culmen rounded (Fig. 
44) ; wings short and rounded, the primaries 
stiffened and producing a whirring sound in 
flight; tail variable, feet strong, hind-toe short, 
elevated. 

A. Smaller than a Turkey. 

a. Tarsus unfeathered. . . . Family Odon- 

tophoridce: Bob - whites and New 
World Quails, p. 269. 

b. Tarsus more or less feathered . . . Family Te^raomdce; Grouse. 

Ptarmigans, etc., p. 272. 

B. Size of a Turkey. . . . Family Meleagridce: Turkeys, p. 278. 




Fig. 44. 



Order XI. Columbse. — Pigeons and Doves. 

Toes four, all on the same level ; the hind-toe about 
as long as the shortest front one; bill (Fig. 45){<s^>^ 
slender, deeply grooved, the nostrils opening in a 
soft, fleshy membrane. 

Characters those of the Order. . . . Family 

ColumbidcB: Pigeons and Doves, p. 281 Fig. 45 





Fig. 46. 



Order XII. Raptores. — ^Vultures, Hawks, and Owxs. 

Generally large birds with hooked bill; feet strong with long curved 
nails. (Fig. 46.) 

A. Eyes set in a feathered disk (Figs. 47, 48), tarsus generally 
feathered; plumage soft and fluffy. 
a. Middle-toe with a comblike edge. . . Family AluconidcB. 
Barn Owls, p. 308. 




Fig. 47. 




126 



KEY TO FAMILIES 




Fig. 49. 



Fia. 50. 



b. Middle-toe without a comblike edge. . . . Family StrigidcB, 
p. 309. 
B. Eyes not set in a feathered disk, tarsus largely bare; plumage 
firm and close. 
a. Front of tarsus with square scales. 

a^. Bill not strongly hooked; toe-nails comparatively weak; 
nostrils large, piercing the bill; head and more or less of 
neck bare (Fig. 49). . . . Family CathartidcB: American 
Vultures, p. 286. 
a^. Bill strongly hooked (Fig. 50) ; hind-toe generally as long as 
or longer than the shortest front one; claws large; head 
not bare. . . . Family ButeonidcB: Hawks, Eagles, Kites, 
p. 287. 
6. Front of tarsus with rounded scales. 

foi. Soles of feet thickly set wdth sharp spicules (Fig. 20). . . . 

Family Pandionidce: Ospreys, p. 307. 
62. Soles of feet without spicules. . . . Family Falconidce: 
Falcons, Caracaras, etc., p. 303. 




Order XIII. Psittaci. — Parrots, 

Paroquets, etc. 
Toes four, two in front, two 
behind; bill strong, hooked, 
with a cere; lower mandible 
scoop-shaped (Fig. 51). . . . 
Family Psittacidce: Parrots, 
Paroquets, p. 317. 




FiQ. 52. 



Cuckoos, King- 



Fig. 53. 



Order XIV. Coccyges. 

fishers, etc. 
Toes four, the middle and the outer ones 
joined for half their length (Fig. 52) or 
two in front and two behind (Fig. 53); bill 
without a cere; tail-feathers not stiff and 
pointed. 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



127 



A. Middle and outer toes joined for half their length (Fig. 52). . . , 

Family AlcedinidcB: Kingfishers, p. 320. 

B. Two toes in front and two behind (Fig. 53). . . , Family Cucul- 

ides: Cuckoos, p. 318. 




Order XV. Piei. — Woodpeckers. 

Climbing birds with stout, pointed bills, bristly nostrils, pointed, 
stiffened tail-feathers; strong feet and nails; toes four, two in front, 
two behind, or three, two in front, one behind (Fig. 54). Prevailing 
colors black and white, the male usually with red on the head. 

Characters those of the Order. . . . Family Picidce: Woodpeckers, 
p. 322. 




Fia. 5t 



FiQ. 57. 



Order XVI. Machrochires. — Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds. 
An obsolete group to which, for the present, the A. O. U. continues 
to refer our American Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingl)irds with 
more obvious external characters as below. 

A. Size comparatively largo, plumage soft, variegated Ijlack, l)rown, 

and l)uff; middle-toc with a comblike edge (Fig. 55). . . . 

Family Caprimulgidce: Nighthawks, Whip-poor-wills, etc., 
p. 331. 

B. Size medium, plumage close, firm, sooty black; tips of tail- 

feathers with spines (Fig. 56). . . , Family Micropodidce: 
Swifts, p. 334. 

C. Size very small, upperparts shining green; bill long and slender 

(Fig. 57). . . . Family Trochilidcc: Hummingbirds, p. 335. 



128 



KEY TO FAMILIES 




Order XVII. Passeres. — Perching Birds: Flycatchers, 
Blackbirds, Jays, Orioles, Sparrows, Finches, 
Swallows, Vireos, Warblers, Wrens, Thrushes, 
etc. 
Toes four, without webs, all on the same level; hind- 
toe as large as the middle one, its nail generally 
longer than that of the middle one; tail of twelve 
feathers. (Fig. 58.) 

[The following synoptical 
table of the characters 
of the twenty families 
which we have in this 
order seems more satis- 
factory than an artifi- 
cial key.] 

Family 1. Tyrannidce. — Flycatchers (Fig. 59). 

Bill wider than high at the base, 
slightly hooked at the tip; base with 
conspicuous bristles ; wings longer than 
the tail, the second to fourth prima- 
ries longest, the first but little shorter 
and generally equal to the fifth or 
sixth; back of tarsus rounded, like 
the front; plumage generally olive- 
green or grayish; tail, except in the 
Kingbird, without white spots, p. 338. 




Fig. 59. 



•Larks 




Family 2. Alaudidce. 
(Fig. 60). 
Bill rather stout and rounded; 
nostrils with bristly tufts; nail 
of hind-toe much lengthened, as 
long as the middle-toe without nail; back of the tarsus rounded like the 
front, p. 347. 



Fig. 60. 




FiQ. 61. 



Family 3. Corvidce. — Crows and Jays (Fig. 61). 

Large birds, over lO'OO in length; bill stout, the nostrils concealed by tufts 
of bristly feathers; fourth to fifth primary the longest, the first about half 
as long; outer tail-feathers shortest; feet and legs stout, p. 350. 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



129 



Family 4. Sturnidce. — Star- 
lings (Fig. 62). 
Bill flattened, -Rdder than 
high at the base ; tail short 
and square; wings long 
and pointed, second pri- 
mary longest, the first 
very small, less than half 
an inch in length, p. 355. 




Fig. G2. 




Family 5. IderidcB. — Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. (Fig 03). 

Length 7'00-17"00; base of the bill, between the nostrils, extending back- 
ward and dividing the feathers of the forehead; nostrils not concealed by 
bristles; first three primaries of about equal length; outer tail-feathers 
generally shortest, p. 357. 



Family 6. Fringillidcs. — Spar- 
rows, Finches, Gros- 
beaks, etc. (Fig. 64). 
Length 4-75-9*00, generally 
under 8*00; bill short, stout, 
and conical, admirably fitted 
to crush seeds; third and 
fourth primaries generally 
about the same length, the 
first never more than half an 
inch shorter than the longest, 
p. 369. 




i'lu. 01. 



Family 7. Tangaridce. — Tanagers (Fig. 65). n. 

Length about 7"00; the males of our species mostly ^5""""^^ 

red; bill finchlike, but less conical, somewhat swollen, ^^ii^^-— -^ 

the outline of the upper mandible curved, its sides "^ ZS^^ 

with a slight but generally evident 'tooth' near the y/ y 



middle; tail-feathers of equal length, p. 413. 



FiQ. G5. 



130 



KEY TO FAMILIES 



Family 8. Hirundinidce. — Swallows (Fig. 
Bill short and flattened, much wider 
than high at the base; no bristles at 
the base of the bill; wings long and 
pointed, tips, when closed, generally 
reaching beyond the end of the taU; 
first primary the longest; outer tail- 
feathers longest ; feet small, tarsus short, 
round in front, narrower and sharper 
in the back, p. 415. 



66). 





Fig. 66. 




Family 9. Bombycillidcs. — Wax- 
wings (Fig. 67). 
Plumage generally soft, brownish 
gray or grayish brown; a black 
band across the forehead and 
through the eyes ; tail tipped with 
yellow; bill short, notched at the 
tip ; head conspicuously crested, 
p. 420. 



Fig. C7. 

Family 10. LaniidcE. — Shrikes (Fig. 68). 

Grayish birds, 8"00-9"00 in length, most of the 

tail-feathers tipped with white; bill hooked and , ^ 

hawkhke, p. 422. >'''''^ / 

^ Fig. 68. 
Family 11. Vireondice. — Vireos (Fig. 69). 

Small birds, 5'00-7*00 in length, with generally olive-green backs; tail- 
feathers without white spots; bill rather 
stout, higher than broad at the base, 
the tip of the upper 
mandible notched and 
hooked, bristles at the 
base of the bill barely 
evident; tarsi scaled, 
round in front, nar- 
rower and sharper 
behind; toes united at 
the base, p. 424. Fig. 69. 

Family 12. MniotiltidcE. — Wood War- 
blers (Fig. 70). 
Small birds, length generally under 
0"00, but in four species 6'50-7"50, 
with, as a rule, brightly colored plum- 
age, olive-green or yellow being the 
most frequent; bill various, never 
notched at the tip, usually slender and 
sharply pointed, without conspicuous 
bristles, but sometimes flattened and 
broader than high at the base, when 
the bristles are evident (thus resem- 
bling the bill of a true Flycatcher, but 
the back of the tarsus is always thin 





KEY TO FAMILIES 



131 



and narrow, and never rounded as in front); rarely the bill is heavier, 
more thrushlike or finchlike; second or third primary longest, the first 
little if any shorter; tail generally square, sometimes rounded, the outer 
feathers frequently blotched with white, p. 430. 



O..,. 




Fig. 71. 



Family 13. Motacillidoe. — Wagtails 
and Pipits (Fig. 71). 
No bristles over the nostrils; bill 
slender, much as in the preceding; 
hind toe-nail much lengthened, as 
long as or longer than the toe; 
first three primaries of equal length, 
p. 470. 



Family 14. MimidcB. — Thkashers, 
Mockingbirds, and Catbirds 
(Fig. 72, a, 6). 
Length 8-00-12-00; tarsus scaled; taH 
rounded, the outer feathers at least 
half an inch shorter than the middle 
ones, third to fifth primary longest, 
the first about half as long, p. 472, 

Family 15. Troglody tides. — Wrens (Fig. 
72, c, d). 
Length 4-00-6-00; bill moderate, the 
upper mandible slightly curved, no 
bristles at its base; third to fourth 
primary longest, first about half as 
long; tail short and rounded; brown 
or brownish birds with indistinctly 
barred wings and tail, p. 475. 





Fig. 72. 

Family 16. Certhiida. — Creepers (Fig. 73). 
Bill slender and much curved ; tail-feathers 
pointed and slightly stiffened, p. 481. 



Fig. 73. 

Family 17. Sittidce. — Nuthatches (Fig. 74, 
a, 6). 
Bill rather long and slender, the end of 
the lower mandible slanting slishtly up- 
ward; wings long and pointed, the third 
or fourth primary the longest, the first 
very small, not an inch in length; tail short 
and square, the outer feathers blotched 
with white, p. 482. 

Family 18. Paridce. — Titmice (Fig. 74, 6). 
Length 4'50-6"50; bill short, stout, and 
rounded, less than half an inch in length; 
11 




Fig. 74. 



132 



KEY TO FAMILIES 




Fia. 75. 

Family 20. Turdida. — 
Thrushes, Bluebirds, 
etc. (Fig. 76). 
Length over 5*50; bill raod- 
erate, the tip of the upper 
mandible notched; tarsus 
smooth, the scales, if any, 
fused and indistinct; tail 
square; wings long and 
pointed, 3'75 or over, third 
primary the longest, the first 
very short, less than one inch 
in length, p. 491. 



foiu-th or fifth primary longest, first 
very short, not more than one-third as 
long; tail rather long, dull, ashy gray 
without white blotches, p. 485. 

Family 19. Sylviidcs. — Kinglets and 
Gnatcatchers (Fig. 75). 
Length 3 "50-5 '00; bill slender, resem- 
bling that of some Warblers, but the 
first primary is very short, only about 
one-third as long as the longest, p. 488. 




Fia. 76. 



A FIELD KEY TO OUR 
COMMONER EASTERN LAND BIRDS 

The following is a field key to those birds which, either because of 
their abundance or conspicuous colors, most frequently attract our 
attention. With the object of making it as brief, and consequently as 
simple, as possible, I have omitted species which can be referred to 
their respective famihes without difficulty — for example, Hawks, Owls, 
Woodpeckers, and Swallows. It is designed simply as an aid to the 
first steps of the beginner, who will soon graduate from it to the more 
detailed keys in the body of the book. Like the field keys to Finches 
and Sparrows and Warblers, it is based largely upon adult males. 

First Group. — With yellow or orange in the plumage. 
Second Group. — With red in the plumage. 
Third Group. — With blue in the plumage. 

Fourth Group. — Plumage conspicuously black, or black and white. 
Fifth Group. — Without either yellow, orange, red, or blue in the plumage; 
not conspicuously black, or black and white. 

First Group. — With yellow or orange in the plumage 

I. Throat yellow. 

1. Throat and breast pure yellow, without streaks or spots. 

A. Length 5"00; cap, wings, and tail black; back yellow; song canary- 

like, sometimes uttered on the wing; flight undulating, frequently 
accompanied by the notes chic-o-ree, per-chic-o-ree. 

529. Goldfinch. 

B. Length 5"50; lower belly and wing-bars white; back olive-green; 

frequents the upper branches, generally in woodland; actions delib- 
erate; song loud and musical, uttered slowly, often with pauses: 
"See me? I'm here; where are you?" 

628. Yellow-throated Vireo. 

C. Length 5"25; cheeks and forehead black bordered by ashy; upper 

parts olive-green; no wing-bars; haunts thickets and undergrowth; 
movements nervous and active; call-note, pit or chack; song, a vigor- 
ous, rapid witch-e-w^e-o, wi'ch-e-w^e-o, witch-e-wbe-o. 

681. Maryland Yellow-throat 

D. Length 7'25; upperparts olive-green; no wing-l)ars; a white line 

before the eye; haunts thickets and undergrowth; song, a striking 
mixture of whistles, chucks, and caws, sometimes uttered on the 
wing 683. Yellow-breasted Chat. 

2. Underparts streaked or spotted. 

A. Underparts streaked with rufous-brown; length 5'00; general 

appearance of a yellow bird; haunts shrubbery of lawns, orchards, 
second growths, and particularly willows near water; song, rather 
loud, wee, chee-chee-chee, cMr-wee, or chee-chee-chee-chee, why-o. 

652. Yellow Warbler. 

B. Breast yellow, with a conspicuous black crescent; length lO'OO; 

fields and meadows, largely terrestrial ; flight quail-like, outer white 
tail-feathers showing when on the wing; song, a loud, musical 
whistle 501. Meadowlark. 

(133) 



134 FIELD KEY 

II. Throat not yellow. 

1. Throat white. 

A. With yellow on the sides. 

a. Length 5'50; rump yellow; breast streaked or spotted with black; 

tail-feathers marked with white; note, a characteristic tchip; 
Sept. to May, usually rare or local in winter. 

655. Myrtle Warbler. 

b. Length 5'00; no streaks on underparts or white in the tail; yellow 

extending along the whole sides; back olive-green, iris white; 
haunts thickets; call, an emphatic "Who are you, eh?" 

631. White-eyed Vireo. 

c. Length 5*25; tail and wings banded with yellow, showing conspicu- 

ously in flight; haunts woodland; movements active, much in the 
air, tail frequently spread 687. Redstart. 

B. No yellow on sides. 

a. Length 6'75; a yellow line from the bill to the eye; crown black, 

with a white stripe through its center; haunts in and about 
thickets and bushy woodlands; song, a high, clear, musical 
whistle; call-note, chi7ik 558. White-throated Sparrow. 

b. Length 4"00; a yellow or yellow and orange crown-patch, bordered 

by black; flits restlessly about outer limbs of trees and bushes; 
note, a fine ti-ti; Oct. to Apl. . . 748. Golden-crowned Kinglet. 

2. Throat not white. 

A. Throat vinaceous; length 12*00; a black breast-patch; belly white, 

spotted with black; rump white, showing conspicuously in flight; 
linings of wings yellow; call-note, a loud kee-yer . . 412. Flicker. 

B. Throat and head black; length 7"50; breast, belly, and lower back 

deep orange; an active inhabitant of fruit and shade trees; song, a 
loud, ringing whistle 507. Baltimore Oriole. 

C. Throat and upper breast ashy; length 9*00; crested; belly yellow; 

tail-feathers largely pale rufous; haunts upper branches in wood- 
land; note, a loud questioning, or grating whistle. 

452. Crested Flycatcher. 

D. Grayish brown; length 7'00; crested; tip of tail yellow. 

619. Cedar Waxwing. 

Second Group. — With red in the plumage 

I. With red on the underparts. 

A. Throat red. 

a. Length 7'00; wings and tail black; rest of plumage bright scarlet; 

call-note, chip-chirr 608. Scarlet Tanager. 

b. Length 6"00; dull, pinkish red, wings and tail brownish; frequently 

seen feeding on buds or blossoms; call-note, a sharp chink, often 
uttered during flight; song, a sweet, flowing warble. 

517. Purple Finch. 

c. Length 6*00; dull red or green tinged with red; mandibles crossed; 

generally seen in flocks feeding on pine-cones. . . 521. Am. Crossbill 

d. Length 5"00; a red crown-cap; back streaked black and brown; 

breast rosy ; feeds n seeds or catkins ; Nov. to Mch . . 528. Redpoll. 

B. Throat black. 

a. Length 8'00; breast rose-red, rest of plumage black and white; song 
loud and musical ; call-note, peek . . 595. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 

6. Length 8'00; a conspicuous crest; region about the base of the bill 
black; rest of the plumage and bill red; song, a clear whistle. 

593. Cardinal. 

c. Length 5"50; wings and tail banded with orange-red, showing con- 
spicuously in flight; movements active; much in the air; tail fre- 
quently spread; haunts wjodland 687. Redstart. 



FIELD KEY 135 

II. No red on the underparts. 

A. Length 9"00; black; shoulders red; haunts marshes; migrates in flocks. 

498. Red-winged Blackbird. 

B. Length 5" 25; crown-cap red; chin black; rest of underparts streaked 

with blackish; feeds on seeds and catkins; Nov. to Mch. 

528. Redpoll (Im.). 
C Length 4'00; underparts whitish; back olive-green; a ruby crown- 
patch; eye-ring white; movements restless, wings flitted nervously; 
call-note, each; song remarkably loud and musical; Sept. and Oct.; 
Apl. and May 749. Ruby-crowned Kinglet. 



Third Group. — With blue in the plumage 

A. Length 11 '50; a conspicuous crest; upperparts dull blue; underparts 

whitish; a black patch on the breast 477. Blue Jay. 

B. Length 7"00; upperparts bright blue; breast cinnamon-rufous. 

766. Bluebird. 

C. Length 5'50; entire plumage indigo-blue. .598. Indigo Bunting. 



Fourth Group. — Plumage conspicuously black, or black 
and white 

I. Black and white birds. 

A. Throat black. 

a. Length over 6*00. 

a)-. Entire underparts black; nape buffy; rump white; a musical 
dweller of fields and meadows; frequently sings on the wing. 

494. Bobolink. 

a^. Breast rose-red; rest of the plumage black and white; song rajnd, 

loud, and musical; call-note, 'peek; a tree dweller in rather open. 

woodland 595. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 

a?. Sides rufous; rest of the plumage black and white; call-note, 
chewink or towhee; inhabits the undergrowth . . 587. Towhee. 
6. Length under 6' 00. 

6^. Crown black; cheeks white; back ashy; unstreaked; call, chick-a- 
dee, or a musical, double-noted whistle . . . 735. Chickadee. 
b^. Conspicuously streaked with black and whits; a tree creeper. 

636. Black and White Warbler. 

B. Underparts white or whitish. 

a. Length 8' 00; upperparts grayish slate-color; tail tipped with white; 
a bird of the air, catching its insect food on the wing, and occasion- 
ally sallying forth from its exposed porch in pursuit of a passing 
Crow; note, an unmusical, steely chatter . . . 444. Kin(;bird. 

6. Length 5'75; crown black; back bluish gray; a tree creeper; call-note, 
yank, yank .' 727. White-breasted Nuthatch. 

c. Length 6"50; upper parts washed with rusty; generally seen in flocks; 
terrestrial; Nov.-Mch 534. Snow Bunting 

II. No white in the plumage. 

A. Length 19-00; jot-black 488. Am. Crow. 

B. Length r2"00; Hack with metallic reflections; iris yellowish; migrates 

in flocks; nests usually in colonies in coniferous trees; voice cracked 
and reedy; tail "keeled" in short flights; a walker. 

511. Purple Crackle. 5116. Bronzed Crackle. 

C. Length 9*50; shoulders red; haunts marshes; call, koncj-quer-ree. 

498. Red-winged Blackbird. 

D. Length 7*50; head and neck coffee-brown; frequently seen on the 

ground near cattle . . 495. Cowbird. 



136 FIELD KEY 

Fifth Group. — Without either yellow, orange, red, or blue in the 
plumage; not conspicuously black, or black and white 

I. Underparts all one color, without streaks or spots. 
1. Back without streaks or spots. 

A. Underparts white or whitish. 
a. Length under 7" 50. 

a^. Back olive, olive-green, or slaty fuscous. 

a^. No white line over the eye ; flycatchers, capturing their prey on 

the wing and returning to their perch, where they sit quietly 

until making a fresh sally. 

o?. Crown blackish; frequently found nesting under bridges or 

about buildings; tail wagged nervously; note, pewit-phoebe. 

456. Phcebe. 
a*. Wing-bars whitish ; haunts orchards, lawns, and open wood- 
land; note, chebec, chebec . . . 467. Least Flycatcher. 
a^. Haunts woodlands; generally frequents the upper branches; 

note, a plaintive pee-a-wee 461. Wood Pewee. 

b\ A white line over the eye, or wing-bars white ; gleaners ; patiently 

exploring the foliage for food or fhtting about the outer 

branches. 

6^ White line over the eye bordered by a narrow black one; 

cap gray; iris red; song, a rambling recitative: "You see it 

— you know it — do you hear me?" etc. 

624. Red-eyed Vireo. 
6^. White line over the eye not bordered by black; prefers the 
upper branches of rows of elms and other shade trees ; song 
a rich, unbroken warble with an alto undertone. 

627. Warbling Vireo. 

6^ No white line over the eye; eye-ring and wing-bars white; 

length 4"00; a tiny, unsuspicious bird; flits about the outer 

branches of trees and shrubs; wings twitched nervously; 

note, cack; song, a remarkably loud, musical whistle. 

749. Ruby-crowned Kinglet. 
hK Back not olive-green, or slaty fuscous. 
62. Back gray or bluish gray. 

b^. Crown black; cheeks white; a tree creeper; note, yank, yank. 
121 . White-breasted Nuthatch. 
6*. A gray, crested bird; forehead black; no white in the tail; 
note, a whistled peto, peto, or hoarse de-de-de-de. 

731. Tufted Tit. 
c2. Back cinnamon-brown; length 4'75; a nervous, restless, excit- 
able bird; tail carried erect; song, sweet, rapid and rippling, 

delivered with abandon 721. House Wren. 

6. Length over 7'50. 

6^. Upperparts grayish slate-color; a white band at the end of the 
tail; a concealed orange-red crest; a bird of the air, catching its 
insect food on the wing, and occasionally sallying forth from 
its exposed perch in pursuit of a passing Crow; note, an un- 
musical, steely chatter 444. Kingbird. 

bK Length 12'00; slim, brownish birds with long tails; flight short 
and noiseless; perch in a tree, not in an exposed position; note 
tut-tut, cluck-cluck, and cow-cow. 
387. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 388. Black-billed Cuckoo. 

B. Underparts not white. 

a. Slate-color; cap and tail black; inhabits the lower growth; call-note, 

nasal; song highly musical and varied; length 8"50. 

704. Catbird. 

b. Grayish brown; conspicuously crested; a black line through the 

eye; tail tipped with yellow; generally seen in small flocks; note 
thin and weak; length 700 619. Cedar Waxwinq. 



FIELD KEY 137 

c. Underparts cream-buff; a conspicuous whitish line over the eye; 
upperparts rufous-brown; movements active; tail carried erect; 
haunts lower growth; notes loud and striking; length 5"50. 

718. Cakolina Wren. 
2. Back streaked. 

A. Crown rufous or chestnut without streaks. 

a. Length 5"25; bill black; a whitish line over the eye; a familiar 
bird of lawns and dooryards; song, a monotonous chippy- 
chippy-chippy 560. Chipping Sparrow, 

h. Length 5'50; bill reddish brown, back rufous, or rufous-brown; 
wing-bars and eye-ring whitish; haunts dry, bushy fields and 
pastures; song, a musical, plaintive cher-wee, cher-wee, cher-wee, 
cheeo, dee-dee-dee-dee 563. Field Sparrow. 

c. Length 5 "50; forehead black; crown and wings chestnut-rufous; 
flanks pale grayish brown; haunts marshes; song, a rapidly 
repeated weet-weet-weet, etc 584. Swamp Sparrow. 

B. Crown not rufous or chestnut. 

a. Length 6" 75; crown, blackish with a central whitish stripe; throat 

white; breast gray; a yellow spot before the eye; haunts in and 
about thickets and bushy woodlands; song, a high, clear, musical 
whistle; call-note, chink . . . 558. White-throated Sparrow. 

b. Length 5"50; crown finely streaked; a tree climber, winding 

patiently up tree trunks in search of food; tail-feathers pointed. 

726. Brown Creeper. 

c. Length 5*50; bill slender; a white line over the eye; tail carried 

erect; haunts reedy marshes; call-note scolding; song, rippling. 
725. Long-billed Marsh Wren. 
II. Underparts not all one color. 

1. Underparts white or whitish, streaked or spotted. 

A. Back streaked. 

a. Crown streaked ; underparts conspicuously streaked. 

ai. Outer tail-feathers white, showing conspicuously when the 
bird flies; length 6'00; haunts dry fields and roadsides; song 

loud and musical 540. Vesper Sparrow. 

fei. Outer tail-feathers not white. 

6^. Length 600; plumage with a rufous-brown cast; spots on the 
breast tending to form one large spot in its center; haunts on or 
near the ground, generally in the vicinity of bushes; call-note, 
a characteristic chimp; song musical. . . .581. Song Sparrow. 
6'. Length 6'00; no rufous in the plumage; streaks on the underparts 
evenly distributed; frequently seen feeding on buds or blos- 
soms; call-note, a sharp chink, often uttered during flight; 
song, a sweet, flowing warble . . 517. Purple Finch (Im.). 
6. Crown not streaked, rufous-brown; underparts whitish with an 
indistinct blackish spot in the center of the breast; Oct. to 
Apl 559. Tree Sparrow. 

B. Back not streaked. 

a. Upperparts rufous, olive-brown, or cinnamon-brown. 

a^. Bill slender and thrushlike; breast spotted with blackish. 

a2. Length 11 '00; tail 5*00; wing- bars white; upperparts, wings, 
and tail uniform rufous; haunts undergrowth ; sings from an 
exposed and generally elevated position; song loud, striking 

and continuous 705. Brown Thrasher. 

62. Length under 900; tail under 3'00; no wing-bars. 

6*. Breast and sides heavily marked with largo, round, black 
sp ts ;head and upper back brighter than lower back and tail ; 
call-note, a sharp pit or liquid quirt . 755. Wood Thrush. 
b*: Breast with wedge-shaped black spots; sides unspotted, 
washed with brownish ashy; tail rufous, 6W(7/i^e7- than back; 
call-note, a low chuck 7590. Hermit Thrush. 



138 GREBES 

6^. Upper breast lightly spotted with small, wedge-shaped, black- 
ish spots; tail the same color as the back; sides white; call- 
note, a clearly whistled wheeu 756. Veery. 

¥. Bill short and stout; breast and sides heavily spotted with rufous; 
length 7*00; haunts on or near the ground, generally in or about 
shrubbery; call-note, tseep; song loud, ringing, and musical. 

585. Fox Sparrow. 

b. Back olive-green; center of crown pale rufous, bordered by black; 

length 6'00_; haunts on or near the ground in woodland; a walker; 

song, a ringing teacher, teacher, teacher, TEACHER, TEACHER. 

674. Oven-bird. 
. Underparts not white or whitish. 

A. Throat and upper breast black or slate-color, very different from 

the white or chestnut belly. 

a. Throat black. 

a'-. Belly and rump chestnut; head, wings and tail black; haunts 
orchards, shade trees, etc.; song highly musical. 

506. Orchard Oriole. 

a2. Belly white; sides rufous; tail black and white; haunts under- 
growths; call-note, chewink or towhee 587. Towhee. 

b. Throat slate-color. 

6^^ack and wings slate-color; outer tail-feathers and belly white; 
haunts generally on or near the ground about shrubbery; Oct. 
to Apl 567. JuNCO. 

B. Throat streaked with black and white; rest of underparts rufous; 

upperparts grayish slate-color; length lO'OO 761. Robin. 



I. ORDER P-t^GOPODES. DlVmO BIRDS 

1. Family Colymbid^. Gkebes. (Fig. 22a.) 

The Grebes, or lobe-footed divers, are of world-wide distribution. 
Of the twenty-five known species, six are North American. When 
nesting, Grebes usually frequent reed-grown ponds or sloughs, but 
during their migrations they are found in more open water and some 
species pass the winter well off the coast. 

When on the water, Grebes bear a general resemblance to Ducks, 
but where the Duck would fly the Grebe usually dives. A few surface 
foot-strokes are the usual prelude to flight and, when in the air, the 
Grebe's smaller wings and shorter tail are evident, while when one is 
near enough to see their pointed bill no doubt is left of their family 
relationship. 

Grebes are eminently aquatic birds, and rarely venture far on land, 
where their slow and awkward progress is more or less assisted by their 
wings, used as forefeet, though they can go a short distance aided 
by feet alone. When on shore, Grebes either lie flat on their breasts 
or sit erect on their tails and entire foot or tarsus. 

The surprising rapidity with which Grebes dive, and the ease with 
which, formerly at least, they escaped the shot of the fowler, won for 
them such descriptive names as 'Hell-diver,' 'Water-witch,' etc.; 
but the cartridges of the modern breech-loader do not give the warning 
of the discarded flint-lock or percussion cap, and to "dive at the flash'' 



GREBES 139 

is now an obsolete expression. In di\ang, Grebes spring partly from the 
water and plunge downward, headfirst, or sink quietly backward, 
leaving scarce a ripple behind. Returning, they may pop suddenly 
from beneath the surface, or rise slowly and expose only the bill above 
the water, a habit which accounts for many apparently mysterious dis- 
appearances. "^Tien under water. Grebes progress usualh' by aid of the 
feet. With other diving birds, they control their specific gra\dty by 
inhaling or exhaling air, and it has latelj" been suggested (Townsend, 
"Labrador Spring," p. 191) that, by compressing their feathers and expell- 
ing the air between them, the birds become less buoyant when diving. 

Grebes' nests are usually rafts or islands of water-soaked vegetation. 
They lay from three to nine dull white eggs, which they generally cover 
with the nest-material before leaving. The young are born covered with 
down, which, in most species, has a boldly striped pattern. They s'^'im 
soon after hatching, using the back of the parent as a resting-place. 

Grebes feed chiefly on fish, but eat also various small forms of aquatic 
life and some vegetable matter. Their stomachs usually contain feathers, 
often in astonishing numbers. I have found 331 body feathers of the 
adult Western Grebe in the stomach of a young bird of this species not 
more than three days old. This feather-eating habit has not, I beheve, 
ever been explained. The close-plumed, satiny breasts of Grebes have 
long been used for turbans, muffs, capes, etc., and their slaughter for 
commercial purposes, added to the shrinkage in the area of their haunts, 
due to draining and land reclamation, has greatly reduced their numbers. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Depth of bill at nostril over 'Zb. 

a. Wing over 600 2. Holbcell's Grebe. 

6. Wing under 600 6. Pied-billed Grebe. 

B. Depth of bill at nostrilless than "35 3. Horned Grebe. 

1. ^chmophorus oceidentalis (Laiur.). Western Grebe. Neck long 
and slender; no seasonal difference in plumage. Ads. — Crown and hindneck 
black; back brownish gray; underparts satiny white; inner- web of wing- 
quills more or less white. L., 2600; W., 7-50; B., 2*60. 

Range. — W. N. A. Breeds from B. C, s. Saslc, and s. Man. s. to n. 
Calif., Utah, and n. N. D.; winters from s. B. C. s. to cen. Mex., casual 
e. to Nebr., Kans., Wise, Minn., and Que. 

Nest, in colonies of the stems and leaves of aquatic plants; an attached 
but floating raft, or an island. Eou^< 3-5, pale bluish overlaid with chalky 
white, 2"39 x 1.55. Date, Devil's Lake, N. D., June 1. 

The long, slender neck gives to this species a singularly stately 
and swanlike appearance. It is an exquisitely graceful creature, and 
there is to me more beauty in the satiny white and shining black of 
its neck and head than in the ornate breeding costumes of some other 
Grebes. While preening their plumage they often lie on one side in the 
water, when the light flashes from their glistening breasts as it would 
from a mirror. Their call is a loud, double-toned, grating, whistle 
c-r-r-ee, c-r-r-ee — which can be clearly heard when the bird is out of 



140 GREBES 

sight on the open waters of the lake. They nest in colonies often con- 
taining hundreds of pairs, and I have known them voluntarily to spend 
much time away from their nests, leaving the eggs uncovered. I have 
also seen the bird while standing nearly erect in the nest place some 
covering over the eggs before sUding into the water at my approach. 
Thousands of these birds have been killed for their breasts by milUnery 
collectors. 

1902. Job, H. K., Among the Water-Fowl, 15-28.— 1908. Chapman, 
F. M., Camps and Cruises, 302, 330, 348. 

2. Colymbus holboellii (Reinh.). Holbcell's Grebe. Ads. in sum- 
mer. — Top of head, small crest, and back of neck, glossy black; back 
blackish; throat and sides of head silvery white; front and sides of neck 
rufous, changing gradually over breast into the silvery white belly; sides 
tinged with rufous. Ads. in winter. — Upperparts blackish brown; throat 
and underparts whitish; front and sides of neck pale rufous. Im. — Upper- 
parts blackish; throat and underparts silvery white; neck and sides grayish. 
L., 19-00; W., 7-50; Tar., 2*20; B., 1'90. 

Range. — N. N. A. and e. Asia. Breeds from nw. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, 
and n. Ungava s. to n. Wash., n. Mont., and sw. Minn.; winters from s. 

B. C, s. Wise, s. Ont., and Maine s. to s. Calif., s. Colo., the Ohio Valley, 
and N. C; casual in Ga. and Greenland. 

Washington, uncommon W. V., Sept. 30-Mch. or Apl. Long Island, W. 
v., Nov. 11- Apl. 7. Ossining, rare T. V., Oct.-Dec. Cambridge, rare T. V. 
and W. V. N. Ohio, occasional in winter. 

Nest, of water-soaked, decaying vegetation, an island or floating among 
rushes in a slough, generally attached to its surroundings. Eggs, 3-8, dull 
white, more or less soiled, 2-25 x 1"35. Date, Grant Co., Minn., May 28. 

Although this large Grebe breeds in reed-grown lake borders, at 
other seasons it frequents large bodies of open water, and in winter 
resorts to the sea, where I have seen it fifty miles from land. So far as 
my experience goes it thoroughly covers its eggs, even when frightened 
from the nest, and although making every effort to avoid being seen, 
remains near its home, uttering a sharp explosive cluck of protest. 
Brewster describes its call as deliberately uttered and exceedingly 
loud and harsh, not unhke the voice of an angry Crow, but with much 
greater volume. 

1903. Sim, R. J., WUson Bull., 67-74, (habits in captivity). 

3. Colymbus auritus Linn. Horned Grebe. Ads. in summer. — 
Top of head, hindneck, and throat, glossy blackish; lores pale chestnut; 
stripe, and plumes behind eye, buffy ochraceous, deeper posteriorly; back 
and wings blackish; secondaries white; foreneck, upper breast and sides 
chestnut; lower breast and belly white. Ads. in winter and Im,. — Upper- 
parts grayish black; underparts silvery white, sometimes washed with 
grayish on the throat and breast; white of cheeks nearly meeting on hind- 
neck. L., 13-50; W., 5-40; Tar., 1-75; a, '90. 

Remarks. — Differs from P. podiceps, in more pointed bill, more white 
in wing, and, in winter, has no brown below. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds from the lower Yukon, n. 
Mackenzie, ccn. Keewatin, sw. Ungava, and Magdalen Islands, s. to s. B. 

C, n. Utah, n. Ncbr., cen. Minn., s. Out., and ne. Maine; winters from s. 
B. C, s. Ont., and Maine s. to s. Calif., the Gulf coas% and Fla.; casual in 
Greenland. 



GREBES 141 

Washington, common W. V., Aug. 20-Apl. 28, Long Island, common 
W. v., Oct. lo-May 15. Ossining, common T. V., Oct.-Dec; Mch. Cam- 
bridge, T. V. uncommon in fall, very rare in spring. N. Ohio, not common 
T. v., Apl. 4-May 6; Oct. 1-Nov. 25; occasional in winter. GlenEllyn, 
rare, Mch. 31-Sept. 6. SE. Minn., common T. V. Apl. 13. 

Nest, of water-soaked, decaying vegetation, an island or raft-floating 
among rushes in a slough, generally attached to its surroundings. Eggs, 2-7, 
dull white, more or less soiled, 1'74 x 1*15. Date, Grant Co., Minn,, May 28. 

This species and the next are probably frequently mistaken for each 
other in life, and the same common names are in some instances appli- 
cable to both. In breeding costume it is easily identifiable, but in the 
winter it is a grayish bird. In flight the white margin to its secondaries is 
clearly displayed. It then suggests a Gallinule, but is smaller and paler. 
Ernest Seton writes of a captive individual: "When ordinarily swim- 
ming, the feet strike out alternately, and the progression is steady; but 
sometimes both feet struck together, and then the movement was by 
great bounds, and was evidently calculated to force the bird over an 
expanse of very weedy water, or through any tangle of weeds or rushes 
in which it might have found itself. When lifted out of the water, the 
feet worked so fast as to be lost to the eye in a mere haze of many 
shadowy feet with one attachment. When placed on the ground, it 
was perfectly helpless." ("Birds of Manitoba," p, 466,) H, K. Job 
writes of a pair of Horned Grebes which alighted in a brook and could 
not fly out "because with their small wings they require a lot of room to 
flutter and patter over the water in getting started." ("Sport of Bird 
Study," p. 272.) The same author writes of the notes of this species as 
"a quick chatter ending with several prolonged notes I can only describe 
as yells." ("Among the Water-Fowl," p. 33.) 

4. Colymbus nigricollis calif ornicus (Heerm.). Eared Grebe. 
Smaller than C. auritun, bill wider than high at base; adult blacker above, 
foreneck black, not chestnut; in winter, cheeks grayer. L., 12"50; W., 5*20; 
1-70; B., -80. 

Range. — W. N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, Great Slave Lake, and 
Man. s. to s. Calif,, n, Ariz,, n, Nebr., and n. Iowa,; winters from cen, 
Calif, to Cape San Lucas and Guatemala; e. to Kans. in migration; casual 
in Mo., Ind., and Ont. 

Nest, in colonies, of water-soakod vegetation, an island or floating raft, 
when usually attached. Eggs, 3-9, dull white more or less soiled, 1*73 x 1" 19. 
Date, Meckling, N. D., May 27. 

The Eared Grebe barely comes within our limits. It nests in colonies 
often containing hundreds of birds. They cover their eggs, even when 
frightened from the nest, and Job observed some slipping back to com- 
plete the work. Eggs from which Job removed the covering placed on 
them by the bird, were soon eaten by a FrankHn's Gull, evidence that 
the birds cover their egg to prevent their being seen. Experience on 
Crane Lake, Saskatchewan, suggests that the call of this bird resem- 
bles that of the Pied-billed Grebe, 

6, Podilymbus podiceps {Linn.). Pied-billed Grebe. (Fig. 22a.) 
Ads, in summer. — Upperparts glossy, brownish black; throat black; upper 



142 LOONS 

hreast, front and sides of neck, and sides of body, washed with brownish 
and indistinctly mottled with blackish; lower breast and belly white; a 
black band across bill. Ads. in winter and Im. — Much like the above, but 
throat white and no black band on bill. L., IS'SO; W., 5-10; Tar., 1-45; 
B., -85. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from B. C, s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, 
Que., and N. B., s. to Chile and Argentina, but often rare or local; winters 
from Wash., Tex., Miss., and Potomac Valley southward. 

Washington, common W. V., Aug. 27-Apl. 24. Long Island, probably 
P. R., rare, most common in Sept. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 6-Apl. 20; 
Sept. 3-Oct. 28; a few summer. Cambridge, T. V., common in fall, formerly 
bred in one locality; Apl. 6-Nov. 10. N. Ohio, often common T. V., rare S. 
R. Apl. 1-May 10; Sept. 1-Oct. 25. Glen Ellyn, not common S. R., Mch. 
20-Nov. 4. SE. Minn., common S.R., Apl. 2-Nov. 9. 

Nest, of water-soaked, decaying vegetation, sometimes built up from 
the bottom in shallow water, sometimes floating among rushes in a slough, 
when it is generally attached to its surroundings. Eggs, 4-8, dull white, 
more or less soiled or stained, l"74x 1"19. Date, Cambridge, Apl. 23; Seneca 
River Marshes, N. Y., June 3; Winnebago, 111., May 13; se. Minn,, May 15. 

Any Grebe found breeding in the eastern United States will prob- 
ably prove to be this species which, generally speaking, is the best knowTi 
of our Grebes. From the Eared Grebe, with which it shares various 
names indicative of its natatorial powers, it may be known by its brown 
breast, and the absence of a white wing-patch. Its notes, as I have 
heard them in the Montezuma marshes, are very loud and sonorous with 
a cuckoolike quality, and may be written cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow- 
cow-cow-cow-uh, cow-uh, cow-uh-cow-uh. These notes vary in number, 
and are sometimes followed by prolonged wailing cows or uhs, almost 
human in their expressiveness of pain and fear. This is apparently 
the love song of the male in which his mate sometimes joins with a cuk- 
cuk-cuk — followed by a slower ugh, ugh, ugh. ("Bird Studies with a 
Camera," p. 70.) 

On Heron Lake, Minnesota, in early October, I have seen Pied- 
billed Grebes in close-massed flocks, containing a hundred or more 
birds, cruising about in open water. 

2. Family Gaviid^. Loons. (Fig. 22&.) 

A family containing only five species, inhabiting the northern half 
of the Northern Hemisphere. The Loons are scarcely less aquatic than 
the Grebes, and are their equals as divers and swimmers. When nest- 
ing, they inhabit fresh-water lakes and ponds, but during the winter 
are maritime, often living fifty miles or more from land. They migrate 
by day (and doubtless also by night), and are strong fliers. Being larger 
than Ducks, and smaller or with shorter necks than Geese, they should 
not be mistaken for either. They visit the land rarely, when their 
clumsy progress is assisted by the use of bill and wings. The nest is 
usually a mere depression on a mud-lump, or so near the shore that 
the bird can slide quickly into and under the water, to come to the 
surface some distance away. Two eggs are laid and the young are 



LOONS 143 

prsecocial. Loons feed chiefly on fish, which they procure by diving, 
progressing when under v/ater usually by aid of the feet alone. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

1. Throat black or gray. 

A. Throat black. 

a. Head black 7. LooN. 

b. Head ashy 9. Black-throated Loon. 

B. Throat gray, foreneck chestnut 11. Red-throated Loon. 

2. Throat not black or gray. 

A. Throat white or whitish; back fuscous, margined with grayish. 

a. Wing over 13 '00; base of bill to anterior end of nostril "75 or over. 

7. Loon (Im.). 

b. Wing under 13"00; base of bill to anterior end of nostril less than '75. 

9. Black-throated Loon (Im.). 

B. Throat white or whitish; back fuscous, spotted with white. 

11. Red-throated Loon (Im.). 

7. Gavia imzner (Brunn.). Loon. (Fig. 226.) Ads. in summer. — 
Upperparts, wings, tail, and neck black with bluish or greenish reflections; 
spaces on the throat and sides of neck streaked with white; back and wings 
spotted and barred wdth Y>-hite; breast and belly white; sides and a band at 
base of under tail-coverts black spotted with white. Ads. in winter and Im. — 
Upperparts, wings and tail blackish margined with grayish, not spotted 
with white; underparts white; throat sometimes washed with grayish. 
L., 32-00; W., U'OO; Tar., 3-40; B., 2-80. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds in Am. from Kotzebue 
Sound, Banks Land, Barrow Strait, anl n. Greenland s. to n. Calif., n. 
Iowa, n. 111. (at least formerly), n. Ind., n. Ohio, n. N. Y., Pa. (casually), N. 
H., Mass. (rarely), and N. S.; winters from s. B. C, the Great Lakes, and 
s. New England to s. L. Calif., the Gulf coast, and Fla. 

Washington, common W. V., Sept.-June. Long Island, common W. 
v., Aug. 10-May 31. Ossining, common T. V., Mch. and Oct. Cambridge, 
rare T. V., Apl. to early May; Sept.-Nov. N. Ohio, not common T. V., 
Mch. 17-Apl. 30; Oct. 15-30. Glen Eliyn, irregular, uncommon T. V., Apl. 2 
-June 17. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 1-Nov. 9. 

Nest, a slight depression in the ground within a few feet of the water, 
sometimes on a mud lump or muskrat house. Eggs, 2, grayish olive-brown, 
thinly spotted with blackish, 3-50 x 2-20. Date, Upton, Maine, June 15; 
Mitchell's Bay, Ont., May 31; Pewaukee, Wise, May 7; se. Minn., 
May 12. 

This wild inhabitant of our northern lakes and ponds possesses all 
the characteristic traits of the Divers. Its remarkable notes are thus 
described by J. H. Langille: 

"Beginning on the fifth note of the scale, the voice slides through 
the eighth to the third of the scale above in loud, clear, sonorous tones, 
which on a dismal evening before a thunderstorm, the lightning already 
playing along the inky sky, are anything but musical. He has also 
another rather soft and pleasing utterance, sounding like who-who- 
who-who, the syllables being so rapidly pronounced as to sound almost 
like a shake of the voice — a sort of weird laughter." 

Loons may be seen migrating by day singly or in small companies, 
generally at a considerable height. Their flight is strong, rai)id and 
direct. They winter in large numbers some distance off the Coast. 



144 LOONS 

I have seen several thousand in a day (March 9, 1907) east of Hatteras 
when saihng from New York to Florida. 

1899. Mead, J. C, Journ. Me. Orn. Soc, I, 21-24 (habits). 

The Yellow-billed Loon {8 Gavia adamsi) of northwest Alaska and 
northern Siberia is of accidental occurrence in Greenland. It closely 
resembles G. vmmer but has the bill yellow. 

9. Gavia arctica {Linn.) . — Black-throated Loon. Ads. in summer. — 
Throat, foreneck, back, wings, and tail black, with purplish and bluish 
reflections; a band of white streaks on throat; sides of neck, back, and wings 
streaked, barred, or spotted with white; top of head and nape gray; breast 
and belly white; a blackish band at the base of the under tail-coverts. Ads. 
in winter and Im. — Similar in color to U. immer, not spotted above 'with 
white. L., 27-00; W., 11-00; Tar., 2-60; B., 2-00. 

Remarks. — Immature and winter birds may be distinguished from the 
corresponding stage of immer by their small size; from stellata by grayish 
margins instead of white spots, bars, or margins on the upperparts. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds from Kotzebue Sound, 
Alaska, w. along n. coast of Siberia^ on islands north of Europe, and from 
Cumberland Sound south to Ungava; winters in the s. Canadian Provinces; 
casually s. to Colo., Nebr., Iowa, n. Ohio, and Long Island, N. Y. 

Long Island, A. V., one record. N. Ohio, casual on Lake Erie in winter. 

Nest, a slight depression in the ground within a few feet of the water. 
Eggs, 2, grayish olive-brown, spotted or scrawled with blackish, 3*20 x 2"10. 
Date, St. Michael's, Alaska, June 6. 

This species is a very rare winter visitant to the northern border 
of the United States. The most southern record of its occurrence is 
April 29, 1893, Sandpoint lighthouse, Long Island Sound. (Dutcher, 
Auk, X, p. 265.) 

11. Gavia stellata (Pont). Red-throated Loon. Ads. in summer. — 
Back, wings, and tail fuscous, more or less spotted with white; head and 
neck ashy gray; foreneck chestnut; back of the neck black, streaked with 
white; breast and belly white; longer under tail-coverts and band at the base 
of shorter ones fuscous. Ads. in winter and Im. — Similar to G. immer, but 
back spotted with white. L., 25-00; W., 11*00; Tar., 2-60; B., 2-00. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. In Am. breeds from cen. Keewatin, 
cen. Que., N. B., and N. F. and n.; winters from s. B. C. to s. Calif., and 
from Maine, and the Great Lakes to Fla.; casual in interior to Mont., 
Mo., Nebr., and Ariz.; breeds also throughout Arctic Europe and Asia, and 
winters s. to the Mediterranean and s. China. 

Washington, rare W. V., Oct. 20 to spring. Long Island, common T. V., 
Sept. 14-Dec. 30; Mch. 30-May 11. Ossining, casual T. V. Cambridge, 
one instance, Oct. N. Ohio, casual on Lake Erie, in winter. Glen Ellyn, very 
rare T. V. spring only, Apl. 14-17. SE. Minn., rare W. R. 

Nest, a slight depression in the ground within a few feet of the water. 
Eggs, 2, grayish olive-brown, sometimes tinged with green and spotted 
with blackish, 2-80 x 1-75. Date, Resolution Is., H. B., June 9; Iceland, 
May 23. 

In the United States we know this bird only as a winter visitant 
when it occurs along our coasts, and, less commonly, on the larger 
bodies of water inland. At this season it resembles the Loon in habits. 
Nelson describes its notes as a harsh gr-r-ga, gr-r, gr-r-ga, gr-r. 



Plate IX 




'~1 




(■A.wi.i .ii^irm over), Mi;hui:s, I'itimns, and Razor-billed Auks 
From a photograph made on Bird Rock, Gulf of St. Lawrence, July 24, 1898. 



AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 145 



3. Family Alcid^. Auks, Murres, and Puffins. (Fig. 22c.) 

Twenty-four of the twenty-five species contained in this family 
are North American, and all are confined to the northern parts of the 
Northern Hemisphere. Only seven species are fomid in the North 
Atlantic, where none nests south of Maine. They are, without excep- 
tion, maritime birds, visiting our bays and harbors at certain seasons, 
but passing much of their lives on the open sea. They go ashore, as a rule, 
only to nest, when they gather on islets, often rocky and difficult of 
access, in vast numbers. Puffins stand on the toes and run about 
freely, but the other species rest, like Grebes, on the whole foot and 
tail, and their progress is more awkward. Unlike the Grebes and Loons, 
they use their wings rather than their feet when swimming under water. 
In the air, their flight is direct and rapid, suggesting, in some instances, 
that of a Duck, but the shorter neck should prevent confusion here. 

The AlcidoB feed on fish, Crustacea, sand-eels, and other forms of 
sea fife. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 152-190. (Apple- 
ton's).— 1902. Job, H. K., Among the Water-Fowl, 50-96. (Doubleday).— 
1905. Wild Wings, 153-170. (Houghton, Mifflin.) 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Bill under '75 34. Dovekie. 

II. Bm over -75. 

1. Depth of bill at nostril over "60. 

A. Bill yellowish, depth at nostril over I'OO. 

13. Puffin. 13a. Large-billed Puffin. 

B. Bill black, depth at nostril under 1*00 . , 32. Razor-billed Auk. 
2 Depth of bill at nostril under "60. 

A. Wing-coverts white or tipped with white. 

a. Greater wing-coverts entirely white . . 28. Mandt's Guillemot. 

b. Basal half of greater wing-coverts black. . 27. Black Guillemot. 

B. No white on wing-coverts. 

a. Bill over 1-60 30. Murre. 

b. Bill under 160 31. Brijnnich's Murre. 

13. Fratercula arctica arctica (Linn.). Puffin. (Fig. 22, c). Ads. — 
Upperparts, wings, tail and forcnc^r-k l)lackish, browner on the head and 
foreneck; nape with a narrow grayish ooUar; sides of the head and throat 
white, sometimes washed with grayish; breast and belly white. (Breeding 
birds have the bill larger and brighter, and a horny spine over the ej'c.) L., 
13-00; W., 6-10; Tar., r05; B.. 1S5; depth of B. at base (in winter), 1-50. 

Range. — Coasts and islands of n. Atlantic. Breeds in N. Am., from 
Ungava s. to Bay of Fundy and Maine; winters s. to Mass., casually to 
L. I. and Delaware Bay. 

Long Island, A. V. in winter. 

Nest, in a burrow in the ground or in crevices among rocks. Egg, 
1, dull white, sometimes with obscure markings, 2"49 x 1*68. Date, Bird 
Rock, Que., May 26; Cape Whittle, Lab., .hme 11. 

One has only to see a Puffin to realize why it is commonly known as 
'Sea Parrot;' and when the bird on outstretched, short, rounded wings 
hovers for a moment before alighting, it bears the strongest resemblance 



146 AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 

to a Japanese bird-kite. In flight the Puffin's wings move more rapidly 
than those of the Murre and Razorbill, and unlike those birds it stands 
only on its toes, and can run about easily and rapidly. 

While Murres and Razorbills usually resort to rocky islets whose 
ledges and crannies afford nesting-sites. Puffins may^use low-lying, flat 
islands in the turf of which they excavate their burrows. It was a 
surprising experience, in crossing an apparently deserted bit of ground 
on the Fame Islands, to have at nearly every step dozens of Puffins 
burst from the earth at my feet. The only note I have heard from a 
Puffin is a hoarse grunt or groan. Puffins can inffiet serious wounds 
with their powerful bill, which they use ferociously. 

1883. Brewster, W., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XXII, 407 (habits). 

13a. F. a. naumanni (Norton). Large-billed Puffin. Similar to 
the preceding, but larger ._ W., 6-80-7-4q; B., 2-00-2-30 (B., B., and R.). 

Range. — Coasts and islands of Arctic Ocean, from n. and w. Greenland 
to Nova Zembla. 

The Tufted Puffin {1£ Lunda cirrhata) inhabits the North Pacific 
from California to Alaska. The specimen figured by Audubon was said by 
him to have been procured at the mouth of the Kennebec River, Maine. 
It has also been recorded from Greenland. 

The Ancient Murrelet {21 Synthliboramphus antiquus) of the North 
Pacific has been once recorded from Wisconsin. 

27. Cepphus grylle (Linn.). Black Guillemot. Ads. in summer. — 
Sooty black, lighter below and with slight greenish reflections above; lesser 
wing-coverts and terminal half~of the greater wing-coverts white, the basal 
half of the greater coverts black; linings of the wings white. Ads. in winter. — 
Upperparts gray or black, the feathers all more or less tipped with white; 
wings as in summer; underparts white. Im. — Upperparts as in winter 
adults; underparts white, mottled with black; wing-coverts tipped with 
black. L., 13-00; W., 6-25; Tar., 1-25; B., 1-20. 

Range. — Coasts of e. N. Am. and nw. Europe. In Am. breeds from s. 
Greenland and Ungava to Maine; winters from Cumberland Sound s. to 
Cape Cod and casually to N. J.; accidental in Pa. 

Long Island, A. V. in winter, one record. 

Nest, in the crevices and fissures of cliffs and rocky places. Eggs, 2-3, 
dull white, sometimes with a greenish tinge, more or less heavily spotted 
with clear and obscure dark chocolate markings, more numerous, and 
sometimes confluent at the larger end. 2" 18 x 1'40. Date, Grand Menan, 
N. B., June 14. 

Whether in black summer or grayish winter plumage, the Guille- 
mot's white wing-coverts on a black wing are a conspicuous and 
unmistakable identification mark, whether the bird is swimming or 
flying. 

Guillemots (in England this name is applied to the Murre, Lomvia) 
are not usually found in the great colonies of Murres and Puffins, but 
nest apart by themselves. They stand on the whole foot or tarsus and 
often sit or lie comfortably on their lower parts. When approached they 
emit a high, squealing whistle, opening wide their coral-lined mouths. 
They feed their young largely on sand-eels, and it is a common sight 
to see them with a number of these fish hanging from the sides of their 



AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 147 

bill, flying low over the water to the base of the breeding-cliff, then 
rising abruptly to the nest in the rocks above. 

28. Cepphus mandti (Mandt). Mandt's Guillemot. Resembles 
the preceding, but the bases of the greater wing-coverts are white instead 
of black. 

Range. — Arctic regions of both continents. Breeds on Arctic islands 
s. to n. Hudson Bay and mainland of Siberia; winters in Arctic Ocean 
and casually s. to Norton Sound and Lake Ontario; n. in migration to 
lat. 84°. 

Nest, in cre\'ices and fissures of cliffs and rocky places. Eggs, 2-3, not 
distinguishable from those of C. grylle, 2'34 x 1"15. 

A more northern species than the preceding, which it doubtless 
resembles in habits. 

30. TJria troille troille (Linn.). Muree. Ads. in summer. — Upper- 
parts, wings, tail and neck all around, dark sooty brown, blacker on back, 
wings and tail; tips of secondaries, breast and belly white, sides more or 
less streaked with blackish. Ads. in winter and Im. — Upperparts, wings, 
and tail much as in summer; underparts white, throat more or less washed 
with sooty brown, flanks sometimes streaked with brownish, and feathers 
of belly more or less lightly margined with blackish. L., 16"00; W., 8"00; 
Tar., 1-40; B., 1-75; depth of B. at nostril, 'oO. 

Remarks. — Some specimens have a white ring around the eye and a 
white stripe behind it. They have been named U. ringvia (Briinn.), but 
are generally believed to represent merely an individual variation. The 
case is unusual. 

Range. — Coasts and islands of N. Atlantic. Breeds in N. Am. from s. 
Greenland and s. Ungava s. to N.F. and Magdalen Islands; winters s. 
to Maine. 

Nests in communities, side by side on the bare ledges of rocky cliffs. 
Egg, 1, pyriform, pale blue or greenish blue to whitish or buffy, singularly 
spotted, scrawled, or streaked with shades of chocolate, rarely unmarked, 
3-25 X 2-00. Date, Bird Rock, Que., May 15. 

When on the water, Murres bear a general resemblance to Ducks, 
but may be distinguished by their short, thick necks and pointed bill. 
Unhke the Razor-bill, they do not swim with upturned tail. When 
nesting, probably no other birds are more closely associated than 
Murres. They often gather on favorable ledges of rocky islets in such 
numbers that a newcomer finds an alighting place with difficulty, 
while the place vacated by a departing bird is immediately filled by 
pressure from all sides. Nevertheless the birds lay their single egg on 
the bare rock, and under these apparently unfavorable conditions 
rear their young. Long-continued studies of Murres on the coast of 
Yorkshire warrant the belief that, although the eggs of no' two Murres 
(or Guillemot as it is termed in England) are alike, those of the same 
individual more or less closely agree, and that the same bird lays year 
after year on the same ledge. 

Murres perch on the entire foot or tarsus, and when undisturbed 
usually turn their back to the sea and hold their egg between their legs 
with its point outward. When alarmed they face about, bob and bow 
and utter their bass-voiced murre. 
12 



148 AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 

31. Uria lomvia lomvia {Linn.). Brunnich's Murre. Ads. in 
summer. — Upperparts, wings and tail sooty black; foreneck somewhat 
browner ; tips of secondaries, breast and belly white ; base of upper mandible 
greenish, rounded outward beyond edge of lower mandible. L., 16'50 
W., 8-40; Tar., ISO; B., 1-25; depth of B. at nostril -47. 

Remarks. — Adults are to be distinguished from adults of U. t. troile by the 
darker color of the head, which in lomvia is darker than the throat, by the 
size of the bill and thickening of its cutting edge at the base. Winter and 
immature birds can be distinguished from those of U. t. troile only by the size 
of the bill, which, as the measurements show, is longer in that species. 

Range. — Coasts and islands of the n. Atlantic. Breeds from s. Ellesmere 
Land and n. Greenland to n. Hudson Bay and Gulf of St. Lawrence; resident 
in Greenland and Hudson Bay; s. casually in winter on Atlantic coast from 
Maine to S. C., and in interior to n. Ohio, cen. Ind., and cen. Iowa. 

Washington, A. V., several, Dec. 1896. Long Island, W. V. Nov. 22- 
Mch. 24. Ossining, A. V. Cambridge, two records, Nov., Dec. N. Ohio, 
casual on Lake Erie in winter. 

Nests in communities, side by side on the bare ledges of rocky cliffs. Egg, 
1, not distinguishable from that of U. t. troile. Date, Bird Rock, Que., June 17. 

Bmnnich's Murre often nests in the same colonies with the Common 
Murre, which it resembles in habits, and from which, at close range, 
it may be distinguished by its shorter, heavier bill and swollen, whitish 
margin of the base of the mandible. The downy young of the two species 
can *be distinguished by the somewhat hairy, gray-streaked back of 
troile as compared with the more downy, brown mottled back of lomvia. 
Both utter the characteristic screech of young Murres while young 
Razor-bills whistle. This species sometimes invades the interior in 
numbers. 

1905. Fleming, J. H., Proc. 4th Int. Orn. Cong., 528-543.— 1910. 
Eaton, E. H., Birds of New York, 108, 109. 

32. Alca torda Linn. Razor-billed Auk. Ads. in summer. — Upper- 
parts, wings and tail sooty black; foreneck somewhat browner; tips of 
secondaries, a line from eye to bill, breast, and belly white; bill black, 
crossed by a white band. Ads. in winter. — Similar, but with sides and front 
of neck white. Im. — Similar to ad. in winter, but with bill smaller and with- 
out white bar. L., 16-50; W., 790; Tar., 1-35; B., 1*25. 

Range. — Coasts and islands of the n. Atlantic. Breeds on American 
side of s. Greenland to N. F. and N. B. ; winters from N. B. and Ont. to L. I. 
and casually to N. C. 

Long Island, W. V., Nov. 2-Feb. 6. 

Nest, in the crevices and fissures of cliffs and rocky places Eggs, 1-2, 
pale bluish white or buffy, thickly spotted and speckled with chocolate 
markings most numerous and sometimes confluent at the larger end, 3"00 x 
190. Date, Bird Rock, Que., May 24. 

"When brooding, it crouches along, not across, the egg, its mate 
often standing near; and both sexes incubate, though the male ma}'' 
be seen bringing food to the sitting female. , . . The young flutter 
from the rocks to the sea, or are taken by the neck and carriedMown 
by the parents. They are at first very loath to follow the old bird in 
diving, and remain crying plaintively on the surface of the water. 
The Razor-bill utters a peculiar grunting or groaning, especially when 
sitting. On the water it may be distinguished from the Guillemot, 
[=Murre] at a distance, by its upturned tail." (Saunders.) 



AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 



149 



33. Plautus impennis {Linn.). Great Auk. Upperparts fuscous- 
black, a large white spot before the eye; secondaries tipped with white; sides 
of the neck and throat seal-brown, rest of the underparts silvery white. L., 
28-00-30-00; W., 5-75; B., S'lo-S-oO; greatest depth of B., TSO (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Formerly coasts and islands of the n. Atlantic, from near the 
Arctic Circle s. to Mass. and Ireland, and probably s. casually to S. C. 
and Fla.; now extinct. 

Egg, 1, pyriform-ovate, pale olive buffy, variously marked with brown 
and black, 4-67 x 2-91 (Ridgw.). 

The Great Auk was flightless. Like 
other birds of this family, it frequented 
certain localities in large numbers each 
year to breed. Early voyagers and fisher- 
men visited its nesting-grounds, killing 
the helpless birds in enormous numbers 
for their flesh, feathers and oil. The 
result was extinction, and no living Great 
Auk has been observed 
since 1842. About 
seventy specimens are 
known to be preserved 
in collections. 

In 1902, two humeri 
of the Great Auk, both 
from the left side, were 
found in a shell-mound 
at Ormond, Fla. (Hay, 
Auk, XIX, p. 2.55), 
where their discovery 
gives new meaning to 
Catesby's statements 
that the "Penguin" 
was a winter visitant to South Carolina 




Fig. 77. Great Auk. Note the short Tvings of a 
flightless bird. (Much reduced.) 



-1887-8, Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 
-1893. Newton, A., Dictionary 



1888. Lucas, F. A., Auk. V, 278-28.S. 
49.3-529.— 1891. Ibid., 709-728 (history).- 
of Birds (history, bibliography). 

34. Alle alle {Linn.). Dovekie. Ads. in summer. — Upperparts, 
wings and tail sooty black; sides and front of neck and upper breast some- 
what browner; secondaries tipped and scapulars streaked with white; 
lower breast and belly white. Afh. in winter and Im. — iSiniilar, but throat 
whiter or washed with dusky, and sometimes a gray collar on nape. L., 
800; W., 4-50; Tar., -70; B., -50. 

Range. — Coasts and i.slands of the n. Atlantic. Breeds from Kane 
Basin and Baffin Bay east to Franz Josef Land; winters from s. Greenland 
s. to L. I., and casually to Delaware Bay and N. C.; accidental near 
Melville Island, and in Wise, Mich., Ont., and Bermuda. 

Long Island, Nov. 18-Mch. 24. Ossining, A. V. Cambridge, irregular 
T. v., late fall or winter. 

Nest, on the ledges and in the crevices of rockv cliffs. Egg, 1, pale, 
bluish white, 185 x 1-27. Date, Disco Bay, Greenland, June 28. 

"On the approach of a vessel this bird has a peculiar way of splash- 



150 JAEGERS AND SKUAS 

ing along the surface of the water, as if unable to fly, and then diving 
through the crest of an advancing wave; it swims rather deep and 
very much 'by the stern.' . . ." (Saunders). 

"Its wings are small, but they are moved almost as rapidly as a 
Hummingbird's, and propel the bird through the air with great rapid- 
ity. This bird is an expert diver too, and, though awkward on land, 
swims with ease and grace. . . ." (Chamberlain). 

1900-02. FiGGiNS, J. D., Abst. Proc. Linn. Soc, 61-63 (use of, for food). 



II. ORDER LONGIPENNES. LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS 

4. Family Stercorariid^. Jaegers and Skuas. (Fig. 23a.) 

Three of the seven known members of this family are birds of Ant- 
arctic seas; the remaining four nest in the northern parts of the North- 
ern Hemisphere, but at other seasons are widely distributed. Except 
when nesting, they are maritime, but at times are found on large bodies 
of water inland. 

The Jaegers are the pirates among birds of the high seas. With 
strong and dashing flight, they successfully pursue Gulls and Terns, 
forcing them to disgorge their prey. They carry their predaceous 
habits to their nesting-grounds on the tundras, where they feed upon 
the young of other birds and even upon mice and lemmings. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Bill over 1*35; tarsus over 1"70; middle tail-feathers never pointed. 

a. Bill over 1-90 35. Skua. 

h. Bill under 1'90 36. Pomarine Jaeger. 

B. Bill under 1"35; tarsus under 1"70; middle tail-feathers generally 

pointed. 

a. Scaly shield on the bill longer than the distance from its end to the tip 

of the bill 37. Parasitic Jaeger. 

b. Scaly shield on the bill shorter than the distance from its end to the tip 

of the bill 38. Long-tailed Jaeger. 

35. Megalestris skua (Brunn.). Skua. Ads. — Upperparts, tail, and 
wings dark, dirty brown; shafts of the wing and tail-feathers white, except 
at the tip; outer wing-feathers with inner vanes white at the base; under- 
parts somewhat lighter; neck more or less streaked with whitish, hn. — 
"Similar to adult, but more distinctly streaked with yellowish, especially 
on the head and neck." L., 22-00; W., ISOl; Tar., 2-63; B., 2-06 (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Coasts and islands of the n. vVtlantic. Breeds on Lady Franklin 
Island (Hudson Strait), in Iceland, on the Faroe and Shetland islands; 
winters on fishing banks off N. F. and N. S.; casually to L. I., in Europe s. 
to Gibraltar. 

Long Island, one record. 

Nest, of grass, on the ground. Eggs, 2, pale olive-brown or greenish 
gray spotted with chocolate, 2"80 x 1"90. Date, Greenland, May 5. 

36. Stercorarius pomarinus (Tcmm.). Pomarine Jaeger. Ads. 
light phase. — Very similar in color to corresponding phase of *S. parasiticus, 



JAEGERS AND SKUAS 151 

but with the upperparts darker, nearly black. Ads. dark phase and Im.— 
Similar in color to corresponding stages of S. parasiticus. L., 22"00; W., 
13-50; T., Ad., 800; Im., 540; Tar., 200; B., 1-55. 

Remarks. — This species is to be distinguished from the two following by 
its larger size and the rounded ends of its central tail-feathers. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds from Melville Island and 
cen. Greenland s. to n. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, Melville Peninsula, and Baffin 
Land, and also on Arctic islands of E. Hemisphere; \\-inters off Atlantic 
coast, s. to N. J.; common fall migrant on coast of Calif.; wdnters s. to 
Galapagos, Peru, Africa, and Australia; accidental in Nebr. 

Long Island, regular from June 15-Oct. 30 (Dutcher). Ossining, A. V. 
N. Ohio, casual on Lake Erie, 

Nest, on the ground. Eggs, 2-3, deep olive-drab sparingly spotted 
with slate color, and light and dark raw-umber markings and black dots, 
chiefly at the larger end, where confluent, 2'25 x 1*70 (Brewer). Date, 
Cape Lisbiirne, Alaska, June 10. 

37. Stercorarius parasiticus {Linn.). Parasitic Jaeger (Fig. 23a). 
Ad^. light phase. — Back, wings and tail slaty fuscous; top of head and lores 
nearly black; sides of head and back of neck straw-yellow, this color some- 
times spreading down sides of neck and on throat; breast and belly white; 
sides of breast, flanks, lower belly, and crissum slaty fuscous; tarsi and feet 
(in dried specimens) black; middle tail-feathers pointed and extending 
about 3'00 beyond the others. Ads., dark phase. — Entire plumage dark, slaty 
brown, darker on top of head; underparts slightly lighter; sometimes 
a trace of straw-yellow on sides and back of neck; tarsi, feet and tail as in 
preceding. Im., light phase. — L'pperparts, wings and tail fuscous; feathers of 
back, neck and head more or less bordered, tipped or barred with buffy; 
hindneck and head sometimes buffy, streaked or barred with fuscous, and 
varying from this color to plain fuscous; longer, lateral upper tail-coverts 
barred with buffy; tail buffy, whitish at base; under wing-coverts baired 
with buffy; underparts white, washed with buffy, and irregularly barred 
with sooty fuscous; these bars sometimes very numerous when the under- 
parts look as if washed with sooty fuscous; again, they may be less numerous 
and confined to breast and sides, leaving the belly white; central tail-feathers 
pointed, projecting more or less beyond rest. Im., dark phase. — Sooty fus- 
cous feathers, particularlv on underparts, more or less marked with ochrace- 
ous-buff. L., 17-00; W., 13*00; T., Ad., 8*60; Im., 6-40; B., ri5. 

Remarks. — This species closely resembles S. longicaudus. Adults of both 
species, whether in the dark or light phase of plumage, may always be dis- 
tinguished from each other by the difference in the length of their central 
tail-feathers, in addition to the characters given in the key. Young birds 
can not be distinguished by color, but may be identified by the differences in 
relative proportions of the bill. Eaton calls attention to the fact that in 
parasiticus the shafts of all the primaries are white, while in longicaudus 
only the outer two or three are white, the rest being abruptly brownish. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds from nw. Alaska, Melville 
Island, and n. Greenland s. to Aleutian Islands, cen. Mackenzie (Great 
Slave Lake), and cen. Keewatin, and on Arctic islands of Silieria and of n. 
Europe s. to Scotland; winters from the Aleutian Islands s. to Calif., from 
New England coast s. to Brazil, in Australia, and from coast of Europe s. 
to Cape of Good Hope; casual in interior to the Great Lakes, Mo., Kans. and 
Colo. 

Long Island, regular, Apl. 30; Aug. 6-Nov. 9. N. Ohio, casual on Lake 
Erie. 

Nest, on the moors or tundras, a slight depression in the ground scantily 
lined with grasses, etc., or on rocks by the sea. Eggs, 2-4, light olive-brown, 
with frequently a strong greenish tinge and chocolate markings, more 
numerous and sometimes confluent at the larger end, 2*25 X 1Q5. Date, 
Iceland, May 23 ; Bering Island, Kamchatka, May 29. 



152 GULLS 

38. Stercorarius longicaudus Vieill. Long-tailed Jaeger. Ads. 
light phase. — Back, wings and tail slaty fuscous; top of head and lores 
nearly black; sides of head, back and sides of neck straw-yellow; throat 
sometimes washed with same color; underparts white; sides, lower belly, 
and crissum slaty fuscous; central tail-feathers extending about 7'00 beyond 
the others, the projecting ends narrow and pointed. (No dark phase of 
this species has been described.) Im. — Similar in plumage to im. of 8, 
parasiticus, but differing otherwise as pointed out under that species. L., 
21-00; W., 12-50; T., Ad., 12-00., Im., 5-50; B., r08. 

Range. — N. part of the N. Hemisphere. Breeds on Arctic islands of 
Europe and Asia, and coasts of Kotzebue and Norton sounds, n. Mackenzie, 
and n. Hudson Bay to n. Greenland; winters s. to Gibraltar and Japan; 
not rare in migration off New England; casual on the Pacific coast s. to 
Calif.; accidental in Man., Iowa, 111., and Fla. 

Long Island, casual, Oct. 

Nest, a slight depression in the ground, sometimes scantily lined with 
grasses. Eggs, 2-3, similar in color to those of the preceding, 2" 10 x 1"50. 
Date, Southern Greenland, June 1. 



5. Family Larid^. Gulls and Terns. (Figs. 23b, 24.) 

This family contains about 100 species, divided equally between 
subfamily Larince (Gulls) and subfamily SternincE (Terns). They are 
distributed throughout the world. Some forty species inhabit North 
America. With few exceptions, they agree in possessing the marked 
characters of their respective subfamilies, under which they may be 
more conveniently treated. 

Subfamily Larince. Gulls. (Fig. 23&.) 

The fifty odd members of this subfamily are distributed throughout 
the world; twenty-five of them have been recorded from North America, 
where the greater number nest north of the United States; in Eastern 
North America, the Laughing Gull being the only species which nests 
south of latitude 41°. 

Franklin's Gull is a bird of the Mississippi Valley, and many of 
the maritime species nest on the islands of inland lakes, where, indeed, 
they may be represented throughout the year; but, as a family. Gulls 
are true birds of the sea and its bays. They throng our harbors from 
early fall to late spring, and during this season are ever in attendance 
on coast-wise craft, and are not wanting in mid-ocean. 

Gulls average larger and stockier than Terns, and have less pointed, 
broader wings, and, as a rule, square tails. They procure their food 
largely by picking it from the surface of the water with their strong, 
hooked bills, not by plunging or darting, as do the Terns. They are 
among nature's scavengers of the water, and perform a service of great 
value to man by devouring various forms of aquatic animals which, 
in dying, come to the surface. They also aid in freeing the waters of 
our harbors from the garbage which inevitably finds its way there. 
Although feeding thus on offal, most Gulls are highly predaceous and 



Plate X 




Laughing Gull. 



Gulls and Petrels 
Herring Gull. 



Wilacn'd Petrel. 



GULLS 153 

feed upon the eggs and young of the other birds among which they nest, 
rarely, however, preying on their own species. 

Gulls are buoyant s-^vimmers, and, unhke Terns, rest and roost on 
the water, often gathering in close-massed "beds." They nest in colonies 
on islands. The young are born covered with down of mottled pattern, 
and though they may leave the nest in their natal dress, are dependent 
on their parents until they acquire the power of flight. The voices 
of Gulls possess a certain, indescribable human quality which adds 
in no small degree to the impression created when storms rule and 
these wild cries are heard above the tumult of wind and wave. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing over 15"00. 

1. Back dark slaty black 47. Black-backed Gull. 

2. Back not dark slaty black. 

A. Back pearl-gray. 

a. Outer primaries marked with black .... 51. Herring Gull. 
6. No black on primaries. 
61. Bill under 200. 

h-. Primaries light pearl-gray, fading gradually into white at 

their tips 43. Iceland Gull. 

h^ Primaries pearl gray, tipped with white, and with well-de- 
fined gray spaces on the outer webs of the outer two 
primaries and on both webs of the third and fourth 

primaries 45. Kumlien's Gull. 

&. Bill over 200 42. Glaucous Gull. 

B. Back grayish, whitish, or brownish, or mottled or spotted with 

grayish or brownish. 
a. Tail black or blackish, with or without irregular white markings. 
a}-. Wing over 17"50; depth of bill at nostril over "70. 

47. Black-backed Gull (Im.). 
a?. Wing under 17'50; depth of bill at nostril under "70. 

51. Herring Gull (Im.). 
h. Tail white or whitish or grayish brown, with or without black 
markings. 

61. Bill under 2-00 . . . 43. Iceland Gull (Im.). 

62. Bill over 2-00 42. Glaucous Gull (Im.). 

II. Wing under 15-00. 

1. Tail white. 

A. Head and throat slaty black. 

a. Outer primary black or mostly black. 

o>. Outer primary entirely black 58. Laughing Gull. 

a^. Inner half of inner web of first primary white. 

62. Sabine's Gull. 
6. Outer primary mostly white. 

61, Tip of first primary white 59. Franklin's Gull. 

6^. Tip of first primary black 60. Bonaparte's Gull. 

B. Head white, sometimes washed with pearl-gray. 

a. Wings white 39. Ivory Gull. 

6. Primaries with more or less black. 
61. Wing over H'OO. 

62. Hind-toe very small, without a nail .... 40. Kittiwakb. 

63. Hind-toe normal, with a nail ... 54. Ring-billed Gull. 
&. Wing under ll'OO 61. Ross's Gull 



154 



GULLS 



Tail marked with black. 

A. Wing over 13-25. 

a. Primaries mostly white 39. Ivory Gull (Im.). 

b. Primaries black or mostly black . . 54, Ring-billed Gull (Im.). 

B. Wing under 13-25. 

a. Hind-toe very small, without a nail .... 40. Kittiwake (Im.). 
6. Hind-toe normal, with a nail. 

61. Tarsus 1-50 or over 58. Laughing Gull (Im.). 

c^. Tarsus under 1-50. 

c2. Secondaries pearl color, tail square. 

60. Bonaparte's Gull (Im.). 
c^. Secondaries mostly white, tail rounded. 

61. Ross's Gull (Im.) 




Fio. 78. First primaries of adult Gulls, seen from below: (a) Herring Gull; (6) Ring- 
billed Gull; (c) Laughing Gull; (d) Franklin's Gull; (e) Bonaparte's Gull. 



39. PagophUa alba (Gunn.). Ivory Gull, ^r/i.— Entire plumage 
pure white; bill yellow, foot black. //??.— Similar toad., but wing and tail- 
foathors, and soniotimos wing-coverts, with a black spot at their tips. L., 
1700; W., 13-25; T., 5-.50; B.. 1-35. 

Range. — Arctic seas. Breeds in high Arctic latitudes from Melville 



GULLS 155 

Island and n. Baffin Land to n. Greenland, and on Arctic islands of E. 
Hemisphere; winters in the Arctic regions and casually s. to B. C, Lake 
Ont., and L. I. ; in Europe, s. to France. 

Long Island, A. V., one record, Jan. 

JVest, of grass, moss, and feathers on rocky cliffs. Eggs, light yellowish 
olive, marked with small blotches of brown and larger cloudings of lilac, 
2*45 X 1-70 (Brewer). Date, Prince Patrick's Island, Arctic-Ocean, June 18. 

"The Ivory Gulls appear to spend most of the time amid the pack- 
ice, often at a long distance from land" (Chamberlain). 

40. Rissa tridactyla tridactyla (Linn.). Kittiwake. Ads. in sum- 
mer. — Head, neck, tail and underparts pure white; back and wings pearl- 
gray; outer web of first primary and 3 "00 of the ends of first and second 
primaries black; third to fifth primaries black at ends and with white tips; 
hind-toe very small, a mere knob without a nail; bill yellowish, feet black. 
Ads. in winter. — Similar to above, but top of head and back of neck washed 
with pearl-gray, and a dark spot about eye. Im. — Similar to winter adults, 
but with the back of the neck, lesser wing-coverts, and part of the tertials 
black; tail, except outer pair of feathers, with a black band at its tip; four 
outer primaries black, except the inner half or more of their inner webs; 
fifth and sixth tipped with black and white; bill black, feet yellowish. 
L., 16-00; W., 12-00; T., 4-50; B., TSO. 

Remarks. — This species can always be distinguished by the small size 
of the hind-toe. 

Range. — Arctic regions. Breeds from Wellington Channel and n. 
Greenland, s. to Gulf of St. Lawrence, and from Arctic islands of Europe 
and w. Siberia to s. France; winters from Gulf of St. Lawrence s. to N. J., 
and casually to Va., Bermuda, and the Great Lakes; accidental in Mo., 
Colo., and Wyo. 

Long Island, common W. V., Nov. 4-Feb. 27. 

Nest, of grass, moss, and seaweed in colonies on the ledges of rocky cliffs. 
Eggs, 3-5, varying from shades of buffy to grayish brown, distinctly and 
obscurely marked with chocolate, 2-25 x 1-60. Date, Bird Rock, Que., May 23. 

"Our bird differs but little in its habits from other oceanic Gulls. 
Feeding chiefly on fish, but accepting any diet that drifts within range 
of its keen sight; drinking salt-water in preference to fresh; breasting 
a gale with ease and grace — soaring in midair, skimming close above 
the crested waves, or swooping into the trough for a coveted morsel; 
resting upon the rolling billows, and sleeping serenely as they roll, 
with head tucked snugly under a wing; wandering in loose flocks, 
and making comrades of other wanderers; devoted to mate and young, 
and attached to all its kin — wherever seen or however employed, the 
Kittiwake is reveah^d as a typic^al gleaner of the sea. 

"The name is derived from the bird's singular cry, which resembles 
the syllables kitti-na, kitti-aa^' (Chamberlain). 

42. Larus hyperboreus Cunn. Glaucous Gull. Ads. in sximmer. — 
Back and wings i)al(> pearl-gray; primaries Hghtly tinted with pearl, inner 
half of their inner webs and tips fading gradually into white; rest of plumagf? 
pure white. Ads. in winter. — Similar, but with head and n(>ek lightly streaked 
with grayish. Im. — Upperparts varying from ashy gray to white, feathers 
widely barred, mottled, or streaked with buffy or ashy gray; i)rimarie3 
varying from pale smoky gray tf) i)ure white; tail ashy or I)r()wnish gray; 
underparts varying from dirty whitish to ashy gray, generally darker on 
belly, sometimes mottled with buffy or grayish. (Birds of the second year 



156 GULLS 

are said to be pure white.) L., 28-00; W., 17-10; B., 2-35; depth of B. at 
projection on the lower mandible -75 to 1-00; Tar., 2-60. 

Range. — Arctic regions. Breeds from nw. Alaska, Melville Island, and 
n. Greenland s. to Aleutian Islands, n. Mackenzie, cen. Ungava, and on Arc- 
tic islands of E. Hemisphere; winters from the Aleutians and Greenland s. 
to Monterey, Calif., the Great Lakes, and L, I., and casually to Bermuda, 
N. C., and Tex.; in Europe and Asia s. to the Mediterranean, Black, and 
Caspian seas, and Japan. 

Long Island, rare, W. V., Jan. 2-May 1. Cambridge, rare W. V., Nov.- 
Apl. 

Nest, of grasses, moss, etc., on the ground. Eggs, 2-3, varying from pale 
olive-brown to grayish white, spotted or speckled with shades of chocolate, 
3-10 X 2-20. Date, Cumberland Sound, June 8. 

Mr. Chamberlain remarks that this species combines "with some 
gull-like traits many of the coarse characteristics of both Falcon and 
Vultm-e." 

"Some observers have reported that flocks are at times very noisy, 
particularly when settling for the night; but those I have met with in 
winter have been rather silent. Their cry is harsh and at times very 
loud; it sounds something like the syllables kuk-lak. I have seen it 
written cut-leek J ^ 

43. Larus leucopterus Faber. Iceland Gull. Resembles the pre- 
ceding but is much smaller; specimens in juvenal plumage more frequently 
have white or brownish shafts untinged with yellow, as in hyperboreus ; others 
are mottled with black rather than brownish (Dwight, Auk, 1906, 34). W., 
15-40-16-50; B., l-65-l'90; depth of B. at projection on the lower mandi- 
ble, -60--70; Tar., 2-05-2-20 (B., B., and R.). 

Range. — Arctic regions. Breeds from Victoria Land (Cambridge Bay) 
and Boothia Peninsula to cen. Greenland and e. to Nova Zembla; winters 
from s. Greenland s. to L. I.; casual on the Great Lakes; accidental in Nebr. 
and Md.; in Europe s. to the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Baltic Sea. 

Long Island, very rare W. V. Cambridge, rare W. V. N. Ohio, casual 
on Lake Erie in winter. 

Nest, of grasses, moss, etc., on the ground. Eggs, 2-3, clay-color with 
numerous chocolate markings, 2 79 x 1-89. Date, Julianshaab, Greenland, 
June 1. 

"It is not particularly difficult for the trained observer to dis- 
tinguish the White- winged Gulls in the field from the Herring Gull; 
but as between L. hyperboreus and L. leucopterus a positive identification 
is not so easy. . . . One soon gets to recognize the white-winged 
species flying, even at a considerable distance, and the smaller size 
of the Iceland Gull is seen perhaps more distinctly on the wing than 
when the bird is sitting. The bill, when it can be seen, is an exeellent 
field-mark, the Iceland Gull's Hke that of KumUen's Gull, being much 
smaller in proportion, . . ." (Allen, F. H., Auk, 1908, p. 300, status 
near Boston.) 

45. Larus kumlieni Brewst. Kumlien's Gull. Very similar in general 
color to the two preceding species, but differs from them in the color of 
the primaries. These, instead of being uniformly pure white or but lightly 
tinted with gray, are marked with sharply defined spaces of ashy gray. The 
first primary is tipped with white and marked with ashy gray on the outer 
web and shaft part of the inner web; the second primary is ashy gray on only 



GULLS 157 

part of the outer web; the third and fourth primaries have smaller white 
tips and are marked with ashy gray near their ends on both webs. W., 15"50- 
1700; B., 1"65-1'88; depth of B., at projection on the lower mandible, 
•60--66; Tar., 2-10-2-35 (Brewster). 

Remarks. — For a plate and detailed discussion of the status of this and 
related species see Dwight, Auk, XXIII, 1906, pp. 26-43. 

Range. — N. Atlantic coast of N. Am., breeding in Cumberland Sound; 
s. in winter to N. Y. and Conn. 

Long Island, one record, Mch. 8. 

Nest, on "the shelving rocks of high cliffs." Eggs, resembling those of 
L. glaucescens (Kumlien) . Date, Weyprecht Islands, Ellesmere Land, June 
15 (Thayer Coll.). 

Kumlien found this bird breeding in considerable numbers near 
the head of Cumberland Gulf, and it is now known to winter south 
regularly, if rarely, to Massachusetts and casually farther. The adult 
"when seen under favorable conditions, is easily distinguished from 
L. hyperhoreus and L. leucopterus, for the spots on the primaries cannot 
fail to be noticed whether the bird is sitting or flying" (Allen, F. H., 
Auk, 1908, pp. 296-300, status near Boston). 

47. Larus marinus Linn. Great Black-backed Gull. Ads. in 
summer. — Back and wings slaty black; wing-feathers tipped with white; 
rest of plumage white; tail sometimes mottled with dusky. Ads. in winter. — 
Similar, but with head and neck streaked with grayish. Im. — Head and 
nape whitish, streaked with grayish; back and wings, except primaries, 
brownish, the feathers margined and irregularly marked with pale buff y; 
primaries dark brownish black, inner ones with small white tips; tail mot- 
tled with black and white; underparts whitish, more or less streaked or 
barred with grayish. L., 29-00; W., ISoO; T., 800; B., 2-50. 

Range. — Coasts of the N. Atlantic. Breeds from North Devon Island 
and cen. Greenland s. to N. S. and to lat. 50° on European coasts; winters 
from s. Greenland s. to the Great Lakes and Delaware Bay (casually to 
Fla.) and the Canaries; accidental in Bermuda. 

Long Island, common W. V., Nov. 3-Mch. 13. Cambridge, common 
W. v., Dec. 1-Apl. 15. 

Nest, of grasses, seaweed, etc., on the ground. Eggs, 2-3, clay-color, 
brownish ashy or huffy, rather evenly spotted with chocolate, 3'00 x 2" 15. 
Date, Kings Co., N. S., May 23. 

A more northern species than the Herring Gull. Mr. Brewster, 
who observed it in numbers in the island of Anticosti in July, writes: 

"The Black-backs are exceedingly noisy birds, especially when their 
young are in danger, as well as toward evening. ... I identified 
four distinct cries: a braying ha-ha-ha, a deep keow, keow, a short bark- 
ing note, and a long-drawn groan, very loud and decidedly impressive. 
... At all times of the year, during the breeding season as well as 
in winter, it is by far the wariest bird that I have ever met." 

^ The Siberian Gull (50. Larus affinis) — a large Gull inhabiting northern 
Asia and Europe — is accidental in Greenland. 

51. Larus argentatus Pont. Herring Gull. Ads. in summer. — 
Back and wings deep pearl-gray; first primary tipped with white, then 
crossed by a small black mark, then a much larger white one; this is followed 
by a black space; the black runs down the outer web of the feather to near 
its base and the shaft part of the inner web nearly as far, leaving the inner 



158 GULLS 

two-thirds of the web below the black mark white (Fig. 78, a); second 
primary similar, but second white mark is a round spot on inner web and 
black occupies a greater space near tip, but does not continue so far down 
on feather; third to sixth primaries tipped with white, which is succeeded 
by a gradually diminishing black band which extends farther down on the 
outer web of the feather than on the inner; rest of plumage pure white. 
Ads. in winter. — Similar, but with head and neck streaked and spotted with 
grayish. Im. — Upperparts ashy fuscous; head and nape more or less 
streaked with pale buffy; back and wings margined or irregularly marked 
with same color; primaries brownish black; tail the same, sometimes tipped 
or margined with buffy; underparts ashy fuscous, sometimes lightly barred 
or streaked. L., 24-00; W., 17-50; T., 7-50; B., 2-30. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In Am. breeds from s. cen. Alaska, Melville 
Island, s. Ellesmere Land, and Cumberland Sound s. to s. B. C, s. Alberta, 
n. N. D., cen. Wise, s. Ont., n. N. Y., and Maine, and in Europe s. to n. 
France and e. to White Sea; winters from s. B. C. s. to L. Calif., and w. 
Mex., and from Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes s. to the 
Bahamas, Cuba, Yucatan, and coast of Tex., and, in Europe, to Mediter- 
ranean and Caspian Seas. 

Washington, common W. V., Oct.-May 10. Long Island abundant W. V., 
Oct.-ApL, a few summer. Ossining, common T. V., Sept. 21-May 9; com- 
mon W. V. when river is open. Cambridge, abundant W. V., Oct. 15-May 
8. N. Ohio, common P. R. on Lake Erie. Glen Ellyn, T. V. chiefly spring, 
occasional W. V., Dec. 4-Apl. 7. SE. Minn., occasional in summer, Apl. 1. 

Nest, of grasses, moss, seaweed, etc., on the ground, but, where the 
birds have been persistently robbed, it is more compactly built and placed 
in trees sometimes fifty feet or more from the ground. Eggs, 2-3, grayish 
olive-brown, rarely whitish, spotted, blotched, and scrawled with distinct 
and obscure chocolate markings, 2*85 x I'QO. Date, Midriff Lake, N. Y., 
May 3; Isle Royal, Mich., May 20. 

This species is by far the most abundant winter Gull along the 
coasts of the Middle and Southern States. Unlike the more pelagic 
species, it frequents our rivers and harbors, feeding about piers and 
wharves, and near the cities where as a scavenger it is of the highest 
value. Sometimes one may see them 'bedded' in flocks on the water 
where they alight to rest. It is generally this species which follows in 
the wake of our coastwise vessels, sailing astern, when the wind is from 
ahead, without the slightest perceptible movement of the wings. 

1902. Mackay, G. H., Auk, IX, 221-228.— 1903, Dutcher, W. and 
Baily, W. L., Auk, XX, 417-431 (nesting).— 1900. Chapman, F. M., 
Bird-Lore, II, 10, 11 (value as scavengers). 

54. Larus delawarensis Ord. Ring-billed Gull. Ads. in summer. — 
Back and wings pearl-gray; first primary black, with a white spot near 
tip, base of inner half of inner web pearl-gray (Fig. 78, 6); second primary 
black, basal half of inner web pearl-gray; on the third to sixth primaries 
the black decreases rapidly, and each one is tipped with white; rest of plu- 
mage pure white; bill greenish yellow with a black band in front of the nostril. 
Ads. in winter. — Similar to above, but head and nape streaked with grayish. 
Im. — Upperparts varying from ashy fuscous, the feathers margined with 
whitish, to pearl-gray, the feathers more or less mottled, spotted, or, on head 
and neck, streaked with ashy fuscous; outer primaries black, tail varying 
from pearl-gray, more or less mottled with blackish, to white, and crossed 
near end by a wide band of black; basal half of bill yellowish, end black. 
L., 18-50; W., 14-00; T., 600; B., TOO. 

Range. — N. America. Breeds from s. B. C, Great Slave Lake, s. Kee- 
watin, and a. Ungava s. to s. Ore., s. Colo., n. N. D., cen. Wise, cen. Ont., 



GULLS 159 

n. N. Y. (casually), and n. Que.; winters from B. C, the Great Lakes, and 
Mass. s. to Bermuda, the Gulf coast, Cuba, and s. Mex. 

Washington, very common T. V., Feb.-Apl. 5; Oct.-Nov. ; rare in win- 
ter. Long Island, regular T. V., abundant in fall; casual in winter and 
summer; Sept. 5-Nov. 12; Mch. 27-May 15. Ossining, casual T. V. SE. 
Minn., T. V., Mch. 23, Oct. 10. 

Nest, of grasses, etc., on the ground. Eggs, 2-3, clay-color, buffy, or 
whitish, rather evenly spotted with chocolate, 2'30 x 1'65. Date, Stump 
Lake, N.D.,May31. 

The coast-inhabiting individuals of this species resemble the Her- 
ring Gull in habits, and are not easily identifiable from that species 
unless the two be seen together, when the smaller size of the Ring-bill 
is noticeable. 

In the interior, where the species is locally common, it feeds in 
part on insects, which it catches both on the ground and in the air. 

The Short-billed Gull {53. Larus brachyrhynchus) of Western North 
America, is accidental in Quebec. 

The Mew Gull (56. Larus canus) — a European species — has been 
reported once from Labrador. 

58. Larus atricilla Linn. Laughing Gull. (Fig. 23, h). Ads. in 
summer. — Back and wings dark pearl-gray; primaries black, inner ones 
with small white tips (Fig. 78, c); whole head and throat deep slate-color; 
rest of plumage, including nape, pure white, breast sometimes suffused by 
a delicate peach-blossom tint; bill dark reddish brighter at the tip. Ads. 
in winter. — Resemble above, but have the head and throat white, crown and 
sides of head and sometimes nape spotted or streaked with grayish. Im. — 
Upperparts light ashy fuscous, the feathers margined with whitish; pri- 
maries black; forehead and underparts white, sometimes washed in places 
with dusky; tail dark pearl-gray, broadly tipped with black. L., 16"50; W., 
12-50; T., 4-90; B., 1-65. 

Range. — Tropical and temperate coasts. Breeds from Maine (rarely) 
and Mass. (abundantly but locally) s. on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts to 
Tex., the Lesser Antilles and Venezuela; winters from Ga. and Gulf coast s. 
to w. Mex., Chile, and Brazil; casual in Colo., Nebr., Wise., Ont., and 
Iowa. 

Washington, irregular in Sept. Long Island, rare S. R., irregular S. 
v., Apl.-vSept. (Butcher). 

Nest, of grasses, seaweed, etc., in grassy marshes. Eggs, 3-4, varying 
from grayish olive-brown to greenish gray, spotted, blotched, and scrawled 
with chocolate, 2'15 x 1*55. Date, Corpus Christi, Tex., Apl. 8; Cobb's 
Is., Va., May 26; Muskeget Is., Mass., June 7. 

This is the only Gull nesting on our Atlantic coast south of 
Maine, It was formerly abundant and generally distributed but is 
now found only locally, the colonies on Western Egg Rock in Maine 
and Muskeget Island, Massachusetts, being the only ones north of 
southern New Jersey. 

When nesting, the Laughing Gull is an inhabitant of the salt marshes. 
On Cobb's Island, Virginia, the sitting birds were so conspicuous that 
from a distance they looked like white flowers dotting the marsh. The 
downy young, however, are much darker than young Terns, the general 
tone of their plumage resembling that of the reeds of which the nest is 
made. 



160 GULLS 

The resemblance of its call to wild, maniacal laughter has won 
^^ for this species its common name. 

1895. Mackay, G. H., Auk, X, 332-336 (habits in Mass.). 

59. Larus franklini Rich. Franklin's Gull. Ads. in summer. — 
Whole head and throat sooty black, nape, sides of neck, and underparts, 
except throat, white, generally suffused (in fresh specimens) with an exquis- 
ite peach-blossom tint; tail white; back and wings pearl-gray; first primary 
white, outer web black, except at the tip, shaft part of the inner web grayish 
on basal half (Fig. 78, d) ; second primary white, with a black mark on inner 
web and a black stripe on outer web near the tip, rest of outer web and shaft 
part of inner web pearl-gray; third to sixth primaries tipped with white, 
then banded with gradually diminishing bars of black, which are succeeded 
by a whitish space, while the rest of the feather is pearl-gray; bill dark 
coral-red. Ads. in winter. — "Similar, but head and neck white, the occiput, 
with orbital and auricular regions, grayish dusky; bill and feet dusky, the 
former tipped with orange reddish." Young, first plvmage. — "Top and 
sides of the head (except forehead and lores), back and scapulars grayish 
brown, the longer scapulars bordered terminally with pale grajdsh buff; 
wing-coverts bluish gray tinged with grayish brown; secondaries dusky, 
edged with pale grayish blue and broadly tipped with white; primaries 
dusky, the inner more plumbeous, all broadly tipped with white. Central 
portion of the rump uniform light bluish gray ; lateral and posterior portions 
of the rump, upper tail-coverts, entire lower parts, forehead, lores, and 
eyelids white. Bill brownish, dusky terminally; feet brown (in skin)." W., 
11-25; B., 1-30; depth through nostrils, -35: Tar., 1-60 (B., B., and R.). 

Range. — Interior N. Am. Breeds from sw. Sask. and sw. Keewatin to 
S. D., Iowa, and s. Minn.; winters from Gulf coast of La. and Tex. to 
Peru and Chile. ; accidental in Utah, Ont., Ohio, Va., and the Lesser Antilles. 

Nest, of grasses, etc., in reedy marshes. Eggs, 2-3, varying from dark 
chocolate to creamy brown and sooty white, irregularly marked with small 
spots or large blotches of umber, and wdth obsolete lilac shell markings, 
2-12 X 1-40 (Preston). Date, Heron Lake, Minn., May 8. 

Many Gulls nest in the interior, but of them all Frankhn's has 
rarely been found on either our Atlantic or Pacific coasts, though it 
reaches the seashore in its winter quarters. 

Pausing in its billowy flight over the prairies to circle about one 
curiously; hovering over the plowman, or exploring the furrow in his 
wake; eagerly chasing grasshoppers, like a flock of pearl-plumaged 
hens; gathered in thousands in the reeds where it nests or in vast 
flocks prior to its fall migration, Frankhn's Gull is one of the most 
interesting, as it is unexpected, forms of bird-hfe of our interior. 

1886. Preston, J. W., Orn. and OoL, XI, 54, 55.— 1900. Roberts, 
T. S., Auk, XVII, 272-283 (one of the first as well as one of the best of 
American bird studies with a camera). — 1902. Job, H. K., Among the 
Water-Fowl, 159-165.— 1910. Ed. Leaflet, No. 44, Natl. Assoc. Aud. Soc, 
Bird-Lore, XII, 124-127. 

60. Larus Philadelphia {Ord). Bonaparte's Gull. Ads. in summer. 
— Whole head and throat dark, sooty slate-color; nape and sides of the neck, 
underparts, except throat, and tail white; back and wings pearl-gray; first 
primary, seen from above, white, outer web and tip black (Fig. 78, e); 
second and third primaries white, tipped with black; third to sixth primaries 
with small whitish tips, then large black spaces, the rest of feather white 
or pearl-gray; bill black. Ads. in winter. — Similar, but head and throat white, 
back and sides of head washed with grayish. Im. — Top of the head and 



GULLS 161 

nape and a spot on the auriculars more or less washed with grayish; back 
varying from brownish gray to pearl-gray; lesser wing-coverts grayish 
brown, secondaries mostly pearl-gray; first primary with outer web, tip, 
and most of shaft part of inner web black; inner margin of inner web at 
end of feather narrowly bordered with black; second and third primaries 
much the same, but with slightly more black at ends; tail white, banded 
with black and narrowly tipped wdth white; underparts white. L., 14"00; 
W., 10-30; T., 4-00; B., 115. 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds from nw. Alaska and n. Mackenzie s. to s. 
B. C. and s. Keewatin; winters from Maine to Fla. and on the Gulf coast to 
Tex. and Yucatan, and on the Pacific coast from s. B. C. s. to L. Calif, 
and w. Mex. (Jalisco); in migration w. to Kotzebue Sound and e. to 
Ungava; casual in Bermuda and the Bahamas. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch.-May 30; Oct. and Nov. Long Island, 
regular W. V., Nov. 18-May 11. Ossining, rather rare T. V., Apl. and Oct. 
Cambridge, rare T. V. in spring. N. Ohio, regular but not common T. V., 
Apl. 10-May 20; Sept. 1-20. SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 23. 

Nest, of sticks lined with grasses, etc., on stumps, in bushes or trees four 
to twenty feet from the ground. Eggs, 3-4, grayish olive with a greenish 
tint and small clove-brown spots, chiefly about the larger end, 1"97 x 1"40 
(B., B., and R.). Date, Anderson River, June 6. 

"This little Gull is more often found in flocks than our other species, 
and is frequently seen flying over swamps and plowed fields search- 
ing for worms and insects; but it is usually met with on the lakes and 
rivers hunting its food like the Herring Gull. It is far less wary than 
that species" (Eaton). 

It may sometimes be seen in active, fluttering groups feeding in 
our harbors. 

The Little Gull {60.1. Larus minutus), a European species, has been 
taken once on Long Island, in September, 1887 (Dutcher, Auk, V, 1888, 
p. 171), and once in Maine, July 20, 1910 (Norton, Auk, 1910, 447), and 
also in Bermuda. 

61. Rhodostethia rosea {Macg.). Ross's Gull. Middle tail-feathers 
longest. Ads. summer. — Head, neck and underparts exquisite rosy shell- 
pink; a black ring around the neck; back and wings pearl -gray, outer margin 
of outer primary black above except at tip; tail white pink tinged. Ads. 
in winter. — Similar but without black collar and with less pink (Saunders). 
Im. — No collar, no pink tint; central tail-feathers tipped with blackish; 
crown and back pearl-gray; rump barred; ear-coverts dusky, region around 
eye streaked with dusky; below white; outer primar: s blackish, white on 
the inner webs, increasing to nearly white inner primt:r:.:s and white second- 
aries; tertials and coverts, blackish, white tipped. In a succeeding plumage 
the tail is white and the collar evident. L., IS'SO; W., lO'SO; T., 5-25; B. 
•75. 

Range. — Arctic regions. Breeds in delta of Kolyma River ne. Siberia; 
migrates to Kamchatka, n. coast of Alaska, Melville Peninsula, w. coast of 
Greenland, and Arctic islands of Europe; casual in England, Faroe Islands, 
and Helgoland. 

Nest, on the ground of dry grass and Carices, sometimes with a few Betula 
or Salix leaves, or of reindeer moss. Eggs, 2-3, "beautiful deep rich olive- 
green without any of the grayish or sandy shade, spotted, especially near 
the large end, wath chocolate-brown, 1'65 x 1'22." Date, June 13. (See But- 
urlin. Ibis, 1906, 131-139; 333-337). 

In 1905 Ross's Gull was discovered by Buturlin breeding in num- 
bers in the delta of the Kolyma River, northeast Siberia. His obser- 



162 TERNS 

vations are given in the Ibis as above. (See also a review of his paper 
in The Auk, 1906, p. 348.) 

62. Xema sabini (Sab.). Sabine's Gull. Ads. in summer. — Whole 
head and throat slate-color, bordered posteriorly by black, back and sides of 
neck, underparts, except throat, and slightly forked tail pure white; back 
and wings dark pearl-gray; secondaries tipped with white; first primary 
black, inner half of inner web, except at end, white; second to fourth pri- 
maries similar, but tipped with white; bill black, end yellow. Ads. in winter. — 
"Similar to the summer plumage, but the head and neck white, except 
occiput, nape, and auricular region, which are dull, dusky plumbeous" 
(B., B., and R.). Im. — Forehead and lores white, rest of upperparts ashy 
brown, feathers slightly tipped with whitish; tail white, broadly tipped with 
blackish; underparts white. L., 14-00; W., 1050; T., 4-50; B., 95. 

Range. — Arctic regions to S. Am. Breeds on the coast of Alaska from 
Kuskokwim River to Norton Sound and in n. Mackenzie, n. Keewatin, 
and n. Greenland, and on Arctic islands of Europe and Asia; in migration 
on both coasts of U. S. and casual in the interior; winters in Peru. 

Long Island, A. V. two records; July; Oct. 

Nest,oi grasses, etc., on the ground. Eggs, 2-5, deep olive (varying 
in intensity, however), rather indistinctly spotted or blotched with brown, 
1-78 X 1-26 (Ridgw.). Date, Hooker Bay, Alaska, July 1 (Thayer Coll.). 

This boreal species is of rare occurrence in the Northern United 
States, there being but three records for Massachusetts and the same 
number for New York. 

Subfamily Sternince. Terns. (Fig. 24.) 

The Terns number some fifty species, distributed throughout the 
world, ten being found in North America. They are more southern 
than the Gulls, only two species nesting north of Maine, in Eastern 
North America. They are also more migratory, none wintering on our 
coasts north of the Carolinas. 

Terns are littoral, not pelagic, and, although characteristic of our 
sea-coasts, like the Gulls, several species nest in the interior, the Black 
Tern breeding only on bodies of fresh water. Beautiful as pearls, 
graceful and active as Swallows, Terns are a constant delight to the eye. 
They capture their prey of small fish by darting toward it Hke a living 
arrow, plunging recklessly into the water, and, in some cases, swim- 
ming a few feet beneath the surface. AVhen looking for food they usually 
fly with the bill pointed downward, a habit which will aid in distin- 
guishing them from the Gulls, whose bill is carried more nearly in a 
lino with the body. 

Terns nest in colonies on islands and when disturbed are much 
bolder than most Gulls, hovering close overhead and swooping toward 
one fearlessly. The young are born covered with down, mottled in 
pattern like that of Gulls. This plumage is both countershaded and 
obliteratively marked; further proof of its protective value being 
furnished by the birds themselves, which, in obedience to the warning 
note of their parent, squat flat and become almost invisible so long as 
they remain motionless. Like the young of Gulls, young Terns are de- 



Plate XI 




ThRXS AM) ~~MMMI, K~ 

Common Terns Bhitk .Skiminer.-i. 

Least Tern.s. 
From the Habitat Group of Cobb's Island in the American Museum of Natural History. 



TERNS 163 

pendent on their parents until they acquire the power of flight. During 
this period, the young of some, possibly of all, species, enter the water 
of their own voHtion and swim freely, a habit in which the adult rarely, 
if ever, indulges. 

Subfamily Sternince. Terns 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing under 13-00. 

1. Entire top of the head jet-black. 

A. Bill black, or mostly black. 

a. Feet black or blackish. 

a^. Underparts black or blackish 77. Black Tern. 

a^. Underparts white; bill black .... 63. Gull-billed Tern. 
a^. Underparts white; bill black, broadly tipped with yellow. 

67. Cabot's Tern. 

b. Feet yellowish or orange. 

6^. Outer tail-feathers pure white ; outer web of first primary black. 

72. Roseate Tern. 

&2. Inner web of outer tail-feather gray; outer web of first primary 

gray 69. Forster's Tern. 

B. BUI mostly or entirely yellowish, reddish, brownish, or orange. 

a. Underparts tinged with grayish; outer web of outer tail-feather 

gray; inner web white. 
a^. BUI broadly tipped with blackish; tarsus generally over "70. 

70. Common Tern. 
a^. BUI without a distinct black tip; tarsus generally under '70. 

71. Arctic Tern. 

b. Underparts pure white; inner web of outer tail-feather gray; 

outer web white 69. Forster's Tern. 

2. Entire top of head not jet-black. 

A. Forehead white; lores black; crown jet-black or silvery. 

a. Wing under 8'00; back pearl-gray 74. Least Tern. 

b. Wing over 8'00; back grayish brown or blackish. 

foi. Back grayish brown; a white stripe from the forehead over the 

eye 76. Bridled Tern. 

b^. Back blackish; white of forehead not reaching over the eye. 

75. Sooty Tern. 
6^. Crown sUvery, rest of plumage sooty 79. Noddy. 

B. Forehead or crown white or grayish, sometimes speckled with black; 

lores not entirely black. 

a. Wing pearl-gray. 

a^. Outer tail-feather entirely pure white. 

a^. Bill over r75, tipped with yellowish . . 67. Cabot's Tern. 
,a^. BiU under 1'75, without a yellow tip. 

72. Roseate Tern (Im.). 
6*. Outer tail-feather not pure white. 

62. Inner web of outer tail-feather darker than outer web; outer 
web mostly or entirely white; a black space generally on the 
side of the head inclosing the eye. 

69. Forster's Tern (Im.). 
b\ Outer web of outer tail-feather darker than inner web; tarsus 

over '70 70. Common Tern (Im.). 

b*. Outer web of outer tail-feather darker than inner web; tarsus 

under '70 71. Arctic Tern (Im.). 

6^. TaU wholly gray, not deeply forked, wing under 9*00; belly 
white or mottled with black. ... 77. Black Tern (Im.). 

b. Wing blackish. 

6^ Underparts blackish 75. Sooty Tern (Im.). 

b\ Underparts white 76. Bridled Tern (Im.). 

13 



164 



TERNS 



II. Wing over 13-00. 

A. Wing 15"00 or over; outer primary mostly gray. 64. Caspian Tern. 

B. Wing under 1500; inner half of inner web of first primary white. 

65. Royal Tern. 




Fig. 79. First primaries of adult Terns, seen from below: (a) Caspian Tern; 
(6) Royal Tern; (c) Common Tern; (d) Arctic Tern; (e) Roseate Tern. 



63. Gelochelidon iiilotica (Linn.). Gull-billed Tern. Ads. in sum- 
mer. — Top of head and nape black; back and wings pale pearl-gray; outer 
web of outer primaries silvery; tip and shaft part of inner web darker; 
inner part of inner web, except for a narrow margin at end of feather, white; 
tail white, slightly forked, the middle feathers grayish; underparts white; 
bill and feet black, the former rather short and stout. Ads. in winter. — Sim- 
ilar to the above, but top of the head white, auriculars grayish, and a space 
in front of the eye blackish. L., 14*50; W., 1200; T., 5-50: B., 1'40; depth of 
B. at base, '50. 

Range. — Nearly cosmopolitan. Breeds in N. Am. on coasts of Tex., 
La., N. C, Va. (formerly to N. J.), and in the Bahamas; wanders casually 
to Mame and Ohio; winters in s. Mex., s. Guatemala, and from Brazil s. to 
Patagonia and Chile. Breeds also in Europe, Asia, and Australia, and winters 
8. to n. Africa. 

Washington, casual in autumn, no recent records. Long Island, A. V. 
in summer. 

Nesl, of shells and pebbles, on beaches. Eggs, 3-5, rather uniform buffy 
white, with numerous distinct and obscure chocolate markings, 1*80 X 1*30. 
Date, Corpus Christi, Tex., Apl. 30; Cobb's Is., Va., May 30. 



TERNS 165 

The Gull-billed Tern has greatly decreased in numbers during 
recent years, and it now breeds only locally and in small numbers 
from Cobb's Island, Virginia, southward. It is a less excitable bird 
than the Common Tern, from which and its near allies it may be known 
by its short, comparatively heavj^, black bill and short, less-forked tail. 
Its notes are a high, reedy tee-tee-tee, sometimes suggesting those of a 
weak-voiced katydid. 

64. Sterna caspia Pallas. Caspian Tern. Ads. in spring. — Top and 
back of head shining black, the feathers lengthened to form a crest; back of 
neck, underparts, and tail white; back and wings pearl-gray; primaries 
dark slaty, silvery on the outer web (Fig. 79, a) ; bill coral-red, darker near 
tip; feet black. Ads. after he breeding season and in winter. — Similar to the 
above, but top of the head streaked with black. Int. — Top of head streaked 
with black and whit^; back of neck and underparts white; back, wing- 
coverts, and tertials pearl-gray, spotted or barred with brownish black; 
primaries dark slaty, silvery on the outer web; tail pearl-gray, more or less 
barred with brownish black; bill orange-red; feet blackish brown. L., 
21-00; W., 16-20; T., 600; B., 2-80. 

Range. — Nearly cosmopolitan. Breeds in N. Am. at Great Slave Lake, 
Ore., on islands of n. Lake Michigan, on coast of s. Lab., and also on 
coasts of Tex., La., Miss., S. C, and (formerly) Va. ; winters from coast of 
cen. Calif, to L. Calif, and w. Mex. (Colima), and on s. Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts; casual in migration north to Alaska, James Bay, and N. F. 

Washington, casual, Sept., Oct., 1896. Long Island, uncommon T. V. 
May and Sept. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., Apl. 25. 

Eggs, 2-3, grayish white or huffy white, with rather small, distinct, 
and obscure chocolate markings, 2-70 x 1-83. Date, Corpus Christi, Tex., 
Apl. 8, 1885; Gravel Is., Wis., June 10. 

The singularly interrupted distribution of this, the largest of our 
Terns, indicates that it was once a far more abundant bird. It resembles 
the smaller red-billed Terns in general habits, but its large size prevents 
it from being confused with any other species except the Royal Tern. 
From Gulls it may be known by its red, pointed bill and forked tail. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 301 (nesting). 

65. Sterna maxima Bodd. Royal Tern. Ads. in spring. — Top and 
back of head shining black, feathers lengthened to form a crest; back of neck, 
underparts, and tail white; back and wings pearl-gray; inner web of primaries, 
except at tip, white; outer web, and shaft part of inner web dark, silvery 
slate-color (Fig. 79, h). Ads. after the breeding season and in winter. — Similar 
but top of head streaked with l)lack and white. Im. — Reseml)ling young of 
S. caspia, but smaller and with the inner half of the inner web of the pri- 
maries white. L., 1900; W., 14-00; T., 700; B., 2-50. 

Range.— Troincal coasts n. to U. S. Breeds in W. Indies and on s. 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts n. to Va. and w. to Tex.; wanders casually to Mass.; 
not rare in summer from San Francisco Bay s. to w. Mex. ; winters from 
Monterey, Calif, and Gulf of Mex., s. to Peru and Brazil, and on w. coast of 
Africa from Gibraltar to Angola. 

Long Island, one record, Aug. 27. 

Eggs, 2-4, more pointed than those of the preceding, grayish white, 
with rather small, distinct, and obscure chocolate markings, 2-05 x r75. 
Date, Corpus Christi, Tex., Apl. 8, 1885; near Charleston S. C, May 15. 

A common species on our southern coasts. During the winter it 
is about the only Tern one sees in Florida waters. It is a strong, active 



166 TERNS 

bird on the wing, and a reckless, dashing diver, frequently disappearing 
beneath the surface in catching its prey. The slow-flying Pehcans are 
at its mercy, and it sometimes deftly robs them of their well-earned 
gains. 

67. Sterna sandvieensis acuflavida (Cabot). Cabot's Tern. Ads. in 
spring. — Whole top of head and crest black; back and wings light pearl- 
gray; primaries silvery gray; the shaft part of the inner web white except at 
the tip ; rest of the plumage white ; feet and bill black, the latter with a con- 
spicuous yellowish tip. Ads. after breeding season and in winter. — Similar, 
but crown white, sometimes spotted with black ; back of head and crest more 
or less streaked with white. Im. — Similar, but back spotted with blackish; 
tail slaty gray and much shorter; bill slightly if at all tipped with yellow. 
L., 16-00; W., 10-50; T., 5-50; B., 2-05. 

Range. — N. and S. Am. Breeds from N. C. to Fla., Tex., and Max.; 
winters from the Bahamas, Fla., and La. to Cen. Am. (both coasts), the 
Greater Antilles, Colombia, and Brazil; accidental in Ont., Mass., N. J., and 
the Lesser Antilles. 

Eggs, 2-3, buffy white, spotted, speckled, and scrawled with distinct 
and obscure chocolate markings, 2-05 x 1"40. Date, Tampa, Fla., Apr. 10; 
coast of S. C, second week in June. 

Cabot's Tern was formerly abundant along the coasts of Florida, 
but it now breeds only locally. There is a small breeding colony in 
Pamlico Sound, North Carolina (Pearson), and in Bull's Bay, South 
Carolina (Wayne) . The bird winters from the Florida Keys southward. 
Its black, yellow-tipped bill is a good field mark. 

Trudeau's Tern (68. Sterna trudeaui) is a South American species which 
has been taken once on Long Island and once on the New Jersey coast. 

69. Sterna forsteri Nutt. Forster's Tern. Ads. in summer. — Whole 
top of head black; back and wings pearl-gray; inner border of inner web of 
outer primaries white, except at the tip; rump and entire underparts white; 
tail light pearl-gray, the outer feather darker toward the end, where the 
inner web is always darker than the outer; bill dull orange, the end third 
blackish; feet orange. Ads. in winter. — Similar to the above, but head white, 
more or less washed with grayish or spotted with black, a large black spot 
on the side of the head inclosing the eye; bill mostly black; feet brownish. 
Im. — Similar to the preceding, but the back and wings more or less mottled 
or washed with light brownish, and the tail much shorter. L., IS'OO; W., 
10-25; T.. 7-00; Tar., '90; B., 1-50. 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds on interior lakes of Calif., s. Ore., and Nev., 
and from sw. Sask. and Man. s. to n. Colo., n. Nebr., ne. Ills., and s. Ont., 
and on coasts of Tex., La., a«d Va. ; winters from s. Calif., Gulf of Mex., and 
S. C. to s. Guatemala; in migration occurs on the Atlantic coast, casually 
as far n. as Mass. ; casual in Brazil. 

Washington, irregular T. V. Long Island, casual. Glen Ellyn, very 
rare T.-V., May. SE. Minn., common T. V., uncommon S. R., Apl. 29- 
Aug. 2L 

Nest, of seaweed, flags, or weeds on a slight elevation in grassy marshes. 
Eggs, 3, very variable, olive-gray, or olive brownish ashy, more rarely 
whitish or buff, heavily marked with chocolate, 1-80 x 1-30. Date, Corpus 
Christi, Tex., Apr. 29; Cobb's Is., Va., June 1 ; Swan Lake, Minn., June 13. 

Forster's Tern, although so like the Common Tern in appearance, 
differs materially from it in habits. It is not dependent on sandy 
beaches for a nest-site, but is a marsh inhabitant, laying on a platform 



TERNS 167 

nest in the grasses. I have never found it in large colonies, but in scat- 
tered pairs. Its notes are a long-drawn, reedy cackle and a tweet-tweet- 
tweet-tweet. 

70. Sterna hirundo Linn. Common Teen (Fig. 24). Ads. in summer. 
— Whole top of head black; back and wings pearl-gray; inner border of 
inner web of outer primaries white, except at tip (Fig. 79, c); throat white; 
breast and belly pale pearl-gray; tail white, the outer webs of the outer feathers 
gray or pearl-gray; bill red at the base, the end third black; feet orange-red. 
Ads. in winter. — Similar, but front part of head and underparts white; bill 
mostly black. Im. — Similar, but back more or less washed or mottled with 
light brownish; lesser wing-coverts slaty gray, and tail much shorter. L., 
1500; W., 10-25; T., 5o0; Tar., '75; B., 1-40. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere, n. S. Am., and Africa. Breeds from Great 
Slave Lake, cen. Keewatin, and s. Ungava s. to sw. Sask., n. N. D., s. 
Wise, n. Ohio, and N. C; winters from Fla. to BrazU; casual in migration 
on Pacific coast from B. C. to L. Calif. In E. Hemisphere breeds in Europe 
and Asia and winters in India and s. Africa. 

Washington, irregular T. V., sometimes common. Long Island, common 
S. R. on Gardiner's Is., May 20-Oct. 15., Ossining, casual in late summer. 
Cambridge, very rare T. V. N. Ohio, S. R. in large colonies on islands in 
Lake Erie, May 5-Sept. 20. Glen Ellyn, irregular, uncommon T. V. May 
15-Sept. 9. SE. Minn., T. V. 

Remarks. — The Common Tern is closely related to Forster's Tern and 
also to the Arctic Tern. From the former it is to be distinguished by the 
color of the long outer tail-feathers. In the Common Tern the outer web 
of these feathers is always darker than the inner web; in Forster's Tern the 
inner web is always darker than the outer one. Adult Common Terns have 
the breast and belly washed with pearl-gray, while in Forster's Tern these 
parts are pure white. 

The Common Tern differs from the Arctic Tern in having the bill tipped 
with black instead of being entirely red; in having longer tarsi, and in the 
color of the primaries. 

Nest, a slight depression in the sand, scantily lined with sea-weed or 
grasses. Eggs, 3-4, not distinguishable with certainty from those of the 
preceding, but averaging paler and greener, and less heavily marked, 
1-60 X 1-20. Date, Cobb's Is., Va., May 28; Muskeget Is., Mass., May 28. 

It is many years since I visited my first breeding colony of Common 
Terns (on Gull Island, L. I.), but I can close my eyes and still feel the 
air vibrate with the harsh, half-threatening, half-pleading chorus of 
nearly two thousand excited voices. There is a dull, heavy, hopeless 
monotone, broken only by the scream of some half-maddened bird 
who fearlessly darts downward to protect its nest at my feet. A shot 
is fired; there is a moment of awe-struck silence, then, with renewed 
violence, the screaming is resumed. Pandemonium reigns: tearr, tenrrr, 
swi,sh! the air is full of darting, diving, crying Terns. It was useless to 
attempt to secrete myself. At no time during my stay did the outcry 
cease or hovering flock disperse. 

It was only after I had exchanged a gun for a camera that I learned 
how quickly Terns will go back to their nest if one will conceal oneself 
in a blind, which in itself may be conspicuous enough, if it be motion- 
less. Then one learns that the tearrr note of alarm and protest gives 
way to a great variety of calls incident to the activities of the birds 
when not disturbed; for example, a sharp chirp not unlike that of a 



168 TERNS 

White-throated Sparrow, and a tue, tue, tue, uttered by a bird in pur- 
suit of another. The young are fed on fish which they take from the 
bill of the parent. They promptly and instinctively squat at the parent's 
warning note and remain motionless until touched. They enter the 
water of their own volition and swim freely, while the parents, which 
rarely swim, stand on the shore and watch them; webbed feet, therefore, 
apparently being of use to young Terns although practically function- 
less in the adult. 

Thanks to the movement for the protection of our birds, Terns, 
which fifteen years ago seemed to be doomed to extinction, are now 
increasing, and there is reason to hope that our shores may again be 
enlivened by these beautiful, graceful creatures. 

1879. Brewster, Wm., Bvdl. Nutt. Orn. Club. IV, 13-22 (habits).— 
1895-99. Mackay, G. H., Auk, XIII, 32-48, 178; XIV, 21, 22, 278-284, 
383-390; XVI, 168-172; XVII, 259-266 (on Muskeget and Penikese Islands, 
Mass.)— 1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 106-127. — 
1902. Jones, L., WHson BuU., XV, 94-100.— 1906. XVIII, 35-47 (on 
Weepeckets). 

71. Sterna paradisaea Briinn. Arctic Tern. Very similar in color 
to the Common Tern, from which it differs in having less gray on the shaft 
part of the inner web of the outer primaries (Fig. 79, d) ; in having the tail 
somewhat longer, the tarsi and bill shorter, whUe the latter, in the adult, 
is generally without a black tip. L., 15*50; W., 10'25; T., 7*50; Tar., "65; 
B., 1-30. 

Range. — Nearly cosmopolitan. Breeds from n. Alaska, Melville Island, 
and n. Greenland, s. to Commander and Aleutian Islands, n. B. C, Great 
Slave Lake, cen. Keewatin, Maine, and (formerly) Mass., and in entire 
Arctic regions of Europe and Asia; winters in Antarctic Ocean, s. to lat. 
74°; in migration, Pacific coast s. to s. Calif., and Atlantic coast s. to L. i.; 
accidental in Colo. 

Long Island, one record, July 1. 

Nest, as in preceding. Eggs, 3-4, not distinguishable with certainty from 
those of the preceding, 1*62 x 1"15. Date, Seal Is., Maine, June 17, 1875. 

Comparing the notes of this bird with those of the Common Tern, 
Mr. Brewster writes: "Their notes are similar, but several of them can 
be distinguished. The usual cry of S. macrura [ = paradiscea] cor- 
responds to the tearr of S. hirundo, but is shriller, ending in a rising 
inflection, and sounding very like the squeal of a pig. The bird also 
has a short, harsh note similar to that of Forster's Tern. At any dis- 
tance within fair gun-range I could usually separate it from Wilson's 
[ = Common] Tern by its longer tail, and by the uniform and deeper 
color of the bill. In flight and habits the two seemed to me identical" 
{Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XXII, 1883, p. 402). 

72. Sterna dougalli Montag. Roseate Tern. Ads. in summer. — 
Top of head black; back and wings pearl-gray; outer web of outer primaries 
and shaft part of the inner web slaty black (Fig. 79, e); underparts white, 
generally delicately tinted with pinkish ; tail pure white; bill black, the base 
reddish; feet red. Ads. in winter. — Similar to the above, but front of the 
head white, more or less streaked or spotted with black; underparts pure 
white. Im., first plumage. — 'Tilcum and nape pale buffy grayish finely 
mottled or sprinkled with darker, and streaked, especially on the crown, with 



TERNS 169 

dusky; orbital and auricular regions dusky blackish; remainder of the head, 
extreme lower part of the nape, and entire lowerparts white, the nape and 
sometimes the breast, finely mottled with buffy gray; back, scapulars, wing- 
coverts, rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pale pearl-blue, the back and 
scapulars overlaid with pale buff irregularly mottled with dusky, each 
feather with a submarginal dusky V-shaped mark; primary coverts and 
primaries dark bluish gray edged with paler, the inner webs of the latter 
broadly edged vnth white; tail-feathers, marked near their ends much like 
the longer scapulars, their outer webs rather dark grayish; bill brownish 
dusky; feet dusky." L., 15-50; W., O'SO; T., 7-50; B., 1-50 (B., B., and R.). 

Range. — Temperate and tropical regions. Breeds locally from Sable 
Island to L. I. and from the Bahamas to Lesser Antilles and Venezuela; 
formerly from Maine to Fla. ; rare migrant in Cen. Am. ; winters from the 
Bahamas to Brazil; accidental in Ohio; occurs on the coasts of a large part of 
the E. Hemisphere. 

Long Island, formerly uncommon but regular S. R., May through Sept. 
(Dutcher). N. Ohio, casual T. V. 

Nest, as in Common Tern. Eggs, 3, not distinguishable with certainty 
from those of >S. forsteri or S. hirundo, but averaging paler and less heavily 
marked, 1-65 x 1-20. Date, Cobb's Is., Va., May 13, 1871; Muskeget Is., 
Mass., June 7. 

This species is found in small numbers associated with colonies 
of Common Terns, apparently making its nest among theirs. It is a 
less excitable, wilder bird than hirundo, and its single harsh note, cack, 
may be distinctly heard above the the uproar of Common Terns, as it 
hovers somewhat in the background. Its white breast and long outer 
tail-feathers also aid in distinguishing it. 

74. Sterna antillaruiu (Less.). Least Tern. Ads. in summer. — 
Forehead white, lores and crown black; back, tail and wings pearl-gray; 
outer web of outer primaries and shaft part of inner web slaty black; under- 
parts white; bill yellow, generally tipped with black; feet orange. Ads. in 
winter. — Top of head white, more or less spotted with black; back of head 
black; bill blackish. Im. — Upperparts and tail at end mottled with blackish 
and buffy, primaries as in adult, underparts white, bill blackish. L., 9"00; 
W., 6-90; T., 3-50; B., I'lO. 

Range. — Tropical and temperate Am. Breeds on coast of s. Calif, and 
on Gulf coast from Tex. eastward; also n. to Mo. (formerly to Iowa) and nw. 
Nebr., has occurred in Wise, and S. D.; breeds also from the coasts of 
Mass., Va., N. C, and Fla. s. to the Bahamas, W. Indies, British Honduras 
and Venezuela; now rare, but formerly abundant in the breeding season 
from Fla. to Maine, wandering to Lab. and N. F.; in migration occurs on 
the coasts of L. Calif, and w. Mex. ; winters from the Gulf coast to Venezuela 
and Peru. 

Washington, casual T. V.; Long Island, T. V., formerly abundant S. R., 
now rare. N. Ohio, common S. R. in Sandusky marshes, May 10-Sept. 25. 
SE. Minn., rare T. V., Aug. 29. 

Nest, a slight depression in the sand. Eggs, 3-4, buffy white, speckled or 
spotted with chocolate, 1*25 x "90. Date, Matanzas Inlet, Fla., May 18, 
1894; Cobb's Is., Va., May 28, 1886. 

The Least Tern was brought so near the verge of extinction by mil- 
liners' collectors that in spite of protection it has never recovered from 
the attack. There is a small colony on Martha's Vineyard, and they are 
found breeding locally in small numbers from North Carolina south- 
ward. 

Small size is always a good character in identifying this species, and 



170 TERNS 

in breeding plumage its white forehead and largely yellow bill are 

distinctive. Its call, as described by Job, is "a shrill, staccato yip, 
yip, yip." 

75. Sterna fuscata Linn. Sooty Tern. Ads. — Forehead and a line 
reaching to the eye white, lores and rest of the head black; nape, back, and 
wings brownish black, nearly as dark as the head; outer tail-feathers white, 
brownish on the end half of the inner web ; rest of tail-feathers of the same 
color as the back; underparts white; bill and feet black. 7m., first plumage. — 
Sooty slate-color; linings of the wings and under tail-coverts whitish; wing- 
coverts, scapulars, upper tail-coverts, and tail-feathers more or less tipped 
with white. L., IT'OO; W., ll'SO; T., 7-25; B., 175. 

Range. — Tropical and subtropical coasts, except Pacific coast of S. 
Am. Breeds in Am. from s. Fla., La., and Tex. throughout the Bahamas, 
W. Indies, and tropical islands of the Atlantic; wanders n. rarely to Maine; 
winters from La. to Brazil and the Falkland Islands. 

Long Island, one record, Sept. 

Nest, a slight hollow in the sand. Egg, one, whitish or buff, speckled or 
spotted with chocolate, 2'00 x 1*45. Date, Tortugas, Fla., May 7. 

So far as I am aware the Sooty Tern breeds in the Atlantic States 
only in the Dry Tortugas of Florida, where about 19,000 nested when 
Watson made his important studies of their habits in 1907. They 
reach the island the last week in April and remain until about Septem- 
ber 1. The period of incubation is twentj^-six days. The warning note 
is a shrill e-e-e-e; they also utter a squeaky quack and a nasal ker-wacky- 
wak, and other calls, being very noisy birds. 

Flocks of Terns seen darting actively and repeatedly into schools 
of small fish in West Indian waters are very apt to be of this species. 

1903. Thompson, J., Bird-Lore, V, 77-84.— 1905. Job, H. K., Wild 
Wings, 83-99.— 1908. Watson, J. B., Tortugas Lab. of Carnegie Inst., 
189-255.— 1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 192-199. 

The Bridled Tern {76. Sterna ancethetus) , a tropical species, has been 
taken once in Florida, but may prove to be a regular summer visitant to 
some of the Florida Keys. It resembles the Sooty Tern, but has the back 
sooty gray and the white of the forehead extends backward over the eye. 

77. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis ((rmeZ.). Black Tern. Ads. 
in summer. — Whole head and underparts, except under tail-coverts, black; 
back, wings, and tail slate-color; bill and feet black. Ads. in winter. — Fore- 
head, nape, and underparts white; back of the head black mixed with 
white; back, wings, and tail deep pearl-gray. Im. — Similar to the pre- 
ceding, but upperparts more or less washed and tipped with brownish; 
sides washed with grayish. L., lO'OO; W., 830; T., 3 30; B., I'OO. 

Range. — N. and S. Am. Breeds from sw. B. C, Great Slave Lake, s. 
Keewatin, and w. Ont. s. to inland lakes of Calif., Nev., Colo., n. Mo., and 
n. Ohio; winters from Mazatlan, Mex., to Panama, Peru, and Chile; e. coast 
of U. S. in autumn; accidental in Alaska, N. S., and N. B.; casual in the W. 
Indies and Bahamas. 

Washington, irregular T. V., Aug. 15-Sept. 22. Long Island, common 
T. V. July 21-Sept. 14. Ossining, casual, Sept. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
May 1-Sopt. 1. 

Nest, of reeds, grasses, etc., an islet in marsh or slough. Eggs, 2-3, grayish 
olive-brown, rarely whitish, heavily spotted and blotched with chocolate 
markings, frequently confluent about the larger end, 1'35 x '98. Date, 
Dodge Co., Wise, May 28; sc. Minn., May 26. 



TERNS 171 

To one who associates all Terns with sandy beaches, it is a novel 
experience, when driving over the prairies, to be surrounded by an 
active flock of these birds, darting eagerly here and there in pursuit of 
the insects flushed by one's team from the grass. When on their nest- 
ing-grounds in the interior, Black Terns, indeed, appear to feed largely 
on insects, but when migrating southward along our coasts in late 
summer and autumn, in habits, and doubtless in food also, they more 
nearly resemble the coast-breeding members of their family. 

It is difficult to recognize in the silent bird of this season the excit- 
able, noisy Tern of June, which with its frequently repeated, sharp -peek 
protests loudly against trespass on its haunts whether or not it has 
a nest there. 

H. K. Job found "scores and scores" of Black Terns in full breeding 
plumage on an island at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay in late June, 
but there appears to be no record of their breeding on the Atlantic 
coast, where they are rarely seen before the fall migration. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 324-329 (nesting). 

The White-winged Black Tern {78. Hydrochelidon leucoptera) , an Old 
World species, has been taken once in America — at Lake Koshkonong, Wise, 
July 5, 1873 (Kumlien and HoUister, Bull., Wise. Nat. Soc, III, 14). 

79. Anoiis stolidus (Linn.). Noddy. Ads. — Top of head silvery 
whitish, lores black; rest of plumage dark sooty brown; tail rounded, the 
central tail-feathers longest. Im. — Similar, but top of head like rest of 
plumage, silvery whitish appears as a line from bill to above eye. L., IS'OO; 
W., 10-25; T., 5-90; B., r70. 

Range. — Tropical coasts. Breeds on the Tortugas, on the coast of La., 
and in the Bahamas and W. Indies; winters s. to Brazil and Tristan da 
Cunha Island. 

Nest, of sticks, grasses, etc., on a bush, or low tree, sometimes on the 
ground or in crevices of rocks. Egg, 1, pale buffy white, sparingly marked 
with rufous, 2-05 x 1-35. Date, Tortugas, Fla., May 4. 

In our Atlantic states the Noddy is known to nest only on Bird 
Key in the Tortugas of Florida, where, in 1907, Watson found about 
seven hundred pairs. 

According to this author, whose exceptionally important paper on 
the habits of the Noddy and Sooty Terns should be read by every one 
interested in bird psychology, it arrives late in April and remains until 
September. The period of incubation is from thirty-two to thirty-five 
days, and the young, according to Thompson, are dependent upon 
their parents "until th(»y are over three months old." 

The Noddy's exceptional tameness is apparently temperamental 
rather than the result of ignorance of man, since tlie Sooty and Bridk^d 
Terns, with which it often breeds, are far more shy. 

As the only Tern with a rounded tail, the Noddy, as might be ex- 
pected, differs widely in flight from other members of its subfamily. 
In the air it suggests a light-bodied Pigeon with long wings and tail. 
It flies rapidly and does not hover over its nesting-ground, as do the 



172 SKIMMERS 

Sooty, Common, and other fork-tailed Terns. Its note is a low, reedy 
cack, at times increased to a rolling guttural k-r-r-r-r. 

References to papers on the habits of this species will be found 
under the Sooty Tern. 

6. Family RYNCHOPiDiE. Skimmers. (Fig. 25.) 

The five closely alhed species constituting this small but distinct 
group are found in the warmer parts of the earth. Three species in- 
habit the Western Hemisphere, of which one reaches North America. 
Skimmers nest in colonies on beaches. The black adults are conspicu- 
ous when incubating and correspondingly wary; but the sand-colored 
down of the young is obviously intended to picture their background, 
and, like young Terns and Gulls, they squat close and are then exceed- 
ingly difficult to discover. Skimmers are unique both in the form of the 
bill and in their manner of feeding. Opening the mouth, the bladelike 
lower mandible is dropped just beneath the surface of the water; then, 
flying rapidly, they may be said to hterally "plow the main" in search 
of their food of small aquatic animals. 

80. Rynchops nigra Linn. Black Skimmer. (Fig. 25.) Ads. — Fore- 
head, sides of the head, underparts and tips of the secondaries white; upper- 
parts and wings black; outer tail-feathers white, inner ones more or less 
brownish; base of bill red, end black. L., 18-00; W., 14-50; T., 4-75; B., 2-60. 

Range. — Tropical and temperate Am. Breeds from Va. (formerly N. J.) 
to the Gulf coast and Tex.; wanders casually n. to Bay of Fundy; winters 
from the Gulf coast to Colima, Mex. and Costa Rica; casual in the W. Indies. 

Washington, A. V., Sept. 1858. Long Island, occasional in summer. 

Nest, a slight hollow in the sand or shells of a beach. Eggs, 3-5, white or 
buffy white, heavily blotched with chocolate, 1*80 x 1-35. Date, Nueces 
Co., Tex., May 15; Cobb's Is., Va., June 6. 

The Black Skimmer breeds in large colonies from Virginia south- 
ward. They make their nest-hollow by squatting on the sand and turn- 
ing slowly around, boring with their bodies. They are exceedingly 
noisy when one invades their haunts, and, calling loudly, charge one 
repeatedly. They are evidently more or less nocturnal, and while 
feeding at this time utter tlieir sharp yap, yap, like a pack of hounds 
on the trail. 

1905. Job, H. K., Wild Wings, 120.— 1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps 
and Cruises, 64-75 (nesting in Va.). 



III. ORDER TUBINARES. TUBE -NOSED SWIMMERS 

7. Family Diomedeid^. Albatrosses. (Fig. 26a.) 

The Albatrosses, numbering seventeen species, are confined chiefly 
to the seas of the Southern Hemisphere. Four species visit our Pacific 
coast after nesting farther south, but on the Atlantic coast of North 



FULMARS, SHEARWATERS, PETRELS 173 

America Albatrosses are almost unknown, and there are but few records 
of their occurrence. Albatrosses are among the most tireless and wide- 
ranging of ocean wanderers. The flight of the Wandering ^Albatross 
(Diomedea ea;wZa?ts), which Coleridge's "Rime of the Ancient Mariner" 
has made more widely known than all that naturahsts have ever written 
about it, is thus described by Professor Hutton: "With outstretched, 
motionless wings, he sails over the surface of the sea, now rising high 
in the air, now with a bold sweep, and wings incUned at an angle with 
the horizon, descending until the tip of the lower one all but touches 
the crests of the waves as he skims over them." On the water "he is 
at home, breasting the weaves Hke a cork. Presently he stretches out 
his neck, and with great exertion of his wings runs along the top of the 
water for seventy or eighty yards, until, at last, having got sufficient 
impetus, he tucks up his legs, and is once more fairly launched in 
the air." 

Lucas wTites, "The Albatross has that type of wing w^hich best 
fulfils the conditions necessary for an aeroplane, being long and narrow, 
so that, while a full-grown Wandering Albatross may spread from ten 
to twelve feet from tip to tip, this wing is not more than nine inches 
wide." 

The Yellow-nosed Albatross (83. Thalassogeron culminatus) , a 
southern species, is said to have been taken once in Quebec (Chamberlain, 
NuttaU's Manual, 2d ed., II, p. 277). 

8. Family PROCELLARiiDiE. Fulmars, Shearwaters, and 
Petrels. (Fig. 266.) 

The about one hundred known members of this family are dis- 
tributed over the seas of the world. Thirty-five species have been found 
in North America, of which only seven occur regularly on our Atlantic 
coast. Like their large relatives, the Albatrosses, they are strictly 
pelagic, and visit the land only to nest. The strong, swift scaling flight 
of Shearwaters, and the graceful swallow-like movements of the smaller 
''Mother Carey's Chickens," are familiar sights to those who go "down 
to the sea in ships." Living where storms attain their greatest power, 
where there is no shelter from the gale other than the troubled sea 
itself. Petrels are sometimes carried far out of their course by the wind, 
no less than seven of the seventeen species recorded from North America 
being of accidental occurrence. 

The Fulmars (genus Fulmarus) nest like Gulls, in vast numbers, on 
islets off the coasts of the North Atlantic and North Pacific. Compara- 
tively little is known of the nesting-places of our Shearwaters, but it 
is probable that most of them breed in the southern hemisphere and 
migrate northward to pass their winter (our summer) off our coasts. 
One of our Petrels (Oceanites) has this habit, the other two nest in 
the North Atlantic. 

All the birds of this group, so far as known, \ay but a single egg. 



174 FULMARS, SHEARWATERS, PETRELS 

The young are hatched covered with down, usually sooty or gray in 
color, and are reared in the nest. When taken from the nest, both old 
and young usually disgorge a quantity of amber-colored oil, the strong 
odor of which always characterizes the burrows or cavities in which 
most of these birds nest. 

1902. Job, H. K., Among the Water-Fowl, 97-128 (Doubleday).— 
1905. Wnd Wings, 185-200, (Houghton, Mifflin Co.). 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing over 10'50. 

A. Underparts dusky 94. Sooty Shearwater. 

B. Underparts white. 

a. Bill under 150 98. Black-capped Petrel. 

6. Bill over 1-50. 

61. Under tail-coverts white 88. Cory's Shearwater. 

62. Under tail-coverts grayish brown . . 89. Greater Shearwater. 
II. Wing under 1050. 

A. Wing over 7'25. 

a. Depth of bill at base over "50 86. Fulmar. 

6. Depth of bill at base under "50. 

61. Upperparts bluish gray 99. Scaled Petrel. 

62. Upperparts sooty black 92. Audubon's Shearwater. 

B. Wing under 7-25. 

a. Upper tail-coverts more or less white. 

oi. Tail forked 106. Leach's Petrel. 

61. Tail square. 

6^. Webs of feet marked with yellow; upper tail-coverts not tipped 

with black 109. Wilson's Petrel. 

63. Webs of feet without yellow; tail-coverts tipped with black. 

104. Storm Petrel. 

b. Upper tail-coverts grayish or brownish. 

61. Entire underparts brownish 101 Bulwer's Petrel. 

62. Breast grayish 110, White-bellied Petrel. 

6^. Entire underparts white 111. White-faced Petrel. 

86. Fulmarus glacialis glacialis (Linn.). Fulmar. (Fig. 26, 6.) Light 
phase. — Head, neck, and underparts white or whitish; back, wings, and tail 
slaty gray. Dark phase. — Entire plumage nearly uniform dark, slaty graj^ 
L., 19-00; W., 1304; B., 1*50; depth of B. at base, -75. 

Range. — N. Atlantic. Breeds from n. Greenland to Cumberland Sound 
and e. at least to Franz Josef Land; ranges n. to lat. 85° and w. to Melville 
Island; winters s. of the Arctic Circle to the fishing-banks off N. F. and to 
George Bank off Mass., and casually to N. J. 

Nest, on the ledges of rocky cliffs. Egg, 1, dull white, 2'85 x 2*01. Date, 
Iceland, May 10. 

"The Fulmar is a constant attendant on whalers, sealers, etc. — who 
know it as the 'Mollimokc' — in order to obtain fatty substances and 
animal offal; but I never saw it take any while on the wing, and it 
always settles on the water to feed, like an Albatross. The pinions 
are often flapped slowly in an owl-like manner, but in scudding they 
are held very straight — a pecularity by which it may easily be distin- 
guished from a Gull at a distance" (Saunders). 

The Pintado Petrel (103. Daption capense) of the Southern Hemisphere 
has been once recorded from Maine (Purdie, "New England Bird-Life," p. 
387; see also Knight's "Birds of Maine," p. 67). 



FULMARS, SHEARWATERS, PETRELS 175 

88. Puffinus borealis Cory. Cory's Shearwater. Ad. — Upper- 
parts ashy fuscous, -wings and tail darker; sides of head and neck slightly- 
lighter; underparts white, sometimes washed -with grayish on the breast; 
under wing-coverts and under tail-coierts white, the latter more or less mot- 
tled ^\dth grajish; bill yellowish. L., 2100; W., 14-00; Tar., 220; B., 210. 

Range. — Known only from off coasts of Mass., R. I., and L. I. (Aug.- 
Nov.). 

Long Island, probably regular S. R., Aug. 6.-0ct. 18. 
Nesting, unknown. 

Cory's Shearwater is not uncommon off our middle Atlantic Coast 
from August until November, but its entire range is unknown. 

89. Puffinus gravis {O'Reilly.). Greater Shearwater. Ads. — 
Upperparts fuscous, wings and tail slightly darker; longer upper tail-coverts 
tipped vnXh. whitish; underparts white; bellv more or less ashy gray; under 
tail-coverts ashy gray; bill blackish. L., 20-00; W., 12-25; Tar., 2-20; B., 1-85. 

Range. — Atlantic Ocean, from Arctic Circle s. to Cape Horn and Cape 
of Good Hope; occurs off the e. coast of N. Am. from June to November. 
Long Island, irregularly common, June-Nov. 
Nesting, unknown. 

•'The long, narrow wings are set stiffly at right angles with the 
body, and the bird frequently glides half a mile at a time \sdthout 
moving them perceptibly. It usually follows a direct course, and in- 
variably skims close over the waves. I know of no other sea-bird whose 
movements are as easj' and graceful. Indeed, at times, especially 
during a gale, its evolutions will compare in grace and spirit with those 
of the Mississippi or Swallow-tailed Kites" (Brewster). 

1905. Job, H. K., Wild Wings, 198 (off Mass.). 

Manx's Shearwater {90. Puffinus puffinus) resembles Audubon's 
Shearwater in color, but is larger. W., 8-50-9-25; B., 1-35-1*40; depth of B. 
through base, •40--45; Tar., l-70-l;80" (B., B., and R.). It occurs on the 
European coast of the North Atlantic and has been recorded from Greenland. 

92. Puffinus Iherminieri Less. Audubon's Shearwater. Ads. — 
Upperparts, wings and tail dark, sooty, brownish black; underparts white; 
sides of the Vjreast grayish; a patch on the flanks and under tail-coverts sooty 
brownish black; inner side of tarsi yellowish, outer brownish; bill blackish. 
L., 1200; W., 800; Tar., 1-60; B., 1*20. 

Range. — Warmer parts of the Atlantic, n. rarely to L. I.; breeds in the 
Antilles and Bahamas, but not, so far as known, on our coasts. 

Washington, A. V., two or three records but no specimens. Long Island, 
one record, Aug. 1. 

Nest, in a hole, in the rocks. Egg, 1, chalky white, 2"05 x 140. Date, 
Ragged Is., Bahamas, Apl. 13. 

This small Shearwater is an abundant West Indian species which 
breeds in Bermuda, the Bahamas and Antilles, and is doubtless not 
uncommon ofT our southern coasts. Its flight, low over the water, is 
strong and swift, five or six rapid wing-beats being followed by a short 
sail. 

It is active about its nesting-ground only at night when the constant 
repetition of its uncanny .seesaw notes is an indication of its before-un- 
suspected abundance. I have found either the male or female on the 



176 FULMARS, SHEARWATERS, PETRELS 

nest, and, when exposed by the removal of protecting rock, they made 
no attempt to fly but scuttled away into another hole or under the 
vegetation. 

The Allied Shearwater {92.1. Puffinus assimilis) of Southern seas, has 
been found once on Sable Island, N. S. (Dwight, Pr. Biol. Soc. Wash., XI, 
1897,69). 

95. Puffinus griseus (Gmel.). Sooty Shearwater. Ads. — Upper- 
parts, wings and tail dark, sooty, brownish black; underparts somewhat 
grayer; bill blackish. L., IT'OO; W., 12-00; Tar, 2-10; B., 1-65. 

Range. — Oceans of S. Hemisphere; occurs in summer on the Pacific 
coast from s. Alaska to L. Calif, and on Atlantic Coast from Gulf of St. 
Lawrence to S. C. ; accidental in Ala. ; breeds in the s. Pacific off New Zealand. 

Long Island, rare in summer. 

Nest, in burrows. Egg, 1, white, 2'60 x 1'60. Date, February and March 
(BuUer). 

"Its flight and habits seem to be identical with those of major, but 
its uniform dark coloring gives it a very different appearance. At a 
distance it looks as black as a Crow" (Brewster). 

98. .^strelata hasitata (Kuhl). Black-capped Petrel. Ads. — 
Upperparts and wings fuscous; forehead and nape whitish; upper tail- 
coverts white; tail fuscous, basally white, central feathers longest; below 
white. W., 11-50; T., 5-25; B., 115. 

Range. — Warmer parts of the Atlantic Ocean. Bred formerly in the 
Lesser Antilles, straying to Haiti, Fla., Va., N. Y. (Ulster Co., Oneida Lake 
and L. I.), N. H., Ky., Ohio, and Ont., and also to England and France; 
probably now extinct. 

The Scaled Petrel (99. jEstrelata scalaris) is known from one indivi- 
dual which had wandered to western New York. Its true home has not been 
discovered, but is doubtless in the Antarctic Ocean, (Brewster, Auk, III, 
1886, 300.) Its identity with jE. gularis has been suggested. 

Peale's Petrel (JEstrelata gularis), an Antarctic species, has been 
taken once in Bermuda (Bradlee, Auk, 1906, 217). 

Bulwer's Petrel {101. Bulweria bulweri) inhabits the north temperate 
portions of the Eastern Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, and is of accidental 
occurrence in Greenland. 

104._Thalassidronia pelagioa (Linw.). Storm Petrel. Ads. — Upper- 
parts, wings and tail sooty black; underparts slightly browner; upper tail- 
covcrts white, the longer ones broadly tipped with black; under tail-coverts 
mixed with whitish; bill and feet black. L., 5-50; W., 4-80; T., 2*50; B., -45. 

Range. — The more easterly portions of the Atlantic Ocean s. to the 
Mediterranean and w. coast of Africa. Said to occur at times on the New- 
fovindland Banks and off the coast of N. S. Breeds on islands off Great 
Britain. 

Nest, of a few bits of grasses and feathers in a burrow in the ground or 
beneath a rock. Egg, 1, dull white, sometimes with a wreath of minute or 
obscure markings at the larger end, 1-10 x '80. Date, Hebrides, G. B., 
May 29. 

This is the common Petrel of the east side of the Atlantic. It 
nosts in numbers on the small islands along the coast of Great Brit- 
ain, but is only a transient visitant in our waters. It resembles the two 
following species in habits. 



FULMARS, SHEARWATERS, PETRELS 177 

106. Ooeanodroma leucorhoa (Vieill.). Leach's Petrel, Ads. — 
Upperparts, wings and tail sooty brown; underparts slightly browner; 
wing-coverts grayish brown; longer upper tail-coverts white, shorter ones 
mixed with sooty brownish; tail forked, outer feathers more than "50 longer 
than middle pair; biU and feet wholly black. L., 8-00; W., 6-20; T., S'SO; 
B., -62. 

Range. — N. Pacific and N. Atlantic oceans. Breeds from the Aleutian 
and Copper Islands, Bering Sea, s. to Sitka, and from s. Greenland s. to 
Maine and the Hebrides; casual in migration s. to Va. 

Washington, A. V., several records, most frequent in Aug. Long Island, 
rare T. V., May; July- Aug. Cambridge, rare T. V. in fall. 

Nest, of a few bits of grasses and feathers in a burrow in the ground, or 
beneath a rock. Egg, 1, creamy white, sometimes with a wreath of minute 
or obscure markings at the larger end, 1'34 x 1*00. Date, Bird Rock, Que., 
May 29. 

This is the only Petrel nesting on our Atlantic Coast, where from 
about May 1 it is locally abundant on islets or isolated headlands from 
Maine northward. It digs its own nesting-holes or uses, sometimes in 
common, those made by Puffins. During the day it apparently never 
leaves its nest, on which, prior to laying, both birds may be found, 
but later, only one, either the male or female, incubates or remains 
with the young. The absent one of the pair is presumably then at sea, 
from which it returns after nightfall. 

On Bird Rock in the Magdalens, where not a Petrel was seen during 
the day, I was given the most surprising evidence of their activity 
during the night. From the ground at my feet and from every side there 
issued the uncanny little song of birds doubtless sitting at the mouths 
of their burrows. It was a distinctly enunciated call of eight notes with 
a certain crowing quality; such a call as might be uttered by elves or 
brownies. Occasionally I saw a blur of wings as a bird passed between 
me and the lighthouse. 

1909. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 180. 

The Hawaiian Petrel {106.2 Oceanodroma castro) of southern oceana 
has been taken in the District of Columbia (two specimens Aug. 29, 1893) 
and in Indiana. 

109. Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl). Wilson's Petrel. Ads. — Upper- 
parts, wings and tail sooty black; underparts somewhat lighter; under tail- 
coverts mixed with whitish, longer upper tail-coverts white, shorter ones 
marked with sooty black; wing-coverts grayish, margined with whitish; 
bill and feet black, toe-webs mostly yellow. L., 7-00; W., S'QO; T., 2-80; 
B., -50. 

Range.— ^. Polar regions n. to Lab. and British Isles. Breeds 'on 
Antarctic islands in Feb.; occurs off American coast from May-Sept.; 
accidental on Muskoka Lake, Ont. 

Washington, A. V., one record. Long Island, common S. R., May-Sept. 

Nest, in burrows or the crevices of rocks. Egg, 1, white. Date, February. 

It is generally known that some birds which nest in the northern 
parts of our continent in the winter migrate as far south as Patago- 
nia; but comparatively few are aware that during the summer we 
receive several visitors from the southern parts of the Southern Hemis- 
sphere. They are all included in the family ProcellariidcB, and Wil- 



178 TROPIC-BIRDS 

son's Petrel is doubtless the most common. It breeds in the islands 
of the South Atlantic in February, and after the cares of the breeding 
season are over migrates northward to pass its winter off our coasts. 
At this season its home is the sea, and its occurrence on land is gener- 
ally due to storms. For this reason, and because of its long migra- 
tion, it is the Petrel most frequently observed in western Atlantic 
waters during the summer. 

Under the name of "Stormy Petrel," or "Mother Carey's Chicken," 
these birds are familiar to most people who have made sea voyages. On 
tireless wing they follow in the track of a ship, coursing ceaselessly 
back and forth, now beneath the stern, now hovering over the foam- 
flecked wake, reminding one of white-rumped Martins in their easy, 
graceful fhght. If food be thrown overboard, they are at once attracted 
to it, and soon are left far behind, a little group of black, fluttering 
forms on the surface of the ocean. The meal disposed of, a few rapid 
wing-beats bring them to us, and again they resume their patient beat- 
ing to and fro. 

1905. Job, H. K., WHd Wings, 191 (off Mass.). 

The White-bellied Petrel {110. Fregetta grallaria) is a tropical species 
which has been taken once in North America — at St. Marks, Fla. 

The White-faced Petrel (111. Pelagodroma marina) inhabits the S. 
Atlantic and southern seas. It is of accidental occurrence off the coast of 
Massachusetts. It may be distinguished from any of our small Petrels by 
its white underparts. 



IV. ORDER STEGANOPODES. TOTIPALMATE SWIMMERS 

9. Family Phaethontid^. Tropic-birds. (Fig. 28.) 

The six species comprising this small but' distinct family are dis- 
tributed through the tropical and subtropical seas of both hemispheres, 
but none regularly reach the United States. Tropic-birds frequent the 
high seas. They fly with quick, strong beats of the wing, quite unlike 
the more leisurely stroke of Gulls; and from Terns they may be known 
by the long, willowy tail-feathers which add greatly to their appear- 
ance when in the air. They hunt for food by beating back and forth 
over the water and plunging abruptly down upon it. 

Tropic-birds lay their single brownish, purplish egg on the bare 
ground or rock, in a burrow or crevice often some height above the 
water. Incubation is said to be performed by both parents. When on 
the nest, they vigorously resent being disturbed, by screaming, biting 
and scratching. 

112. Phaethon americanus Grant. Yellow-billed Tropic-bird. 
(Fig. 28.) Ads. — White; a mark before and through eye; outer web of pri- 
maries, lesser wing-coverts, and tortials black; flanks streaked with slate; bill 
yellow; tail tinged with salmon, shafts of feathers black. W., 10-75: T., IQ'OO; 
B. 2-00. 



GANNETS 179 

Range. — Fla. and Bermuda s. to W. Indies and Atlantic coast of Cen. 
Am., accidental in w. N. Y. and N. S. 

iSlest, in holes in rocks or cliffs. Egg, 1, heavily dotted or marked with 
chestnut, 2" 10 x 1'45. Date, Bermuda, May 5. 

This species breeds abundantly in the Bermudas, but is of rare 
occurrence on our coasts. 

The Red-billed Tropic-bird (113. Phaethon cethereus, Fig. 28) resembles 
the preceding species, but has the bill red and the upperparts finely barred 
with black. Its range in the Atlantic is more southern than that of the 
Yellow-bUled Tropic-bird. The only record of its occurrence in eastern 
North America is off the Newfoundland Banks. 



10. Family Sulid^. Gaxnets. (Figs. 27, 29.) 

The Gannets or Boobies number eleven species, of which one is 
northern while the remaining ten are distributed throughout the tropi- 
cal and subtropical coasts of the world, five of them having been recorded 
from our southern borders. They are strictly maritime, but are more 
abundant near the coast than on the high seas. Their flight is strong 
and rapid, the vigorous strokes of the wing being interrupted at inter- 
vals by a short sail. They obtain their food of fish by plunging for it 
from the air. The northern species is migratory; the others are roving, 
but all return with regularity to their nesting-places, generally on some 
islet, where, during the breeding season, they may be found associated 
in large numbers. The young are born naked, but are soon covered 
with white down. In common with other members of the Order Stegan- 
opodes (except Phaethon) they feed by thrusting their head down the 
parent's throat. They are wholly dependent on parental care until they 
acquire the power of fhght. 

115. Sula leucogastra (Bodd.). Booby. (Fig. 27.) Ads. — Breast and 
'belly white, sometimes washed with grayish; rest of plumage brownish 
fiiscous; head and neck sometimes streaked with grayish brown and \yhite; 
bill and feet yellowish. Im. — Entire plumage brownish fuscous, lighter 
below; bill blackish, feet yellow. L., 3000; W., lo'SO; T., 800; B., 3-80. 

Range. — Atlantic coasts of tropical Am., and Pacific and Indian Oceans; 
casual on s. Atlantic and Gulf coasts of U. S. from S. C. to La. ; accidental 
on L. I. and in Mass. 

Nest, on the ground of a barren islet. Eggs, 2, chalky white, 2*30 x 1"55. 
Date, Cay Verde, Bahamas, February. 

This Booby breeds abundantly in Cay Verde, southeast of Ragged 
Island in the Bahamas, and on other Bahaman Keys, but is known 
on our coasts only as an irregular visitant, though off eastern Florida 
it is of probably more frequent occurrence than the actual records 
would indicate. Bangs observed it in numbers off the coast east of 
Micco on February 12, 1895 (A^ik, XIX, p. 395), and on March 11, 1907, 
I saw twelve at the mouth of the St. John's River. 

On its nesting-grounds the bird is exceedingly tame and will often 
U 



180 GANNETS 

strike at one viciously rather than take wing. It feeds on squids and 
fish, which, Hke other birds of its genus, it catches by diving. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Papers from Tortugas Lab. of Carnegie Inst., 
II, 141-149; Camps and Cruises, 208-217 (nesting). 

The Blue-faced Booby {II4. Sula cyanops) a southern species, breeds 
as far north as the Bahamas and is of casual occurrence off southern Florida, 
but there are no recent records of its appearance there. 

116. Sula piseator (Linn.). Red-footed Booby. Wing-quills more or 
less frosty. Ads. — White more or less tinged with straw; wings hoary fuscous, 
their coverts and inner tertials like back; face blue, pouch slate, feet red. 
Young birds are nearly uniform brown, and in a later plumage the head, 
neck and underparts are white, but at all times the wing-quills are frosty. 
L., 29-00; W., 15-00; B., 3-30. 

Range. — Coasts and islands of tropical and subtropical seas, from Fla. 
and w. Mex. southward. 

Bangs records the occurrence of great numbers of white, black- 
winged Boobies, doubtless this species, off the east Florida coast, 
opposite Micco, on February 12, 1905 {Auk, XIX, p. 395). The species 
is not known to nest nearer Florida than the Cayman islands south of 
Cuba, but I have elsewhere given reasons for believing that the Booby 
recorded by Audubon as nesting in the Tortugas was this species and 
not Sula leucogastra (see Papers from Tortugas Lab. of Carnegie Inst., 
1908, II, p. 144). 

117. Sula bassana (Linn.). Gannet. (Figs. 27, 29.) Ads. — White, 
head and neck tinged with pale straw-yellow; primaries fuscous. Im. — 
Throat and upperparts, including wing-coverts, dark grayish brown, each 
feather with a small white wedge-shaped spot; breast and belly white, 
margined with grayish brown. L., 35-00; W., 19-00; T., 9-50; B., 4-00. 

Range. — Coasts of N. Atlantic. Breeds on Bird Rock and Bonaventure 
Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on islets off British Islands; winters 
from N. C. coast s. to Gulf of Mex., and on coasts of n. Africa, Madeira, 
and the Canaries; occurs off e. U. S. in migration; casual n. to Greenland; 
accidental in Ind. and Ont. 

Long Island, common T. V., Alch. 23-May 9; Oct. 5-Dec. 5. 

Nest, of seaweed on rocky cliffs. Egg, 1, pale bluish white, overlaid by 
a chalky deposit, more or less soiled and stained, 3-20 x 1-90. Date, Bird 
Rock, Que., May 5. 

The distribution of this, the only boreal member of its family, 
indicates that at one time it was found even farther north than it is 
at present, and that through a climatic change the more northern 
birds were either exterminated or forced southward, leaving only the 
widely separated existing colonies — two in the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
and about a dozen off the northern shores of the British Islands. 

They reach their American nesting-grounds early in April, and a 
month later are massed in snowy banks on the broader ledges of the 
precipitous cliffs, laying or incubating. Where they are not frequently 
disturbed, they are so tame that they can be touched as they sit on 
their nests. Their call is a harsh gor-r-r-r-rok. 

During their migrations they are found usually well off the coast, 



DARTERS 181 

though I have seen them fishing in the surf at Virginia Beach. They are 
splendid birds and when on the wing exhibit a striking combination 
of power and grace. They are most impressive when diving, as with 
half-closed wings, like great spearheads they strike the water with a 
force which takes them wholly out of sight and splashes the spray ten 
feet or more into the air. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 139-145, 181, 
189.— 1908. Camps and Cruises, 408. 

11. Family Anhingid^. Darters. (Figs. 29, 30.) 

There are four species of Darters, Snakebirds or Water-Turkeys, 
one each in Africa, southern Asia, AustraHa, and tropical and sub- 
tropical America. They are silent birds, generally hving in pairs or 
colonies on bodies of fresh water with wooded shores. They select a 
perch over the water, and when alarmed sometimes drop into the ele- 
ment below and disappear beneath its surface, or fly upward to a con- 
siderable height and circle about like sailing Hawks. They swim well, 
and when approached too closely^ sink quietly backward, frequently 
leaving the long, thin neck and narrow, pointed head above the surface, 
when one at once observes the origin of the name "Snakebird." They 
obtain their food by pursuing it under water, and their finely serrated 
bill assists them in retaining their hold upon it. The young are born 
naked, but are soon covered with close, short, buff down. They obtain 
their food from the throat of the parent, and remain in or near the 
nest until they are able to fly. 

118. Anhinga anhinga {Linn.). Water-Turkey. (Fig. 13.) Ad. 
cT in summer. — General plumage glossy black with greenish reflections; 
back of head and neck with scattered grayish plumes; upper back with 
numerous elongated silvery white spots, which on the scapulars become 
streaks; lesser wing-coverts spotted like back; exposed portion of median 
and greater coverts silvery gray; tail tipped with whitish, outer webs of 
middle pair of feathers with transverse flutings. Ad. cf in winter. — Similar, 
but without grayish plumes on head and neck. Ad. 9. — Similar to cf, but 
with whole head, neck, and breast brownish, darker above. Im. — Similar 
to 9, but with black parts of plumage brownish. L., 34"00; W., 13'50; T., 
lOoO; B., 3-25. 

Range. — Tropical Am. n. to w. Mex. (Tepic), Tex., Fla., s. Ills., and N. 
C, and casually to Kans.; accidental in N. Mex. and Ariz. 

Nest, well formed, of sticks lined with mo.ss, rootlets, etc., over the water 
in a low bush or high tree. Eggs, 2-5, bluish white with a chalky deposit, 
2-15 X 1-35. Date, Tampa, Fla., Mch. 21. 

This singular bird is a permanent resident in Florida but migratory 
farther north. They nest in isolated pairs, or in colonics of as many as 
two hundred birds. Although they soar with great ease they alight 
clumsily, tumbling on to their perches, with much flapping of wings 
before gaining their balance. When not alarmed, they seem to take 
fhght with much hesitation, opening and closing their wings repeatedly 
before they trust themselves to their support. When alighting near the 



182 CORMORANTS 

nest, they utter harsh, grating calls, which, if another bird chances to 
be near, is replied to with threatening motions' of the sharply pointed 
bill. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 116-118 (nesting). 

12. Family Phalacrocoracid^. Cormorants. (Figs. 29, 31.) 

Cormorants are found in all parts of the world. Six of the forty 
known species inhabit North America. As a rule they are mari- 
time, but they also frequent bodies of fresh water far from the 
seacoast. They are more or less gregarious at all seasons, and breed in 
colonies. Their flight is strong and ducklike, and they often fly in 
diagonal lines with a somewhat gooselike formation. They secure 
their food of fish by pursuing it under water, swimming with feet 
alone, their hooked bill assisting them in its capture. Unlike the Gan- 
nets, they do not dive from the air, but from the water or a low perch. 
They nest on the ground on islands, or on trees growing in water, build- 
ing well-formed structures. The young are born naked, but are soon 
covered with a thick, short, black down, which is succee^ded by the 
plumage of flight. They feed, as do the young of most Steganopodes, 
by thrusting their head and neck well down the parent's throat. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Tail of 14 feathers, length over 33 '00 119. Cormorant. 

B. Tail of 12 feathers, length under 31-00. 

a. Feathers of back and scapulars rounded. 

120. Double-crested Cormorant. 
6. Feathers of back and scapulars pointed . 121. Mexican Cormorant. 

119. Phalacrocorax carbo (Linn.). Cormorant (Figs. 29, 32.) Ads. 
in breeding plumage. — Region about base of lower mandible white or whitish; 
head, upper neck, and throat glossy black, thickly sprinkled with white; 
rest of neck, underparts, and rump glossy black; a white patch on flank; 
upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts light olive-brown, each feather 
bordered by glossy black; tail black, composed of fourteen feathers. Ads. 
in winter. — Similar, but without white on the head. Im. — Top of the head 
and hindneck brownish black; upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts 
grayish brown, the feathers bordered by blackish; rump glossy black; 
throat and breast grayish brown, changing to white on belly; sides and under 
tail-coverts glossy black. L., 36-00; W., 14-00; T., 7-00; B., 3-00. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. Breeds from cen. Greenland s. to N. S., and 
e. through Europe and Asia to Kamchatka; winters from s. Greenland s. to 
L. I., casually to Lake Ont. and S. C, and from the Mediterranean s. to s. 
Africa, Australia, and Malay Pen. 

Long Island, regular T. V. in limited numbers (Butcher). 

Nest, of sticks and seaweed, in colonies, generally on the ledges of rocky 
cliffs. Eggs, 4-6, pale bluish white, more or less overlaid with a chalky 
deposit, 2-50 x TSO. Date, s. Lab., June 19. 

120. Phalacrocorax auritus auritus (Swains.). Double -crested 
Cormorant. Ads. in breeding plumage. — Head, neck, rump and underparts 
glossy black; upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts light grayish brown, 
each feather margined with glossy black; tail black, composed of twelve feath- 



PELICANS 183 

ers; a tuft of black feathers on either side of the head ; a few white ones over 
the eye. Ads. in wmter.— Similar, but without tufts on the head. Im. — Top 
of the head and back of the neck blackish brown; upper back, scapulars, 
and wing-coverts brownish gray, each feather margined with black; rump 
glossy black; sides of the head and foreneck grayish white, whiter on the 
breast and changing gradually to black on the lower belly. L., 30"00; W., 
12-50; T., 6-20; B., 2-30. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from cen. Sask. (casually Great Slave 
Lake), s. Keewatin, ne. Que., and N. F. s. to n. Utah, S. D., s. Minn., and 
Penobscot Bay, Maine; winters from N. C, (casually Mass.), s. to Gulf 
coast ; casual in Bermuda. 

Washington, casual, several records. Long Island, common T. V., in fall, 
Aug. 26-Nov. 5; Apl. 20-May 15. Ossining, A. V., June. Cambridge, casual, 
one instance, Sept. N. Ohio, casual T. V. 

Nest, of sticks, seaweed, etc., on the ledges of cliffs, in trees or bushes, 
or on the ground. Eggs, 2-4, similar in color to those of the preceding, 
2*40 X 1'40. Date, s. Lab., June 19; se. Minn., May 7. 

This is the common Cormorant of the middle Eastern States. We 
see it chiefly as migrant when in flocks of varying size it passes far 
overhead, or pauses to rest on our shores. In migrating the flock 
is formed in a long line, comparatively few birds deep. On the wing they 
bear a general resemblance to large Ducks or to Geese. 

1894. Mackay, G. H., Auk, XI, 18-25 (habits in R. I.).— 1911. Smith, 
F., Auk, XXVIII, 16-19 (breeding in Ills.). 

120a. P. a. floridanus (Aud.). Florida Cormorant. Resembles 
the preceding species in color, but is smaller. W., 12'00; T., 5'50; B., 2'10. 

Range. — Subtropical and temperate N. Am. Breeds from s. Ills., La., N. 
C, Bahamas, and Cuba s. to British Honduras and Yucatan; winters n. 
to Tex. and S. C; wanders to the Dismal Swamp, Va. 

Nest, in bushes or trees, preferably mangroves or cypresses. Eggs, like 
those of preceding. Date, Walkulla, Fla., Mch. 20. 

This is an abundant bird on the Florida coast and westward along 
the shores of the Gulf. Almost every buoy in the harbors of Florida 
is capped by a Cormorant. 

121. Phalacrocorax vigua mexicanus (Brandt). Mexican Cor- 
morant. Scapulars and wing-coverts pointed. Resembling P. auritus but 
smaller, and feathers above more pointed. Ads. in breeding plumage with 
pouch and face bordered posteriorly by white. L., 25"00; W., 10'25; B., TSO. 

Range. — New Mox., Kans., and s. Ills. s. to Gulf of Max., Bahamas, 
Cuba, Mex., and Nicaraugua. 

13. Family PELECANiDyE. Pelicans. (Fig. 29.) 

The ten known species of Pelicans are distributed throughout the 
warmer parts of the world. Three specdes are North American, of 
which two are exclusively maritime and are found on our southern 
coasts, while the third nests well to the north, in the interior, and win- 
ters on the seacoasts southward. Pelicans are gregarious and nest in 
colonies. Their fUght is strong but leisurely, six or seven wing-strokes 
being followed by a short sail, all the members of a flock flapping and 
sailing in unison. They often mount to great heights, there to soar 



184 PELICANS 

majestically in broad circles, evidently for mere pleasure in the evolu- 
tion. They feed on . fish, for which some species plunge from the air, 
while others capture small fry with their scooplike pouches while 
swimming. The young are born naked, but are shortly covered 
with white down which is followed by the plumage of flight. They 
procure their food of fish by plunging their heads far down the 
parental pouch. 

125. Peleeanus erythrorhynchos Gmel. White Pelican. Ads. in 
nuptial -plumage. — White, more or less straw-color on breast and wing-coverts; 
wing-quills chiefly black; occipital crest white or straw-color; a horny 
prominence on the culmen. Post-nuptial plumage. — Similar, but occiput 
of short gray feathers, no horny ridge on bUl. Ads. in winter. — Similar, but 
occiput white. Im. — Similar, but lesser wing-coverts and top of the head 
brownish gray. L., eO'OO; W., 22-00; Tar., 4-50; B., 14-00. 

Range. — Temperate N. Am. Breeds from s. B. C, Great Slave Lake, 
and sw. Keewatin to Man. (formerly s. Minn, and S. D.), Utah and 
s. Calif.; winters from s. Calif., the Gulf States, Fla., and Cuba s. to w. 
Mex., and Costa Rica; casual e. in migration to the Atlantic coast, n. to 
New Brunswick. 

Washington, casual, four records. Long Island, two records. N. Ohio, 
casual T. V. 

Nest, in colonies, on the ground, a depression in a mound of pebbles, or 
of grasses, sticks or reeds. Eggs, 2-4, creamy or bluish white with a chalky 
deposit, more or less stained, 3'45 x 2-30. Date, Big Stick Lake, Sask., 
June 10, eggs hatching. 

During the summer the White Pelican frequents only fresh water; 
in winter it lives chiefly on salt water. At this season it is not uncom- 
mon locally on the Gulf coast of Florida, and a few are usually seen 
each winter on the Mosquito Lagoon of the east coast. With a wing 
expanse of between eight and nine feet, and a weight of sixteen pounds, 
the White Pelican is one of the largest of American birds. Its snowy 
plumage renders it conspicuous at a great distance and a far-away 
Pelican may be mistaken for a sail. This species migrates by day. 
In mid-March I have seen flocks containing thousands of birds passing 
northward along the eastern face of the Sierras of Vera Cruz. Although 
they progressed in wheeling circles, they moved on their course very 
rapidly. The habit of soaring, or sailing, is also common in the 
nesting season when the birds practically go up beyond the reach 
of vision. 

The White Pelican does not dive but catches its food while swim- 
ming. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 366-388 (biographical). 

126. Peleeanus occidentalis Linn. Brown Pelican. Ads. in breed- ' 
ing plumage. — Top of head white, sometimes straw-yellow like a spot on 
upper breast; lino down either side of breast white; hindhead, neck and a 
spot on forencck seal-brown; sides and back silvery gray bordered by 
brownish black; scapulars, wing-coverts, secondaries, and tail silvery gray; 
primaries V)lack; underparts dark blackish brown narrowly streaked with 
white. Ads. after the breeding season. — Similar, but with hindhead and 
whole neck white, more or less tinged with straw-yellow. Im. — Above grayish 



MAN-O'-WAR-BIRDS 185 

brown margined with paler; chest brownish, belly white. L., oO'OO; W., 19"50; 
Tar., 2-65; B., ll-QO. 

Range. — Gulf coast of U. S. and Atlantic coast of Cen. and S. Am . 
Breeds from S. C. and La. s. to Brazil; casual in N. C; accidental in 
Wyo., Xebr., Iowa, Ills., Ind., Mass., and N. S. 

Long Island, one record. 

Xest, in colonies, of sticks or weed-stalks, etc., in mangrove bushes or 
on the ground. Eggs, 3, similar in color to those of the preceding soecies, 
3-00 X 1-95. Date, Pelican Is., Fla., usually Dec. 1; Gulf Coast, Fla.,'^ApL 
4; So. Car., May 23. 

At all seasons the Brown Pelican is maritime. It is a permanent 
resident in Florida, but nevertheless migrates regular!}^ to its ancestral 
nesting-gromids, those of the east coast reaching Pelican Island in 
Indian River about November 1. Eggs are laid by December. They 
hatch in about four weeks, and their young fly when about ten weeks 
old. They are exceedingly noisy but the adults are \drtually silent. 

The Pelicans of Pehcan Island go fishing possibly fifty miles or more 
up or down the coast from their island home. With a favorable \\ind 
they travel high before it; with a head wind they skim low over the 
waves usually just outside the breakers. The usual flock-formation is a 
diagonal single file, and the birds progress by alternate flapping and 
sailing in unison. The first wing-stroke after a sail is generally given 
by the leader, not because he is in command, but because, being in 
advance, he encounters greater air-resistance and is the first to lose 
momentum when sailing. 

UnUke the White Pelican, this species secures its prey by di\'ing. 
Singl}^, in pairs, or in small flocks, they beat back and forth, generally 
about twenty feet above the water, and when opportunity ofTers, plunge 
dowTiward with such force that the spray dasbes high about them, 
and the resulting splash may be heard half a mile. They usually fish 
at sea and feed chiefly on menhaden. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 191-214.— 1908 
Camps and Cruises, 83-112 (biographical). — 1905. Job, H. K., Wild Wings, 
1-18. 

14. Family Fregatid^e. Man-o'-war-birds. (Fig. 32.) 

Man-o'-war-birds, or Frigate-birds, are found throughout inter- 
tropical seas. One of the two known species occurs in America. They 
are strictly maritime, and, while sometimes observed at great distances 
from the land, are met with in numbers onl}- near the coasts. They 
have a greater expanse of wing in proportion to the weight of their 
body than any other bird, and in power of flight are unsurpassed. 
Facing the wind, they pass hours resting motionless on outstretched 
wings, sometimes ascending to great heights and calmly soaring far 
above storms. It is when feeding that their marvelous aerial powers 
are displayed to the best advantage. By swift, indescribably graceful 
darts they secure fish which are near the surface, or capture those which 
have leaped from the water to escape some enemy below. They also 



186 DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 

pursue Gulls and Terns, and, forcing them to disgorge their prey, catch 
it in midair. As a rule they are gregarious at all seasons, and nest and 
roost on bushes near the shore. The feet are exceedingly small and of 
httle use except in perching. The single young is born naked but is 
quickly clothed in long white down. The black scapulars appear at a 
very early age. 

128. Fregataaquila (I/inn.). Man-o '-war-bird. (Figs. 19, 31.} Ad. (?, 
— Entire plumage black, more glossy above ; dilatable gular pouch in breed- 
ing season orange-red or carmine. ?. — Similar, but browner; lesser wing- 
coverts grayish brown; breast and upper belly white. Im. — Similar to 
the 9, but whole head and neck white. L., 40-00; W., 25-00; T., 17'00; 
B., 4-50. 

Range. — Tropical and subtropical coasts; in Am. n. to s. Calif., Tex., 
La., and Fla., and casually to Calif. (Humboldt Bay), Kans., Iowa, Wise, 
Ohio, and N. S. 

Long Island, one record, Aug. 

Nest, of sticks, in colonies, on bushes or rocks. Egg, 1, chalky white, 
2-65 X 1-75. Date, Atwood Key, Bahamas, Feb. 9. 

This species is found at all seasons in Florida, but I know of no 
authentic record of its nesting there. It becomes more common in 
late spring after its breeding season in the Bahamas. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 217-221 (nesting). 



V. ORDER ANSERES. LAMELLIROSTRAL SWIMMERS 

15. Family Anatid^. Ducks, Geese and Swans. (Figs. 33, 34.) 

The two hundred species included in this family are distributed 
throughout the world. One-fourth of this number occur in North 
America, and are grouped by the A. O. U. Check-List in the five sub- 
families, MerginoB, or Mergansers, Anatinoe, or River Ducks, Fuligulinoe, 
or Sea Ducks, Anserince, or Geese, and Cygninoe, or Swans. The Ana- 
tidcB in common with other diving birds whose natatorial powers give 
them a secondary means of locomotion, lose all their wing-quills 
simultaneously during the annual postnuptial molt, and at this time 
cannot fly. Evidently to make them less conspicuous during this 
period, the males of many species acquire by molt a plumage more or 
less closely resembling that of the female. This 'ecUpse plumage,' as 
it is called, is worn only until the wing-quills are regained, when it 
is lost and the distinctive male costume reacquired. This phenomenrn 
is well illustrated in the preceding plate of the Wood Duck showing 
an adult male in 'breeding' as well as in 'eclipse' plumage. Inci- 
dently it may be remarked that the assumption of this coneeaUng 
plumage at a time of comparative helplessness, is an indication 
that the breeding plumage is conspicuous. (See Stone, Pr. Acad. 
Nat. Sci., Phila., 1889, p. 467; Chapman, BuU. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 
1899, p. 219.) 



Plate XII 





^ 



' M • H ' M 




1. Baldpate. 

2. Green-winged Teal. 

3. Blue-winged Teal. 

4. Shoveller. 

5. Pintail. 



Heads of Duck^ 
y^. Wood Duck. 
^ 7. Rod head. 

8. Canva.sback. 

9. Am. Scaup Duck. 
10. Am. Golden-eye. 



11. Mufflchoad. 

12. Old Sijuaw. 

13. (Jrconland Eider. 

14. White-wingod Scoter 

15. Ruddy Duck. 



MERGANSERS 187 

Most of these birds breed north of the United States; in eastern 
North America, only five of our forty species nesting south of latitude 
41°. We know them, therefore; as migrants and as wdnter visitants 
and to those who are so fortunate as to Hve near their haunts, their 
goings and comings are among the most important events in the birds' 
calendar. Strong of wing, hardy of body, many species pass the winter 
on the open sea, while the river and bay Ducks remain until ice forms, 
and return the first day of open water. How the eye is held by the 
sight of their swiftly moving forms silhouetted against the sky! Through 
them, bird-life makes its strongest appeal to our love of the T^dld and 
elemental in nature. 

As the ancestors of our domesticated water-fowl and as game, the 
Anatidce are doubtless better known to man than any other birds. Of 
late years their numbers have been greatly reduced by excessive shoot- 
ing for market and for sport, and by the reclamation for the agriculturist 
of vast areas in which formerly they bred. We have, consequently, 
only to examine the history of the past few decades to be assured that 
a further attempt to supply the unlimited and ever-growing demands 
of the game-dealer for wild-fowl means, ultimately, that both market 
hunters and sportsmen may lay aside their guns. Let us, therefore, 
look to our poultry yards for Ducks and Geese as food, and leave the 
wild birds as a lure to draw brain-weary toilers to marsh, bay and 
headland. 

1896. Job, H. K., Ducks of PbTnouth Co., Mass., Auk, XIII, 197-204.— 
1897. Cory, C. B., How to Know the Ducks, Geese and Swans, 8vo. pp. 
94, many ills. — 1898. Elliot, D. G., Wild-Fowl of United States and 
British Possessions, 8vo, pp. 316, plls. 63 (Francis Harper).— 1901-2. 
Bent, A. C, Nesting Habits of Anatidse in N. D., Auk, XVIII, 328-336; 
XIX, 1-12; 165-174.-1902. Job, H. K., Among the Water-Fowl (Double- 
day). — 1903. Huntington, D. W., Our Feathered Game, 8vo, pp. 396, 
plls. 37.-1903. Sanford, L. C, Bishop, L. B., Van Dyke, T. S., The 
Water-Fowl Family, 12mo. pp. ix-598, plls. 20 (Macmillan).— 1906. Cooke, 
W. W., Dist. and Migr. of N. A. Ducks, Geese, and Swans, Bull. 26, Biol. 
Surv, — 1907. Rich, W. H., Feathered Game of the Northeast, 8vo. pp. 
432, pis. 87.— 1909. DeHaven, I. N., Duck Shooting on N. J. Coast, 
Cassinia, 11-18. — 1910. Grinnell, G. B., American Game Bird Shooting, 
8vo, pp. xviii-558 (Forest and Stream). — 1910. Huntington, D. W., 
Our Wild Fowl and Waders, pp. 207 (New York City).— 1911. Phillips, 
J. C, Ten Years' Migration of Anatidse at Wenham, Mass., Auk, XXVIII, 
188-200; see also, 319-323. 

Subfamily Mergince. Mergansers. (Fig. 33.) 

The five subfamilies into which our Anatidce fall are so well defined, 
it seems advisable to treat of each one separately. The first of these, 
the Shelldrakes or Sawbills, are fish-eating Ducks. They pursue and 
capture their prey under water, progressing by aid of the feet alone, 
and their serrate bills seem especially adapted to this mode of feeding. 
Three of the nine known species are found in North America, and all 
may be recognized in life by their cylindrical bill. 



188 MERGANSERS 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

1. Bill under 1*75, wing 8"00 or under 131. Hooded Merganser. 

2. Bill over 1-75, wing over 8-00. 

A. Head and throat black. 

a. Breast and belly white, tinged with salmon. 

129. Am. Merganser (cf ad.). 
6. Breast brownish, thickly streaked and spotted with black. 

130. Red-breasted Merganser (cf ad.). 

B. Head and throat not black. 

a. Head and sides of the neck rich rufous-brown; distance from nostril 

to end of bill less than 1'50 . . 129. Am. Merganser (9 and im.). 

b. Crown grayish brown, more or less washed with cinnamon-rufous: 

sides of the neck cinnamon-rufous; distance from nostrU to end of 
bill over 1"50 . . 130. Red-breasted Merganser (9 and im.). 

129. Mergus americanus (Cass.). American Merganser. (Fig. 
33.) Ad. (f. — Whole head and upper neck glossy greenish black; hindneck, 
secondaries, lesser wing-coverts, and ends of greater ones white; back black, 
rump and tail ashy gray; breast and belly white, delicately tinged with 
salmon. Ad. 9 and Im. — Chin and upper throat white; lower throat and 
entire top of the head rufous-brown; rest of upperparts and tail ashy gray; 
speculum* white; breast and belly white. L. 25'00; w., 10"50; Tar., 1'85; 
B., from N. 1*50. 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds from s. Alaska, s. Yukon, Great Slave Lake, 
cen. Keewatin, s. Ungava, and N. F. s. to cen. Ore., s. S. D., s. Minn., cen. 
Mich., Ohio (formerly), n. N. Y., Vt., N. H., and Maine, and in mountains, 
s. to n. Calif., cen. Ariz., n. N. Mex., and Pa. (formerly); winters from 
Aleutian Islands, B. C, Idaho, n. Colo., s. Wise, s. Ont., n. New Eng- 
land, and N. B., s. to n. L. Calif., n. Mex. (Chihuahua), Tex., La., Fla., 
and Bermuda. 

Washington, rare W. V., Oct. 13-May 26. L. I., uncommon W. V. 
Nov. 4-Dec. 30. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., Jan. 1-Mch. 8. Cam- 
bridge, rare T. V. and W. V. N. Ohio, W. V., Nov. 1-May. Glen Ellyn, 
T. v., spring only, May 7-12. SE. Minn., T. V., Mch. 9, casual W. R. 

Nest, of leaves, grasses and moss, lined with down, in a hole in a tree or 
cliff. Eggs, 6-10, creamy buff, 2*65 x 1*75. Date, Saginaw Is., Mich., May 
26. 

"This bird is fond of plunging beneath rushing currents for its food, 
and should it encounter a raft of floating rubbish, or an ice-cake, it 
will readily pass underneath it. It swims so deeply as to afford the 
gunner but a small mark, and dives so quickly at the snap or flash of 
his gun that he stands but a small chance of killing it. 

"On being surprised, the Goosander may rise directly out of the 
water, but more commonly pats the surface with his feet for some 
yards and then rises to windward. A whole flock thus rising from some 
foaming current affords a spirited scene. Once on the wing, the flight 
is straight, strong, and rapid" (Langille). 

130. Mergus serrator (Linn.). Red-breasted Merganser. Ad. cf. 
— Whole head and throat black, more greenish above ; a white ring around 
neck; a broad cinnamon-rufous hand with black streaks on upper breast and 
sides of lower neck; lesser wing-coverts, tips of greater ones, secondaries, 
breast and belly white; rump and sides finely barred with black and white. 

*A patch in the wing formed by the end half of the secondaries, which in Ducks 
are generally of a different color from the rest of the wing-feathers. 



MERGANSERS 189 

Ad. 9 and Im. — Top and back of head grayish brown washed with cinnamon- 
rufous; sides of head and throat cinnamon-rufous, paler on throat; rest of 
underparts white; back and tail ashy gray; speculiim white. L., 22*00; 
W., 900; Tar., VIO; B. from N., 1-80. 

Remarks. — Adults of this and the preceding species may always be dis- 
tinguished by the color of the breast ; females and young, by the differently 
colored heads, while the position of the nostril is always diagnostic. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds in N. Am., from Arctic 
coast of Alaska, n. Mackenzie, Cumberland Sound, and Greenland (lat. 73°) 
s. to s. B. C, s. Alberta, s. IMinn., cen. Wise, n. N. Y., s. Maine, and Sable 
Island; winters in s. Greenland, the Commander Islands, and from s. British 
Columbia, Utah, Colo., s. Wise, s. Ont., and Maine, s. to s. L. Calif., La., 
and Fla. ; casual in Bermuda, Cuba, and Hawaii. 

Washington, uncommon W. V. L. I., abundant T. V., Mch. 25-May 2; 
Oct. 15-Dec. 25; occasional in summer (and in winter). Ossining, common 
T. v., Dec.-Apl. 30. Cambridge, uncommon T. V., in late fall. N. Ohio, 
tolerably common T. V., Mch. 10-May 10; Dec. 1-29. SE. Minn., T. V., 
Apl. 1 ; casual W. R. 

Nest, of leaves, grasses, mosses, etc., lined with down, on the ground near 
water, among rocks or scrubby bushes. Eggs, 6-12, creamy biiff, 2'55 x 1'75. 
Date, Seal Is., Magdalen Islands, June 24. 

"These Mergansers are often observed to hunt in company, a large 
flock sometimes advancing with wide extended front, driving the fish 
before them and diving simultaneously, so that whichever way their 
prey may dart there is a serrated beak and capacious gullet ready to 
receive them" (Eaton). 

1911. TowNSEND, C. W., Auk, XXVIII, 341-345 (courtship and 
migration). 

131. Lophodytes cucullatus (Linn.). Hooded Merganser. Ad. cf. 
— Front part of large circular crest black; remaining part white, bordered by 
black; rest of head, the neck and back black; breast and belly white; sides 
cinnamon-rufous, finely barred with black. Ad. 9. — Upper throat white; 
head, neck and upper breast grayish brown, more or less tinged with cinna- 
mon, especially on the small crest; lower breast and belly white; sides 
grayish brown; back fuscous. Im. d'. — Similar, but throat blackish. L., 
i7-50: W., 7-50; Tar., 110; B., 1*45. 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds from cen. British Columbia, Great Slave Lake, 
cen. Keewatin, cen. Ungava, and N. F., s. to s. Ore., n. N. Mex., s. La., 
and cen. Fla.; winters from s. B. C, Utah, Colo., Nebr., Ills., Ind., Pa. 
and Mass. s. to L. Calif., Mex., the Gulf States, and Cuba; rare in ne. 
part of range; recorded from St. Michael, Alaska, and from Europe 
and Bermuda. 

Washington, uncommon W. V., Sept. 11-ApI. 8. Long Lsland, common 
T. V. in fall, Nov. 5-Dec. 14; rare W. V. and in spring. Ossining, rare T. V., 
Mch. Cambridge, formerly common T. V., Nov. 10-30. N. Ohio, not com- 
mon T. v., Apl. 1-15; Nov. 1-.30. Glen Ellyn, rare T. V., spring only, 
Apl. 8-June 5. SE. Minn., common T. V., uncommon S. R., Mch. 24-Oct. 26. 

Nest, of grasses, leaves, moss, etc., lined with down, in a hollow tree or 
stump near water. Eggs, 8-10, buffy white, 2" 10 x 1'75. Date, Saranac, 
Mich., Apl. 22. 

As Ernest Seton has pointed out, both the preceding species of 
Mergansers frequent chiefly 'living' or running water, while this bird 
prefers 'dead' waters, or quiet ponds and lakes. In Florida it lives in 
small ponds in the 'hummocks,' where one expects to find Wood Ducks, 
and feeds on roots, seeds, etc. It visits also the lakes frequented by 



190 RIVER AND POND DUCKS 

Black Ducks, Mallards, and other Anatince. The male is a striking 
bird in life, and can not be mistaken for any other species. 

The Smew {131.1 Mergellus albellus), an Old World species, has been once 
recorded from the Hudson Bay region. (Salvador!, Cat. B. M., XXVII, 
468.) 

Subfamily Anatince. River and Pond Ducks. (Fig. 34a.) 

The Ducks of this subfamily are distinguished by the absence of a 
lobe on the hind-toe. They are, for the most part, northern breeding 
birds, and appear on our waters chiefly as migrants. At this time, they 
differ but Httle in habits, and, as a rule, frequent sluggish streams, shal- 
low ponds, arms of bays, and marshes. In comparison with the deep- 
water FuligulinoB, they might be called 'dabblers' or 'tip-ups,' and 
any one who has seen them dabbUng along the shore, or with upturned 
tail and head immersed, probing the bottom in shallow water, like a 
flock of animated tenpins, will recognize the appropriateness of these 
terms. They dive but little and when under water are said to use both 
feet and wings. fThey feed upon mollusks, crustaceans, insects and their 
larvae, the seeds and roots of aquatic plants./ The 'gutters' on the sides 
of the bill act as strainers, and, after probing the bottom, the mere act 
of closing the bill forces out the mud and water taken in with the food. 
As a rule, they feed more commonly by night than by day. They do 
not gather in such large flocks as the Sea Ducks, and in our waters are 
generally found in groups of less than fifty. They spring from the water 
at a bound, and on whistling wing are soon beyond the fowler's reach. 
Their highest speed is variously estimated, for different species, at 
from one hundred to one hundred and sixty miles an hour. Doubtless 
the first-named distance is nearer the truth. 

All our Anatince, but the Wood Duck, nest on the ground, lining 
a slight hollow with grasses, leaves, moss or rootlets, and with more or 
less down from the breast of the incubating bird, which is used to cover 
the eggs, doubtless for purposes of warmth, as well as concealment, 
during the absence of the sitter. The nesting-site is usually near water, 
but may be half a mile or more from the shore, and is sometimes in 
grass so scanty that the sitting bird may be plainly seen, but as a rule 
it is in denser vegetation or under bushes. 

The generally greenish, cream, or buff eggs, number from six to 
fourteen or rarely more, and hatch within a surprisingly short time of 
one another. Incubation is performed by the female alone. She sits 
close and springs from the nest at one's feet in a most disconcerting 
manner, to flutter off through the grass or, "wdth halting flight, make for 
the water, there to alight with much show of anxiety. The young are in 
the highest degree prfpcocial, leaving the nest almost as soon as they 
leave the egg, and under the guidance of their mother, at once taking to 
water. Few birds show more concern for the safety of their offspring 
than do Wild Ducks. When danger threatens, the young, evidently 



RIVER AND POND DUCKS 191 

acting under direction, scatter and seek cover in every direction, while 
the female gives a remarkable and courageous exhibition of partial 



KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing under 8-50. 
a. Lesser wing-coverts gray. 

139. Green-winged Teal. 138. Eueopean Teal. 
6. Lesser wing-coverts blue. 

6^ Cheeks slate-color, a broad white mark near the front of the face. 

140. Blue-winged Teal (d' ad.). 
IP-. Cheeks and underparts chestnut-rufous. 

141. Cinnamon Teal (cf ad.) 
&. Cheeks finely streaked with blackish. 

c2. Underparts whitish, sometimes washed with brownish, streaked or 

spotted with blackish 140. Bltje-winged Teal 9. 

&. Underparts heavily washed with chestnut-rufous and mottled 

with black 141. Cinnamon Teal 9. 

II. Wing over 8' 50. 

A. Belly white or grajash white, not conspicuously streaked or spotted. 

a. Whole head shining dark green 132. Mallard (c? ad.). 

h. Center of head white or whitish, a large streak behind the eye. 

137. Baldpate (c? ad.). 

c. Throat white, crown green or grayish green, tips of primaries greenish. 

144. Wood Duck. 

d. Throat blackish, center of crown buffy, rest of head rufous. 

136. Widgeon (d' ad.). 

e. Throat and sides of head olive-brown, darker on the crown. 

143. Pintail (9 ad.). 
/. Throat, crown and sides of head more or less finely streaked with 
blackish. 
/I. Wing-coverts with more or less chestnut .... 135. Gadwall. 
g^. No chestnut in wing-coverts. 

(72. Axillars* and sides barred with black 143. Pintail 9. 

g^. Axillars white or speckled with black, sides plain brownish. 

137. Baldpate 9. 
g^. Axillars white, sides thickly spotted or barred with black. 

135. Gadwall 9. 

B. Underparts conspicuously mottled, spotted, or streaked, or feathers 

margined with chestnut-rufous — or belly chestnut. 
a. With white conspicuous in wing-coverts. 

a>. Lesser wing-coverts ashy blue 142. Shoveller. 

6*. Lesser wing-coverts brownish gray, bordered with white or tipped 
with black. 

62. Speculumf purple 132. Mallard 9 

&'. Speculum gray and white 135. Gadwall 9. 

6. No conspicuous white in wing-coverts. 

6^ Throat fulvous or buffy, without streaks. . . 134. Florida Duck. 
62. Throat finely streaked with black 133. Black Duck. 

132. Anas platyrhynchos Linn. Mallard. (Fig. 34a.) Ad. d". — 
Whole head and throat glossy greenish or bluish black; a white ring around 
the neck; breast rich chestnut; belly grayish white, finely markcvl with wavy 
black lines; under tail-coverts black; upper back dark grayish brown; rump 
and upper tail-coverts black; four middle tail feathers recurved; speculum 
rich purple, bordered at the base, and tip by narrow bands of black and white. 
Ad. 9. — Top and sides of head streaked with fuscous and buffy; back fuscous, 
the feathers with internal rings or loops and sometimes borders of pale ochra- 

*See Fig. 82. fA colored patch in the wing. 



192 RIVER AND POND DUCKS 

ceous buffy; speculum as in the preceding; breast and belly ochraceous buffy, 
mottled with dusky grayish brown. L., 23-00; W., ll'OO; Tar., 1-75; B., 2-25. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In N. Am, breeds from Pribiiof Islands, nw. 
Alaska, n. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, and Greenland s. to L. Calif., s. N. 
Mex., s. Kans., cen. Mo., s. Ind., and Md. (rarely); winters from the Aleutian 
Islands, cen. Alaska, cen. Mont., Wyo., Nebr,, s. Wise, n. Ind., Ohio, Md., 
and N. S. (rarely) s. to Mex., the Lesser Antilles, and Panama; casual 
in Bermuda and Hawaii. 

Washington, common W. V., Aug. 28-Mch. 19. Long Island, uncommon 
T. v., Oct. 3-Dec. 24; Mch., Apl. Ossining, rare T. V., Oct., Mch. Cam- 
bridge, rare but regular in fall. N. Ohio, tolerably common T. V., Mch. 1- 
May 15; Oct. 1-Dec. 1. Glen Ellyn, regular but uncommon T. V., Mch. 10- 
Apl. 7; Sept. i3-Nov. 23. SE. Minn., S. R., casual W. R., Mch. 4-Dec. IL 

Nest, on the ground, usually near water and among high grass or reeds. 
Eggs, 6-13, light greenish buff to light grayish buff, with very little luster, 
2-27 X 1-61. (Bent.) Date, Heron Lake, Minn., May 11. 

The loud, resonant quacking of the female Mallard and much lower, 
less clearly enunciated quack of the drake are familiar sounds, 
though the loud notes are usually attributed to the male. When flying, 
the white under wing-coverts are sometimes conspicuous when the 
birds are too far away to distinguish the green head of the male. In 
Minnesota the Mallard is considered the wildest of wild Ducks. 

133. Anas rubripes Brewst. Black Duck. Ads. — Top of head rich J 
fuscous, slightly streaked with pale buffy; sides of the head and throat pale -^ 
buffy, thickly streaked with blackish; rest of underparts fuscous-brown, the 
feathers all bordered by ochraceous-buff ; back slightly darker and narrowly 
margined with buffy; speculum rich purple, bordered by black, and, at the 
end only, narrowly by white. L., 22-00; W., 11-00; Tar., 1-75; B., 2-20. 

Remarks. — Always to be distinguished from the female Mallard by its 
darker colors and smaller amount of white in the wing. 

According to William Brewster (Auk, 1902, 184) the Black Duck is 
represented by two forms, the status of which, however, is considered 
doubtful by the A. O. U. Committee on Nomenclature. Should they be 
recognized, they will stand as Anas ruhripes rubripes, the Red-legged 
Black Duck, and Anas rubripes tristis, which, for sake of distinction, may 
be called the Brown-legged Black Duck. A. r. rubripes is the larger of 
the two id^ W., 10-99; Tar., 1-68; B., 2-13; 9 W., 10-47; Tar., 1-60; B., 
2-03, as compared with the following measurements for A. r. tristis: d" W., 
10-52; Tar., 1-65; B., 2-05; 9, W., 10-14; Tar., 1-61; B., 1-93) and has the 
sides of the head and the neck, chin, and throat more heavily streaked than 
in tristis in which the throat and chin are said to be unstreaked. In life the 
tarsi and toes are bright red, the bill yellow; while tristis has the tarsi and 
toes brownish, the bill olivaceous. The difference in the colors of the feet, 
while not apparent in museum specimens, form a readily observable field 
mark. The limits of the breeding ranges of these supposed forms have not 
been determined, but rubripes appears to be the more northern, not being 
knovvn to breed south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. During the migration 
and in winter both red-legged and brown-legged birds may be found in the 
same flock. (See also Brewster, Auk, 1909, 175-179; 1910, 323-333, and 
D wight, Ibid, 1909, 422-426.) 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from cen. Keewatin and n. Ungava s. to 
n. Wise, n. Ind., and s. Md.; winters from N. S. s. to s. La., and Colo.; 
w. in migration to Nebr. and cen. Kans.; casual in Bermuda; accidental in 
Jamaica. 

Washington, common W. V. Aug. 1-Mch. 17. Long Island, abundant 
W. v., Sept.-May; a few breed. Ossining, tolerably common S. R., Mch. 6- 
Nov. 13. Cambridge, very common T. V., and W. V.; a few breed. N. Ohio, 



RIVER AND POND DUCKS 193 

tolerably common, Mch. 1-May 1; Sept. 1-Nov. 30. SE. Minn., uncom- 
mon T. V. 

N'est, on the ground in grass or brush, often far from water. Eggs, 6-12, 
pale greenish or bluish white, or creamy buff, 2*43 x 1'75. Date, Montauk 
Point, L. I., Apl. 5; Cambridge, Apl. 19; St. Croix River, Maine, Apl. 30. 

Though not literally a black Duck, this bird appears so much darker 
in life than the female of its near relative Mallard, that it is sometimes 
kno^Ti as Black Mallard. Its loud, resonant quack resembles that of 
the Mallard. It is more common in the Atlantic Coast States than 
inland, and when molested will sometimes pass the day at sea returning 
at night to feed in the ponds and marshes. It has won a deserved 
reputation for wariness. 

The gullet and gizzard of a Black Duck shot by E. H. Eaton were 
found by him to contain 23,704 weed seeds. ("Birds of New York.") 

1893. Allen, C. S., Auk, X, 53-59 (nesting). 

134. Anas fulvigula Ridgw. Florida Duck. Ads. — Top of head 
streaked with black and buffy; sides of head and entire throat buffy, without 
streaks; rest of underparts rich buffy ochraceous, widely streaked with 
black; back black, the feathers broadly margined and sometimes inter- 
nally striped with ochraceous-buff ; speculum rich purple bordered by black; 
bill olive-yellow, its nail black._ L., 20-00; W., lO'oO; Tar., 1-65; B., 2-05. 

Remarks. — Easily distinguished from A. rubripes by the absence of 
streaks on the throat. 

Range. — Fla. and Gulf coast to Miss. 

Eggs, 8-10, pale dull buff or pale grayish buff, 2'15 x 1'61 (Ridgw.). 

Date, Caloosahatchie River, Fla., Apl. 16. 

This southern representative of the Black Duck is permanently 
resident in Florida, where it has apparently decreased in numbers in 
recent years. It resembles the Black Duck in voice and feeding habits, 
but I have never known it to go out to sea. 

135. Chaulelasmus streperus (Linn.). Gadwall. Ad. cf. — Top of 
head streaked with rufous-brown and black; sides of head and neck pale 
buffy, thickly streaked or spotted with black; breast and neck all around 
black, each feather with a border and an internal ring of white, giving the 
plumage a beautifully scaled appearance; belly white or grayish; rump, 
upper and under tail-coverts black; lesser wing-covcrts chestnut. Ad. 9. — 
Head and throat as in male; back fuscous margined with buffy; breast and 
sides ochraceous buffy, thickly spotted with blackish; belly and under 
tail-coverts white, more or less thickly spotted with blackish; little or no 
chestnut on wing-coverts; speculum ashy grav and white; axillars and under 
wing-coverts pure white. L., lO'SO; W., 10-40; Tar., 1*55; B., TTO. 

Range. — Nearly cosmopolitan. In N. Am. breeds from s. B. C, cen. 
Alberta, and cen. Kecwatin s. to s. Calif., s. Colo., n. Nebr., and s. Wise; 
winters from s. B. C, Ariz., Ark., s. 111., and N. C. s. to s. L. Calif., cen. 
Mex. (Jalisco), and Fla.; accidental in Bermuda, Cuba, and Jamaica; rare 
in migration on the Atlantic coast of the Middle and New England States 
n. to N. F. 

Washington, common W. V., Aug. 24-Apl. L. I., rare T. V. N. Ohio, 
occasional T. V. SE. Minn., common T. V., unconmion S. R., Apl. 3. 

Nest, on the ground, near water, in short prairie grass or concealed 
beneath rose bushes. Eggs, 8-12, pale buff or buffy white, 2*09 x TS? 
(Ridgw.). Date, N. D., June 7. 



194 RIVER AND POND DUCKS 

The Gadwall is common in the interior but rare on the Atlantic 
Coast, except in Florida. Its voice is a quack higher and with less volume 
than that of the Mallard. It is a surprising sight to see these birds in 
courtship flight, when the male pursues the female often high in the 
air and for some time, on a course as erratic as that of a Barn Swallow. 

136. Mareca penelope {Linn.). European Widgeon. Ad. cf. — 
Crown creamy buff; throat blackish, rest of head and neck rufous-brown; 
upper breast vinaceous, lower breast and belly white; sides and back finely 
marked with wavy black and white lines. Ad. 9. — Head and throat deep 
ochraceous-buff, finely streaked and barred with black, darker above; 
upper breast and sides much the same color, but without black markings; 
lower breast and belly white; back grajdsh brown, the feathers with small 
ochraceous buffy bars; tertials fuscous, bordered by deep ochraceous huffy; 
greater wing-coverts brownish gray, usually whiter on the outer webs and 
tipped with black. W., lO'SO; B., 1-40. 

Remarks. — The females of the European and American Widgeons bear a 
general resemblance to one another. Their distinguishing characters are 
mainly in the color of the head and throat, which are browner in the European 
species, and in the color of the greater wing-coverts, which are whiter in the 
American bird. 

Range. — N. part of the E, Hemisphere, Occurs in N. Y., N. S., N. F., 
and Greenland s. to Nebr., Mo., Ind., Ohio, N. C, and Fla., and in Alaska, 
B. C, and Calif. 

Washington, A. V., two records. Long Island, rare T. V. 

Eggs, 5-8, buffy white, 2-23 x I'SS. Date, Iceland, June 2. 

The European Widgeon is of rare but regular occurrence in Eastern 
North America. "The call-note of the male is a shrill, whistling whee- 
you, whence the local names 'Whew Duck' and 'Whewer' ; but the female 
utters a low purr-ing growl. Both sexes, however, rise in silence." 
(Saunders.) 

137. Mareca americana (Gmel.). Baldpate. Ad. cf. — Middle of 
crown white or buffy; sides of crown, from eye to nape, glossy green, more 
or less sprinkled with black; lores, cheeks and throat buffy, finely barred with 
black: upper breast and sides vinaceous, the latter more or less finely barred 
with wavy black lines; lower breast and belly white; back grayish brown, 
more or less tinged with vinaceous and finely barred with black. Ad. 9. — 
Head and throat white or pale, creamy buff, finely streaked and barred with 
black, darker above; upper breast and sides pale vinaceous washed with 
grayish; lower breast and belly white; back grayish brown, the feathers with 
small creamy buff bars; tertials fuscous, bordered with whitish or creamy 
buff; greater wing-coverts brownish gray, their outer webs mostly or entirely 
white, their ends black, sometimes tipped with white. L., 19"00; W., 10'50; 
Tar., 1-50; B., 1-40. 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds from nw. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, and cen. Kee- 
watin s. to Ore., Ncv., Utah, Colo., Kans., s. Wise, and n. Ind.; winters 
from s. B. C, Ariz., s. Ills., Md., and Del. (casually Mass., and R. I. ), s. to s. 
L. Calif., the West Indies, and Costa Rica; rare in migration to n. Ont., n. 
Que., and N. F. ; accidental in Hawaii, Bermuda, and Europe. 

Washington, common W. R., Oct.-Apl. Long Island, T. V., common, Oct. 
lO-Fcb. ; less common Mch. 8-Apl. IG; a few winter. Ossining, common T. V., 
Mch. 11-Apl. 12; Oct. 4-28. Cambridge, rare T. V. in fall. N. Ohio, not com- 
mon T. v., Mch. 10-Apl. 25. SE. Minn., common T. V., Mch. 17-Oct. 20. 

Nest, on the ground near water, sometimes exposed, usually concealed 
in grass, weeds or bushes. Eggs, 7-12, buffy white, 2"05 x 1'50. Date, 
N. D., May 31. 



RIVER AND POND DUCKS 195 

N. S. Goss writes that, as a rule, Widgeons are "not shy, and their note, 
a sort of whew, whew, whew, uttered while feeding and swimming, enables 
the hunter to locate them in the thickest growth of water plants; and 
when in the air the whisthng noise made by their mngs heralds their 
approach." They are fond of wild celery, which they prociu-e by robbing 
the Canvasback and other diving Ducks, "snatching their catch from 
their bills the moment their heads appear above the water," "The 
female utters a loud cry hke the syllables kaow, kaow." (Eaton.) 

The European Teal (138. Nettion crecca) is of casual occurrence in 
Eastern North America. The adult male resembles that of iV. carolinense, 
but the white bar in front of the wdng is lacking, and the inner scapulars are 
creamy buff, with a sharply defined black mark on their outer-webs. The 
female can not be distinguished from that of A^. carolinense. 

139. Nettion carolinense (GmeL). Green- winged Teal. Ad. cf. — 
Chin black, sides of head from eye to nape shining green, rest of head and 
neck rufous-chestnut; breast washed with vinaceous and spotted with 
black; belly white; sides finely marked with wavy black and white lines; 
middle under tail-coverts black, lateral ones creamy buff; upper back like 
sides, lower back grayish fuscous; a white bar in front of the bend of the 
wing; wing-coverts brownish gray, tipped with ochraceous buffy. Ad. 9. — 
Top of head brownish fuscous, margined with cinnamon; throat and sides 
of neck white, finely spotted with black; breast and sides washed with cin- 
namon and spotted or barred with black; belly and under tail- 
coverts white, sometimes spotted with black; back fuscous, the feathers 
with crescent-shaped marks of ochraceous buffy, and bordered with grayish; 
wings as in the male. L., 14-50; W., T'OO; Tar., I'lO; B., 1-35. 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds from nw. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, 
n. Ungava, and N. F. s. to cen. Calif., n. N. Mex., n. Nebr., n. Ills., s. Ont., 
Que., and N. B.; winters from Alaska, B. C, Nev., s. Nebr., n. Ind., w. N. 
Y., and R. I. (casually N. S.) s. to s. L. Calif., the West Indies, and Hon- 
duras; accidental in Hawaii, Bermuda, Greenland, and Great Britain. 

Washington, common W. V., Sept.-Apl. Long Island, uncommon T. V. 
and W. v., Oct.-Apl. Ossining, common T. V., Apl.; Sept. 11-Oct. 28. 
Cambridge, uncommon T. V., Apl.; Sept.-Dec. N. Ohio, occasional T. V. 
Glen Ellyn, quite regular T. V., Mch. 10-Apl. 14; Sept. 25-Oct. 19. SE. Minn., 
common T. V., Mch. 11. 

Nest, on the ground near water. Eggs, 6-12, buffy white or creamy buff, 
1-80 X 1-25. Date, N. D., May 20. 

"The Green-wing is a noisier bird than the Blue-winged Teal, the 
male uttering a short, mellow whistle and the duck a quack after the 
fashion of a Black Duck, but small, high-pitched and often repeated." 
(Eaton. ) 

140. Querquedula discors (Linn.). Blue-winged Teal. Ad. d*. — 
Crown fuscous, chin and sides of base of bill black; a broad white band 
across front of head, its hinder margin bordered ])y black; rest of head and 
throat dark ashy with i)urplish reflections; breast and belly cinnamon-rufoiis, 
thickly spotted with black; back fuscous, the feathers with crescents of 
ochraceous-buff ; lesser and median wing-coverts grayish bine, end half of 
greater ones white; speculum green. Ad. 9. — Crown fuscous, lightly mar- 
gined with grayish; sides of the head and the neck whitish, finely spotted 
with blackish, except on the throat; breast and belly with less cinnamon 
wash than in the preceding; back and wings c^uite similar to the preceding, 
but ochraceous bars sometinu\s wanting, speculum darker and greater 
coverts with less white. L., 16-00; W., 7-25; Tar., 1*20; B., TOO. 

15 



196 RIVER AND POND DUCKS 

Range. — W. Hemisphere. Breeds from cen. B. C, Great Slave Lake, 
cen. Ungava, and N. F. s. to cen. Ore., n. Nev., n. N. M., cen. Mo., s. 
Ind., n. Ohio., w. N. Y. (occasionally R. I.), and Maine; winters from s. 
B. C, Ariz., s. Ills., Md., and Del. s. to the West Indies and S. A. as far as 
Brazil and Chile; accidental in Bermuda and Europe. 

Washington, common W. V., Aug. 18- June 2. Long Island uncommon 
T. v., Mch. 24r-Apl. 21; Aug. 28-Oct. 25. Ossining, common T. V. in fall, 
Sept. 24-Oct. 17. Cambridge, rare in spring; very common (at least formerly) 
Aug.-Oct. N. Ohio, not common T. V. Apl. 20-May 4. Glen EUyn, not 
common S. R,, Apl. 2-Oct. 8. SE. Mmn., common S. R., Mch. 29. 

Nest, on ground, well concealed in grass, near water. Eggs, 6-12, buffy 
white or creamy buff, 1-85 x 1*30. Date, SE. Minn., May 10. 

The Blue-winged Teal is one of the swiftest of our Ducks. The 
white face-mark of the male can be discerned at some distance, and, in 
connection with the bird's small size, is a good field-mark. "The Blue- 
Wing's note is a whistling 'peep' repeated five or six times, but is seldom 
heard. The duck quacks less plainly and in a hoarser voice than the 
Green-wing' ' (Eaton) . 

The Cinnamon Teal {14i- Querguedula cyanoptera), a species of western 
North America, sometimes occiirs east of the Mississippi. It has been 
recorded from Illinois and Florida. The male has the underparts deep 
cinnamon ; the female closely resembles the same sex of our Q. discors. 

The Ruddy Sheldkake {141-1 Casarca/errwgfinea), an Old World species, 
is of casual occurrence in Greenland. (See Allen, Auk, 1896, 243.) 

142. Spatula clypeata {Linn.). Shoveller. Ad. &. — Head and 
neck fuscous, glossed with bluish green; back and a broken line down back 
of lower neck fuscous; rest of lower neck and breast white; lower breast and 
belly rufous-chestnut; upper and under tail-coverts dark greenish; lesser 
wing-coverts grayish blue, greater ones brownish gray tipped with white; 
speculum green. Ad. 9. — Throat buffy white; head and neck streaked wath 
buffy and black; rest of underparts more or less washed with buffy ochra- 
ceous, everywhere indistinctly spotted with fuscous except on middle of 
belly; back fuscous, the feathers with margins and internal crescents of 
whitish and buffy; wing-coverts and speculum much as in d". Im. — The im. 
<f is intermediate between the ad. d^ and 9 ; the im. 9 resemble the ad. 9 , 
but the wing-coverts are slaty gray, the speculum with little or no green. 
L., 20-00; W., 9-50; B., 2*50; greatest width of B., 1'20. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In N. A. breeds from nw. Alaska, nw. 
Mackenzie, and s. Keewatin s. to s. Calif., cen. N. M., n. Tex., n. Mo., 
and n. Ind.; winters from s. B. C, Ariz., N. M., s. Mo., s. Ills., Md., and 
Del. s. to the W. Indies, Colombia and Hawaii; in migration occasional in 
Bermuda, and n, to N. S., and N. F, 

Washington, not uncommon W. V. Long Island, rare T. V., Oct. 25- 
Nov. 29. Ossining, A. V. Oct. Cambridge, one record. N. Ohio, not common 
T. v., Mch. 12-Apl. 6; Sept. 20-Nov. 1. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., 
fall records only, Oct. 11-Nov. 8. SE. Minn., common T. V., uncommon 
S. R., Mch. 30. 

Nest, on the ground, well concealed in grass, sometimes near to, some- 
times far from water. Eggs, 6-11, pale olive-buff or pale greenish gray 
similar to a Mallard's or Pintail's but smaller, 2*03 x 1'42 (Bent). Date, 
Heron Lake, Minn., May 9. 

The Shoveller, like most of the members of this subfamily, is more 
common in the Mississippi Valley than on the coast. It is generally a 
silent bird, but its note in the breeding season is said to be took, took. It 
feeds largely by tipping in shallow water. 



RIVER AND POND DUCKS 197 

143. Dafila acuta {Linn.). Pintail, Ad. d'. — Head and throat olive- 
brown; back of neck blackish, bordered by white stripes, which pass to 
breast; breast and belly white; the abdomen faintly and sides strongly 
marked with waA^ lines of black and white; back somewhat darker than 
sides; scapulars black, bordered or streaked with buffy white; wing-coverts 
brownish gray, greater ones tipped with rufous; speculum green; central 
tail-feathers glossed with green and much elongated. Ad. 9 . — Throat white 
or whitish, crown and sides of head streaked with blackish and buffy ochra- 
ceous, darker above; breast washed with buffy ochraceous and spotted with 
blackish; belly white; abdomen more or less indistinctly mottled with 
blackish; sides with bars and lengthened black and white crescents; under 
wing-coverts fuscous, bordered with whitish; axillars barred or mottled with 
black; back fuscous, the feathers with borders, bars, or crescents of white or 
buffy; speculum grayish brown bordered with white. Im. — The im d" is 
variously intermediate between the ad. c? and 9 ; the im. 9 resembles the ad. 
9, but the underparts are more heavily streaked or spotted. L., d', 28'00, 
9, 22-00; W., 10-00; T., cf, 7-50, 9, 3-60; B., 2-00. 

Remarks. — The female of this species is a rather obscure-looking bird, 
but may always be known by its broad, sharply pointed central tail-feathers 
and dusky under -wdng-coverts. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In N. Am. breeds on the Arctic coast from 
Alaska to Keewatin and s. to s. Calif., s. Colo., n. Nebr., n. Iowa, and n. Ills. ; 
winters from s. B. C, Nev., Ariz., s. Mo., s. Wise, s. Ohio, Pa. (rarely), and 
Del., s. to Porto Rico and Panama, and in Hawaii; in migration occasional 
on the Atlantic coast to n. Ungava, Greenland, and N. F., and in Bermuda. 

Washington, W. V., Sept. 13-Apl. 1. Long Island, common T. V., 
Sept. 15-Apl. 15; a few winter (Dutcher). Ossining, common T. V., 
Mch. 15-Apl. 10; Sept. 26-Dec. 4. Cambridge, rather rare T. V., Apl.; 
Oct.-Dec. N. Ohio, common T. V., Mch. 1-Apl. 7; Sept. 20-Dec. 1. Glen 
Ellyn, irregular, Mch. 19-Apl. 17. SE. Minn., common T. V., Mch. 3. 

Nest, on the ground, often but little concealed, sometimes near to, at 
others far from water. Eggs, 8-10, pale oHve-green or olive-buff, 2-20 x 1-50. 
Date, Minor Co., S. D, May 7. 

"Its note is seldom heard by day, but while coming into the feeding- 
grounds at night with the Widgeons, Black Ducks and Mallards, the 
hoarse, muffled quack of the duck and the mellow whistle of the drake 
are heard mingled with the whistling of the Widgeon and the loud 
calls of the Black Duck. In the springtime the drake often gives utter- 
ance to low, soft notes which seem to flow from deep down in the throat, 
especially while performing curious courting antics in the presence of 
the ducks." (Eaton.) The Pintail's long, slender neck, and in the male 
the long tail-feathers, are good field-marks. 

144. Aix sponsa (Linn.). Wood Duck. Ad. cf. — A lino from bill over 
eye, a similar line at base of side of crest, and some of elongated crest- 
feathers white; throat, a band from it up side of head, and a wider one to 
nape, white; rest of checks and crown green with i)urplish rciflections; a 
white band in front of wings; breast and a spot at either side; of the base of 
the tail purplish chestnut, the former spotted with white; loolly white; 
sides buffy ochraceous, finely l)arrcd with black, longer flank feathers tipped 
with wider bars of black and whit(>; back greenish brown; scapulars blacker; 
speculum steel-blue; primaries tipped with greenish blu(\ — Ad. 9. — Throat 
and a stripe from the eye backward white; crown purplish brown; sides of 
the head ashy brown; breast and sides grayish l)rown streaked with buffy; 
belly white; back olive-brown glossed with greenish; inner primaries tipi)ed 
with greenish blue. Im. — The im. cf resembles the 9. L., 18-50; W., 9-00; 
Tar., 1-35; B., 1-30. 



198 BAY AND SEA DUCKS 

Range. — Temperate N. A. Breeds from s, B. C, cen. Sask., n. Ont., 
N. B. and N. S. s. to cen. Calif., s. Tex., Fla, and Cuba; winters chiefly 
in U. S., from s. B. C, Kans., Ills., Ind., Pa., and N. J., s. to s. Calif., and 
the Gulf of Mex.; accidental in Bermuda, Mex., Jamaica, and Europe. 

Washington, uncommon P. R. Long Island, rare S. R., May 2-NoA^ 
27. Ossining, tolerably common S. R. Cambridge, not common T. V., 
Apl. 1-30; Sept. 15-Oct. 20. N. Ohio, rare S. R., Mch. 20-Oct. 15. Glen 
Ellyn, rare, May records only. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., Mch. 17- 
Oct. 23. 

Nest, of grasses, leaves, twigs, down, etc., in a hole in a tree or stump. 
Eggs, 8-14, pale buffy white, 2*05 x VbO. Date, Chester Co., S. C, Mch. 10; 
Black Hawk Co., Iowa, May 4. 

Woodland ponds and forest-bordered streams make a proper setting 
for the grace and beauty of these richly attired birds. I know of no 
sight in the bird world which so fully satisfies the eye as to see them 
in the unconscious enjoyment of their secluded homes. Alarm them, and 
with a frightened, plaintive whistle, "oo-eek" they spring from the 
water and make off through the woods. At other times they will swim 
ahead of one's canoe, and, rounding a bend in the stream, go ashore 
and walk rapidly away. 

The Rufous-crested Duck (14^. Netta rufina) is an Old World species 
which has been taken once in America. The record is based on an immature 
male found in Fulton Market, New York City, which was supposed to have 
been shot on Long Island. (Ridgw., Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1881, 25.) 

Subfamily Fuligulince. Bay, Sea, or Diving Ducks. (Fig. 346.) 

The members of this subfamily are to be distinguished from those 
of the preceding by the presence of a lobe or web on the hind-toe. They 
are open-water Ducks, frequenting our large lakes, bays and sea-coasts. 
Their food consists chiefly of mollusks, crustaceans, and the seeds and 
roots of aquatic plants. They obtain it principally by diving, some- 
times descending one hundred and fifty feet or more. According to 
Townsend ("Labrador Spring," p. 92), the Old Squaw, Scoters and Eiders 
use their wings when diving, while the Redhead, Canvasback, Buffle- 
head. Scaups and Golden-eyes use only their feet. The bill, as in the 
Anatince, acts as a sieve or strainer. As a rule they feed by day and pass 
the night at a distance from the shore or at sea. Some of the species 
occur in our waters in large flocks — ^indeed, our most abundant Ducks 
are members of this subfamily. With one exception, they are northern 
breeding birds, seldom nesting south of our northern tier of States. 
Their nest is composed of leaves, grasses, stems of aquatic plants, 
seaweed, etc., lined with down from the breast of the incubating bird, 
and is variously located. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Feathers at the base of the bill not reaching "50 forward along its sides. 
1. Wing over 7-00. 

A. Axillars and most, if not all, the linings of the wings white. 
a. Head and neck black, with greenish or purplish reflections. 



Plate XIII 




DrC'KS AND CilOESE 



Shoveller. 
Mallard. 
Canvasback. 
Ruddy Duck. 



Canada (ireM,-. 
Pintail. 
Scaup Duck. 
Blue-wingod Teal. 



BAY AND SEA DUCKS 199 

a^. Back black; bill with a bluish band near its tip. 

150. Ring-necked Duck cf . 
61. Back finely barred with black and white. 

b'. Back of head generally with purplish reflections; wing gener- 
ally under 8"25; nail of bill generally under "25 in width. 

149. Lesser Scaup Duck cf. 
b^. Back of head generally with greenish reflections; wdng gener- 
aUy over 8'25; nail of bill over '25 in width. 

148. Greater Scaup Duck d'. 
b. Head and neck not black. 

61. Head and neck rufous or rufous-brown, sharply defined from 
the black breast. 
6-. Head and upper neck rich rufous; bill 2'00 or under; flanks 

finely barred, like the back 146. Redhead d'. 

6^. Head and neck rufous-brown; crown blackish; bill over 2'00; 
flanks very slightly if at all barred . . 147. Canvasback cT. 
ci. Head and neck brownish or grayish, 
c^. A white patch in the wing. 

c^. Feathers at base of bill white; wing generally under 8'25; 
nail of bill generally under '25 in width. 

149. Lesser Scaup Duck 9 . 
c*. Feathers at base of bill white; wing generally over 8'25; 
nail of bill generally over '25 in width 

148. Greater Scaup Duck 9 . 
d^. No white in wing. 

d^. An indistinct bluish band near the tip of bill; bill under 2'00. 

d*. Wing under 8"00 150. Ring-necked Duck 9. 

d''. Wing over 8*00 146. Redhead 9. 

e^. No band on bill; bill over 2*00 . . , 147. Canvasback 9. 
Axillars and most, if not all, the under wing-coverts blackish. 

a. Head and throat dark steel-blue or steel-green. 

a'. Head and throat steel-blue; white patch at base of bill 1*00 or 
more in height 152. Barrow's Golden-eye d. 

a". Head and throat steel-green; white patch at base of bill less 
than I'OO in height 151. Am. Golden-eye cf. 

b. Head and throat not steel-blue. 

61. Whole head and throat brown, sharply defined from the gray 
or white neck; a white patch (speculum) in the wing. 

62. Nostril nearer the tip than the base of the bill. 

151. Am. Golden-eye 9. 

63. Nostril in the middle of the bill. 

152. Barrow's Golden-eye 9. 
fi. Head and throat not brown but with more or less black, 
c^. Whole head 'and neck black. 

c^. Plumage black 163. Am. Scoter cf. 

d^. Whole head and neck not black. 
d^. Crown-patch or cheeks white. 

d^. A white patch on the top of the head and another on 

the nape 166. Surf Scoter d". 

d^. Middle of croiATi black, bordered by chestnut; front 

half of face white 155. Harlequin Duck d. 

€^. Head and neck whitish, grayish, or brownish, no white in 
wing. 
e*. Bill over 1*25. 

e''. Feathers on oulmen reaching much farther forward 

than those at sides of the bill . 166. Surf Scoter 9. 

e^. Feathers on culnien reaching little of any beyond 

those at sides of bill 163. Am. Scoter 9. 

/4. Bill under 1'25. 



200 BAY AND SEA DUCKS 

p. Central tail-feathers longest, sharply pointed, under 

tail-coverts white 154. Old Squaw. 

/6. Central tail-feathers not sharply pointed; under tail- 
coverts grayish brown . . . 155. Harlequin Duck. 
2. Wing under 7'00. 

a. Tail-feathers stiff and narrow; upper tail-coverts very short. 
a^. Upperparts mostly rich chestnut-rufous. 

a2. Cheeks white 167. Ruddy Duck c?. 

a^. Cheeks black 168. Masked Duck cT. 

61. Upperparts grayish or brownish, with sometimes rufous 
markings. 

62. Lining of wing blackish; underparts grayish. 

168. Masked Duck 9. 

63. Lining of wing whitish; underparts grajdsh. 

167. Ruddy Duck 9. 
6. Tail-feathers normal; upper tail-coverts about half as long as tail. 

153. BUFFLEHEAD. 

II. Feathers at sides or top of bill extending forward generally as far as 
nostrU. 

A. Feathers on sides of bill not reaching nostril. 

a. Nostril narrow, elongate; feathers on culmen extending forward 
in a narrow line, a V-shaped mark on throat . 162. King Eider. 

6. Nostril large, rounded; feathers on culmen not extending forward 
in a narrow line 165. White-winged Scoter. 

B. Feathers on sides of bill extending as far as nostril. 

a. Bare base of bill on top narrow, ending posteriorly in a sharp 
point. 

159. Greenland Eider. 
6. Bare base of bill on top broad, the posterior end rounded. 

160. Am. Eider 

146. Marila americana (Eyt.). Redhead. Ad. cT. — Head and throat 
bright rufous; lower neck, breast, back of neck and upper back black; rest of 
back and scapulars finely barred with wa\'y black and white lines of equal 
width; wing-coverts brownish gray; upper taU-coverts black; belly white, 
lower belly more or less finely barred with black; under tail-coverts black; 
sides like back. Ad. 9. — Upperparts dark grayish brown, darker on rump, 
the feathers more or less margined wnth buffy or ashy; sides of head lighter; 
upper throat white; neck buffy ochraceous; breast and sides gra^dsh brown, 
more or less washed or margined with buffy or buffy ochraceous; belly white; 
lower belly and under tail-coverts tinged wdth ochraceous; an indistinct 
bluish gray band across end of bill. L., IQ'OO; W., 8-90; Tar., 1'55; B., 1*85. 

Remarks. — This species is frequently confused with the Canvasback, 
from which it may be distinguished by the characters given under that 
species. 

The female Redhead suggests the female Ring-neck in coloration, but the 
latter is browner, and they can be also distinguished wdth certainty by the 
difference in their size. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from s. B. C, cen. Alberta, cen. Sask. and sw. 
Keewatin s. to s. Calif., Utah, s. S. D., s. Minn., and s. Wise; winters 
from s. B. C, Utah, N. M., Kans., Ills., Md., Del., and Mass., s. to s. L 
Calif., cen. Mex., and Fla.; accidental in Jamaica; in migration casual in 
Alaska and regularly on the Atlantic coast n. to s. Lab. 

Washington, common W. V. Long Island T. V., locally common, 
Sept. 30- Jan. 9; Feb. 15-Mch. 22. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 1-Apl. 24; 
Oct. 12-Oct. 28. Cambridge, rather rare T. V., in fall. N. Ohio, tolerably 
common T. V., Mch. 1-Apl. 25. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., Apl. 14. 

Nest, of reeds, with more or less white down, in reeds, usually over 
water. Eggs, 6-18; light olivo-buff to light croam-buff, 2'40 x 1*70. Date, 
Dodge Co., Wise, May 22, 1888; Heron Lake, Minn., May 19, 1887. 



BAY AND SEA DUCKS 201 

The Ducks of the genus Marila possess to some extent the habits 
of both the River Ducks and true Sea Ducks. They are divers in deep 
water, but along the shores or in shallow water they are also 'dabblers.' 
On the Atlantic coast the Redhead is a Bay Duck, and feeds in salt 
and brackish water; but in the West it inhabits prairie sloughs and 
lakes. WTien feeding on wild celery its flesh is equal to that of the Can- 
vasback, indeed, by the discriminating it is considered slightly superior, 
being as much finer as the bird is smaller than its more famous cousin. 

147. Marila valisineria {Wils.). Caxvasback. Ad. cf. — Head and 
neck rufous-brown, chin and crown generally blackish; breast and upper 
back black; rest of back and generally wing-coverts finely barred with wavy 
lines of black and white, lohite lines wider; bellj' white; lower belly more or 
less finely barred with black; upper and under tail-coverts black; sides 
white, much more lightly barred with wavy black lines than back, or even 
entirely without bars. Ad. 9. — Head, neck, upper breast, and upper back 
cinnamon, throat lighter, and, with front parts of head, more or less washed 
with rufous; back grayish brown, feathers more or less barred "^vith wavy 
white lines; belly white or gravish white; sides the same or gravish brown, 
generally marked like back. L", 21-00; W., Q-OO; Tar., fGO; B., 2-40. 

Remarks. — This species is sometimes mistaken for the Redhead, to which 
it bears a general resemblance. The males of the two species may be distin- 
guished (1) by the color of the head and neck, which is rufous in the Red- 
head and rufous-brown in the Canvasback; (2) by the generally blackish 
chin and crown of the Canvasback, these parts in the Redhead being colored 
like the rest of the head; (.3) by the difference in the markings of the back, 
wing-coverts, and sides; and (4) by the difference in the size and shape of the 
bill, as shown by the accompanying measurements. The females of the two 
species may be at once distinguished by the color of the back, which in the 
Canvasback is finely barred with wavy white lines, markings which do not 
appear on the back of the female Redhead. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, Fort Yukon, Great Slave 
Lake, and sw. Keewatin s. to Ore., n. Nev., Colo, (rarely), Nebr., and s. 
Minn., winters from s. B. C, Nev., Colo., Ills., Pa., and w. N. Y. s. to cen. 
Mex. (Jalisco) and the Gulf coast; in winter formerly abundant, now less 
so, in Md., Va., and N. C; occasional s. to Fla., and casual in the "West 
Indies, Bermuda, and Guatemala; in migration n. rarely to N. B. and N. S. 

Washington, rare W. V., Oct. 15-Mch. 2.5. L. I., rare T. V., Oct. 20- 
Feb. 11. Ossining, rare T. V., Oct. Cambridge, rare T. V. N. Ohio, toler- 
ably common T. V., Mch. 20-Apl. 10, Oct. 1-Nov. 25. SE. Minn., uncom- 
mon T. V. 

Nest, of reeds, lined with gray down, in reeds, ortules over water. Eggs, 
6-10, (often with eggs of the Ruddy Duck or Redhead added) "rich grayish 
olive or greenish drab of a darker shade than is usually seen in the eggs of 
other species" of Ducks, 2'48 x 1'75 (Bent). Date, Heron Lake, Minn., 
May 9, 1886, adv. 

While the fame of the Canvasback has no doubt been unduly sung 
by the epicure, there can be no question that from the sportsman's 
viewpoint it is king among the Ducks. Pursued for the market and as 
game, it has decreased alarmingly, but in recent years, thanks to more 
stringent and better enforced laws, and particularly to the abolition 
of spring shooting, its numbers appear to be increasing. 

In October, 1910, ten thousand Canvasback were estimated to be 
on Heron Lake, Minnesota. They were feeding on the wild celery 
which nearly covers the bottom of this shallow body of water, and, 



202 BAY AND SEA DUCKS 

as a rule, kept near the center of the lake (where shooting is prohibited) 
massed in one great body. On still mornings, the shining white backs 
of the males could be clearly seen, while at a distance of half a mile, 
one could hear distinctly a dabbling sound as they ate the celery brought 
to the surface 

"The female Canvasback can quack almost as viell as a Black 
Duck, and also gives voice to a screaming curr-row when startled. The 
males, when together, frequently utter a peeping or growhng note." 
(Eaton.) 

1910. Fay, S. P., Auk, XXVII, 369-381 (status in Mass.). 

148. Marila marila {Linn.). Greater Scaup Duck. Ad. d". — Head, 
neck, breast and upper back black, top and sides of head -wdth generally green- 
ish reflections ; back and scapulars vv ith wavy black and white bars ; speculum 
white; upper and under tail-coverts black; belly white; lower belly strongly 
and sides faintly marked with wavy black bars. Ad. 9 . — Region around base 
of bill white; head, neck, breast and upper back umber, margined with ochra- 
ceous on breast; back and scapulars fuscous-brown; sides dark grajdsh 
brown, both generally marked T\-ith fine, wavy bars of white; speculum and 
bellv white, cf L., IS'oO; W., 8-75; Tar., 1-40; B., 1-65; greatest width of 
B., i-00. o L., 17-50; W., 8-25; Tar., 1-36; B., l-6o; greatest width of B., fOO. 

Range. — N. part of N. Hemisphere. In N. A., breeds from the Aleutian 
Islands, nw. Alaska, Great Slave Lake, and cen. Keewatin s. to s. B. C. and n. 
N. D.; has bred casually on Magdalen Islands and in Ont. and Mich.; 
winters from Maine to Fla., and the Bahamas, and from the Aleutian 
Islands, Nev., Colo., and Lake Ont., s. to s. Calif., s. N. M., and s. Tex.; 
in migration rare in cen. Ungava, N. F., and N. S. 

Washington, rather common W. V. Long Island, abundant T. V., 
Sept. 1-Apl. 22, some winter. Ossining, common T. V., Mch. 22-Apl. 13; 
Oct. 4-Dec. 3. N. Ohio, common T. V., Mch. 10-May 1; Oct. 1-Dec. 10, 
breeds occasionally. Glen Ellj'n, April records onlj'. SE. Minn., T. V. 

Nest, on the ground, near grassy sloughs or marshy lake sides. Eggs, 
6-10, olive-buff, 2-54 x 1'71. Date, Bering Is., June 6. 

This is one of our most common Bay Ducks. ^ATiile with us it 
seems to prefer salt and brackish water. It feeds largely on mollusks, 
which it obtains by diving. "Ducks of this species utter a soft, purring 
whistle when excited or calhng to their mates, and rarely the discordant 
note described by Seebohm as resembling the word scaup, screamed out 
in an exceptionally harsh voice. On two or three occasions I have heard 
a flock of Scaups give utterance to these notes, and the effect was the 
loudest and most discordant chorus of bird-notes to which I ever 
listened, coming as it did from scores of voices over silent water." 
(Eaton.) 

149. Marila affinis (Eyt.). Lesser Scaup Duck. Ad. cf. — Similar to 
preceding spocios but smaller, head, as a rule, glossed with purplish instead 
of greenish, and flanks strongly instead of faintly marked with wavy black 
l)ars. Ad. ?. — Similar to 9 of the preceding s})ecies, Init smaller, cf L., 16"50; 
W., S-OO; Tar., Vl^o; B., I'OO; greatest width of B., "OS. 9 L., IG'SO; W., 
7-00; Tar., 1-30; B., 1-.55; greatest width of B., "OO. 

Rrmarlcs. — The Scaup Dur-ks resemble each other so closely that it ia 
sometimes impossible to tell them apart, but they may generally be dis- 
tinguished by the characters given above. 



BAY AND SEA DUCKS 203 

Range. — N. Am. Breeds from the Yukon Valley, Alaska, and Fort 
Anderson, Mackenzie, s. to cen. B. C, s. Mont., Colo, (casually), n. Iowa, 
n. Ind., and w. Lake Erie; winters from s. B. C., Nev., Colo., Lake Erie, 
and N. J. s. to the Bahamas, Lesser Antilles, and Panama; rare in migration 
in N. F., N. B., and N. S. ; accidental in Greenland and Bermuda. 

Washington, not uncommon W. R., Sept. 25-May 30. Long Island, 
common T. V., Oct. 1-Apl. 28; a few winter. Ossining, common T. V., 
Jan. 28-Apl. 12; Aug. 31-Nov.* Cambridge, common in Oct. and Nov.; 
rare in spring. N. Ohio, common T. V., Mch. 15-May 10; Oct. 1-Dec. 1. 
Glen Ellyn, regular T. V., Mch. 10-Apl. 18; Oct. 23-Nov. 4. SE. Minn., 
T. v., Mch 9. 

Nest, on the ground near grassy sloughs and marshy lake sides. Eggs, 
6-11, "rich olive-buff," 2*25 x 1*58. Date, N. D., May 31. 

This species has much the same habits as the preceding, but is more 
southern in its distribution during the winter. It is by far the most 
abundant Duck in Florida waters at that season, where it occurs in 
enormous flocks in the rivers and bays along the coasts. When protected 
it soon becomes as tame as a domesticated Duck, but beyond the limits 
of protection at once exhibits its normal shyness. I have heard it utter 
a soft, purring note. 

150. Marila collaris (Donov.). Ring-necked Duck. Ad. cf. — Chin 
white; head, neck, breast and upper back black, head with bluish reflections, 
neck with a not sharply defined chestnut collar; back and scapulars black, 
speculum gray; upper and under tail-coverts black, belly white, lower 
belly and sides finely barred wuth wavy black lines; bill black, base and a 
band across end bluish gray. Ad. 9. — Uppcrparts fuscous-brown, more or 
less margined with ochraceous; speculum gray; sides of head and neck mixed 
gra^nsh brown and white; breast, sides and lower belly grayish brown, more 
or less margined with ochraceous; upper belly white or whitish; bill blackish, 
an indistinct band of bluish gray across its end. L., 16*50; W., 7"50; Tar., 
1-25; B., 1-80. 

Remarks. — The male Ring-neck may be known from any of its allies by 
its chestnut collar and other excellent characters; the female resembles the 
female Redhead, but is smaller and generally browner. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from s. B. C. to n. Calif., and from n. Alberta 
and Lake Winnipeg s. to N. D., n. Iowa., and s. Wise; winters from s. B. C, 
N. M., n. Tex., s. Ills., and N. J. s. to Porto Rico and (Guatemala; occurs 
in migration n. to N. F., N. S., and Que.; recorded from Bermuda and Eng- 
land. 

Washington, not rare, W. V., Oct. 6-Mch. 13. Long Island, two records. 
Ossining, A. V., Apl. Cambridge, rare T. V. in fall. N. Ohio, not common 
T. v., Mch. 20-Apl. 1.5. Glen Ellyn, fairly common T. V., Mch. 28-May 24; 
Oct. 12-Nov. 29. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 3-Nov. 30. 

Nest, on the ground, near grassy sloughs or marshy lakesides. Eggs, 
6-12, similar in color to those of the two preceding species, 2'28 x 1*03 
Date, SE. Minn., May 27. 

This is more of a fresh-water bird than either of the preceding. It 
is not common in the Atlantic states north of Florida, where, during 
the winter, it is abundant on fresh-water lakes. 

151. Clangula clangula americana Bonnp. American Golden-eye. 
Ad. cf. — Head and throat dark, glossy green, a circular white patch at base 
of bill measuring, along hill, less than half an inch in height; neck all around, 

*The presence or absence of Ducks in the winter depends upon whether the river 
is frozen or open. 



204 BAY AND SEA DUCKS 

breast, belly, exposed part of wing-coverts, spectilum, and most of the scap- 
ulars white; rest of plumage black. Ad. 9. — Head and throat cinnamon- 
brown, f oreneck white ; upper breast, back, and sides ashy gray bordered with 
grayish; wing-coverts tipped with white; speculum, lower breast and belly 
white. L., 20'00; W., 9*00; B. from anterior margin of white patch to anterior 
margin of nostril, 1*00; from anterior margin of nostril to tip, "75. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, n. 
Ungava, and N. F., s. to s. B. C, s. Mont., n. N. D., n. Mich., n. N. Y., and 
n. New England; winters from the Aleutian Islands, Utah, Nebr., Minn., Lake 
Erie, Maine, and N. B. s. to s. Calif., cen. Mex., and Fla.; occurs in Bermuda. 

Washington, not rare, W. V., Oct. 8-Apl. 1. Long Island, common W. V., 
Dec. 5-Apl. Ossining, common T. V. and W. V., Nov.-May. Cambridge, 
rather common, T. V. and W. V., Nov. 15-Apl. 1. N. Ohio, not common 
T. v., Mch. 10-30; Oct. 5-Nov. 20. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., Mch. 23. 

Nest, in a stump or hollow tree. Eggs, 6-10, pale greenish, 2*35 x 1"75. 
Date, Upton, Maine., May 10; Sweetwater Lake, N. D., May 14. 

The rapidly moving wings of most Ducks make a whistling sound, 
but this species excels in wing music. As a diver it can also claim high 
rank. Brewster records a brood of young birds which, in response to 
the calls of their mother at the base of the nest-tree, jumped from the 
nest-opening to the water twelve feet below. (See his important paper, 
Auk, XVII, 1900, pp. 207-216.) "The note of the male Whistler is a single 
peep, accompanied by a kicking up of the feet, while the head is thrown 
far back toward the tail. The duck, when startled or lost, calls out a 
sharp cur-r-rew.'' (Eaton.) 

1910. TowNSEND, C. W., Auk, XXVII, 177-181 (courtship). 

152. Clangula islandica (Gmel.). Bakrow's Golden-eye. Ad. cf. — 
Head and throat dark, glossy, purplish blue, an irregular, somewhat spread- 
winc-shaped white patch at the base of the bill measuring, along the bill, 
about one inch in height; neck all around, breast, belly, speculum, lesser 
wing-coverts, ends of greater ones, and the shaft part of the scapulars white; 
rest of plumage black. Ad. 9. — Resembles the 9 of the preceding species 
but has the bill shorter and more tapering, with more or less yellow in-stead 
of brown; brown of head and neck darker; ashy on chest broader and more 
pronounced; greater wing-coverts usually tipped with black. (W. Brewster, 
A-uk, 1909, 158). W., 9'25; B., from anterior margin of white patch to ante- 
rior margin of nostril, "80; from anterior margin of nostril to tip, "66. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds from s. cen. Alaska and nw._ Mackenzie to 
s. Ore., and s. Colo., and from n. Ungava to cen. Quebec; winters from se. 
Alaska, cen. Mont., the Great Lakes, and Gulf of St. La"s\Tence s. to cen. 
Calif., s. Colo., Nebr., and New England; accidental in Europe; breeds 
commonly in Iceland and is a rare visitor to Greenland. 

Washington, A. V., one record. Long Island, one record, N. Ohio, 
casual T. V. SE. Minn., rare W. R. 

Nest, in a stump or hollow tree. Eggs, 6-10, pale greenish, 2'40 X 1'70. 
Date, Iceland, May 30; Flathead Valley, Mont., May 14. 

A more northern species than the preceding, which it doubtless 
resembles in habits. 

153. Charitonetta albeola {Linn.). Bufflehead. Ad. <?. — A broad 
white band passes aroiuid back of head from eye to eye; rest of head, upper 
neck, and throat beautifully glossed with purple, greenish and bluish; lower 
neck all around, breast, belly, wing-coverts, speculum and outer scapulars 
white; back black; ui:)per tail-coverts and tail ashy grayish. Ad. 9. — A 
white patch on either side of head, throat and entire upperparts fuscous- 



BAY AND SEA DUCKS 205 

brown; speculum, breast and belly white. L., 14"75; W., 6'50; Tar., 1*25 
B., r05. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from the upper Yukon (rarely Yukon mouth), 
the lower Mackenzie, Great Slave Lake, and cen. Keewatin s. to B. C, n. 
Mont., and cen. Ont.; winters from the Aleutian Islands, B. C, Idaho, 
Colo., Mo., s. Mich., w. N. Y., and N. B. s. to n. L. Calif., cen. 
Mex. (Jalisco), and Fla. ; recorded from Hawaii, Greenland, N. F., N. S., 
Bermuda, and Great Britain. 

"Washington, common W. V., Sept.-Apl. Long Island, rather common 
W. v., Dec. 8-Apl. 6. Ossining, tolerably common T. V. Cambridge, T. 
V. in autumn (W. V.?), Oct, 30-Nov. 15. N. Ohio, common, T. V., Mch. 
25-May 1; Oct. 15-Nov. 30. Glen Ellyn, rare in April. SE. Minn., common 
T. v., Apl. 3. 

Nest, in a stump or hollow tree. Eggs, 6-12, dull light buff, 1'98 x 1"46 
(Ridgw.). Date, Fort Simpson, Mack., May 25. 

This small Duck has won deserved distinction through its powers 
as a diver. Like the Grebes, it "dives at the flash," though this well- 
worn expression has lost half its meaning since flintlocks and percus- 
sion caps have become things of the past. The Bufflehead feeds to 
some extent on small fish, which it pursues and catches under water. 

154. Harelda hyemalis {Linn.). Old Squaw. Ad. d" in winter. — 
Sides of front of head washed with grayish brown; sides of back of head and 
sides of upper neck black, more or less margined with ochraceous; rest of 
head, neck all around, upper back, scapulars, and lower belly white; back, 
breast, and upper belly black; tail pointed, middle feathers very long and 
narrow; band across end of bill yellowish orange. Ad. d' in summer. — Sides 
of the front of head white; rest of head, neck, throat, breast and upper belly 
black; back and scapulars black, the latter margined with dark buffy ochra- 
ceous; lower belly white; taU and bill as in preceding. 9 in winter. — Upper- 
parts black or fuscous; scapulars and upper back more or less margined 
with grayish or grayish brown; sides of head and neck and sometimes back 
of neck white or whitish; breast grayish; belly white; tail pointed, but with- 
out long feathers of male; under wing-coverts dark. Ad. 9 in summer. — 
Generally similar to above, but sides of head and throat mostly blackish, 
and feathers of upperparts more or less margined with ochraceous. L., d, 
21-00, 9, 16-00; W., 8-60; T., d, S'OO, 9, 2-50; B., 1-05. 

Remarks. — -The male Old Squaw is too distinct to be confused with any 
other species, its long tail-feathers being its most striking character; the 
female bears some resemblance to the female of the Harlequin Duck, but 
has the belly pure white instead of grayish dusky. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In N. A. breeds from islands of Bering Sea, 
Arctic coast of Alaska, Melville Island, Wellington Channel, Grinnell 
Land, and n. Greenland s. to Aleutian Islands, c. cen. Mackenzie, n. Hudson 
Bay, and se. Ungava; winters from the Aleutian Islands s. regularly to 
Wash, rarely to San Diego Bay, C'alif., and in s. Gre(!nland, and from Gulf 
of St. Lawrence s. regularly to the Great Lakes and N. C, and rarely to 
Colo., Tex., La., and Fla. 

Washington, rare W. V., Oct. 20-Apl. 20. Long Island, abundant 
W. v., Oct. 15-May 1. Ossining, tolerably common W. V., Dec. 4-Apl. 
6. Cambridge, rather common in Oct. and Nov. N. Ohio, irregular W. V., 
Nov. 1-Apl. 16. 

Nest, on the ground near water, under low bushes or tall grasses. Eggs, 
6-12, pale bluish tinged with olive, 2-05 x r49. Date, Disco Bay, Green- 
land, June 15. 

In The Auk for 1892, pp. 330-337, George H. Mackay gives a capital 
account of the habits of this species in our waters. He speaks of them 



206 BAY AND SEA DUCKS 

as the swiftest flying as well as the noisiest (in the spring) of all the 
sea-fowl which tarry with us, and gives their curious scolding or talking 
notes as o-onc-o-onc-ough, egh-ough-egh. Their flight is generally near 
the water, and when shot at while flying they sometimes dive from the 
wing. He also mentions their habit of towering, ''usually in the after- 
noon, collecting in mild weather in large flocks if undisturbed, and 
going up in circles so high as to be scarcely discernible, often coming 
down with a rush and great velocity, a portion of the flock scattering 
and coming down in a zigzag course similar to the Scoters when widstled 
down." 

155. Histrionicus histrionicus (Linn.). Harlequin Duck. Ad. d". 

Center of the crown black, margined by white and rufous; front of sides 
of head, a spot on ear, a stripe back of it, and a collar around back and sides 
of neck white ; rest of head and throat rich slaty blue ; a band in front of the 
wing white, margined with black; inner scapulars white; back and breast 
bluish slate; belly fuscous; sides rufous-chestnut. Ad. 9. — Front of head 
whitish; a white spot on ears; upperparts brownish fuscous; throat, breast 
and sides lighter; belly grayish brown, margined with whitish. L., 17"00: 
W., 7-80; Tar., 1-50; B., 1-05. 

Range. — N. N. Am., and E. Asia. Breeds from the Kowak and Yukon 
rivers, Alaska, Arctic coast, and Greenland s. to sw. B. C, cen. Mackenzie; 
n. Ungava, and N. F., and s. in the mts., to cen. Calif., sw. Colo., ne. Asia, 
and Iceland; occurs in summer in flocks near the Pribilof and Aleutian 
Islands and on the coast of Wash.; winters on the Pacific coast from the 
Aleutian Islands to Monterey, Calif., in the interior to Colo., Mo., Lake 
Michigan, and w. N. Y., and on the Atlantic coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence 
regularly to Maine, rarely to N. J., and accidentally to Fla. ; accidental in 
Europe and not rare in Asia south to Japan. 

Long Island, rare W. V. 

Nest, near water, on the ground, "under rocks or driftwood," or in a 
hollow stump. Eggs, 6-8, yellowish buff or greenish yellow, 2*30 x 1*62 
(Davie). Date, Holsteinborg, Greenland, June 24, 

UnUke other members of this subfamily, this species passes the 
breeding season on rapid dashing streams, but during the winter it 
occurs as a Sea Duck off our more northern coasts. 

1896. Norton, A. H., Auk, XIII, 229-234 (habits in Maine). 

156. Camptorhynchus labradorius {Gmel.). Labrador Duck. Ad. 
cf. — Center of crown black; rest of head, throat and upper neck white; a 
black band around lower neck connected behind with the black back; 
primaries fuscous, rest of wing white; front and sides of upper breast white, 
lower breast and belly black. Ad. 9 . — Brownish gray, speculum white, 
Im. cf. — Like 9, but with throat and ends of greater wing-coverts white. 
L., 20-00; W., 8-40; Tar., I'SO; B., 1-58. 

Range. — Formerly, n. Atlantic coasts of N. A.; supposed to have bred in 
Labrador; wintered from N. S. to N. J.; now extinct. 
Nesting, unknown. 

William Butcher (1891) quotes the late George N. Lawrence, as 
follows: "I recollect that about forty or more years ago it was not 
unusual to see them in J'ulton Market, and without doubt killed on 
Long Island; at one time I remember seeing six fine males, which hung 
in the market until spoiled for want of a purchaser; they were not 



BAY AND SEA DUCKS 207 

considered desirable for the table, and collectors had a sufficient number, 
at that time a pair being considered enough to represent a species in a 
collection." 

The cause of this Duck's extinction is unknown. The last speci- 
men, so far as known, was taken at Grand Menan in 1871. Forty-three 
specimens have been recorded as existing in collections. 

1891. DuTCHEE, W., Auk, VIII, 201-216; 1894. XI, 4-12 (history). 

Steller's Eider {157. Polysticta stelleri), a North Pacific species, is 
of accidental occurrence in Greenland and Quebec. 

159. Somateria mollissima borealis (Brehm). Northern Eider. 
Ad. (f. — Top of head black, a greenish white line on the crown; rest of head, 
thioat, neck, upper breast, back, scapulars and lesser wing-coverts white, 
tinged with greenish on sides and back of head, and with vinaceous on 
breast; middle of rump, upper and under tail-coverts, lower breast and belly 
black. Ad. 9. — Head, throat and neck buffy ochraceous, darker above and 
streaked with black; back Black, feathers all widely margined, and some- 
times partly barred with buffy ochraceous; breast buffj^ ochraceous, barred 
with black; belly grayish brown or olive-brown, indistinctly margined or 
barred with buffy. Im. — Similar, but distinctly marked with buffy. L., 
23-00; W., 11-00; Tar., fSO; B., 2-10. 

Range. — NE. N. Am. Breeds from Ellesmere Land and both coasts of 
Greenland s. to nw. Hudson Bay and s. Ungava; winters in s. Greenland 
and s. rarely to Mass. 

Nest, on the ground, amid coarse herbage and rocks. Eggs, 5-8, pale 
bluish or greenish, tinged with olive, 2'95 x 2"00. Date, Shertook Is., 
Greenland, June 20. 

This is the American representative of the Eider Duck of northern 
Europe, from which it differs only slightly. The highly prized Eider 
down is taken from the nest of this bird and its allies. As incubation 
progresses the sitting bird plucks the down from her breast to serve 
as a nest lining. In Iceland, according to Saunders, the average yield 
from each nest is about one-sixth of a pound. When the females begin 
to sit the males leave them, and, gathering in small flocks, live at sea. 

160. Somateria dresseri Sharpe. American Eider. Resembles the 
preceding in color, but diffe^rs in the feathering of the base of the culmen. 
In both species the culmou is divided by a wedge of feathers reaching forward 
from the forehead. Looked at from the tip of the bill, the base of the cul- 
men is thus V-shaped. In dresseri the arms of the V are very broad and 
rounded at the ends, while in borealis thev are much narrower and generally 
pomted at the ends. L., 23-00; W., 11-30; Tar., 1-70; B., 2-10. 

Range. — NE. N. Am. Breeds from s. Ungava and N. F., to se. Maine, 
and on the s. half of Hudson Bay; winters from N. F., and Gulf of St. 
Lawrence s. on Atlantic coast, regularly to Mass., rarely to Va., and in 
interior rarely to Colo., Iowa, Wise, Ohio, and w. N. Y. 

Long Island, rare W. V. Ossining, A. V., Dec. 

Nest, on the ground, generally sheltered by rocks. Eggs, 5-8, pale bluish 
or greenish, tinged with olive, 3-00 x 2-00. Date, Labrador, June 5. 

This species nests from the coast of Maine northward, and is there- 
fore a species of more southern distribution than the jjrcceding, which 
it resembles in habits. During their visits to the coasts of the United 
States the Eiders are true Sea Ducks, living some distance off shore, 



208 BAY AND SEA DUCKS 

generally over a bed of mussels, which they secure by diving, and which 
constitute their chief food. 

1890. Mackay, G. H., Auk, VII, 315-319 (habits in Mass.). 1910. 
TowNSEND, C. W., Auk, XXVII, 177-181 (courtship). 

162. Somateria speetabilis {Linn.), King Eider. Ad. cf. — Region 
about base of upper mandible and a large V-shaped mark on throat black; 
top of head bluish gray; cheeks greenish; neck all around white; front and 
sides of breast creamy buff; upper back, sides of rump, and wing-coverts 
white; rest of plumage black. Ad. 9. — Head and throat buffy ochraceous, 
the former streaked with black; back black, the feathers widely margined 
with ochraceous or rufous; underparts varying from brownish gray to fus- 
cous, more or less washed, especially on breast, with ochraceous or rufous, 
/m.— Paler and with less ochraceous. L., 23*00; W., 10-80; Tar., 1*80; B., 
1-30. 

Remarks. — The adult male of this species may at once be known by its 
bluish gray head and the V-shaped mark on its throat. Females and young 
birds resemble those of the two preceding species, but are to be distinguished 
by the generally unstreaked throat and the feathering of the side of the base 
of the bill, which in this species does not, as in the two preceding, reach to 
the nostril. 

Range.— N. part of N. Hemisphere. Breeds along the whole coast of n. 
Siberia, Bering Sea (St. Lawrence Island), and Arctic coast of Am. from 
Icy Cape e. to Melville Island, Wellington Channel, n. Greenland, nw. 
Hudson Bay, and n. Ungava; winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands 
to Kadiak Island, in the interior rarely to the Great Lakes, and from s. 
Greenland and Gulf of St. Lawrence s. regularly to Long Island, rarely to 
Ga.; accidental in Calif, and Iowa. 

Long Island, rare but regular W. V., Nov. 13-Apl. 21. Cambridge, 
casual in early winter. 

Nest, on the ground, among rocks or herbage. Eggs, 6-10, light olive- 
gray to grayish green, 3*12 x 1'92 (Davie). Date, Pt. Barrow, Alaska, 
June 25. 

While in our waters this species does not differ from the preceding 
in habits. 

163. Oidemia americana Swains. American Scoter. . Ad. cf. — 
Entire plumage black, feathers on side of bill extending little if any forward 
beyond corner of mouth; bill black; upper mandible orange or yellowish at 
the base. Ad. 9 and Im. — Above chest and sides grayish brown; cheeks 
whitish, sharply defined from crown; belly whitish faintly barred with 
dusky. L., 19-00; W., 9*00; Tar., 1*70; B. along culmen, 1-75; B. along side, 
1-85. 

Range.^N . N. Am. and E. Asia. Breeds in ne. Asia and Kotzebue 
Sound to Aleutian Islands, including Near Islands; also on w. shore of 
Hudson Bay, Ungava, and N. F. ; winters on Asiatic coast to Japan and from 
islands of Bering Sea s. rarely to Santa Catalina Island, Calif. ; in the interior 
not rare on the Great Lakes, and casual or accidental in Mo., La., Nebr., 
Colo., and Wyo.; on the Atlantic coast abundant during migration from 
N. F., and Maine, s. (rarely to Fla.). 

Washington, casual W. V. Long Island, common W. V., Oct. through 
Apl. Ossining, rare T. V., Oct. Cambridge, occasional in fall. 

Nest, on the ground, near water. Eggs, "6-10, pale dull buff or pale 
brownish buff, 2-55 x I'SO" (Ridgw.). Z)a^e, Cape Lisburne, Alaska, June 15. 

All three species of Surf Scoters, or "Coots," are abundant winter 
residents off the coasts of the New England and Middle States. At this 
time their habits are practically aUke — indeed, they are often found 



BAY AND SEA DUCKS 209 

associated. As a rule, they frequent only the sea and its estuaries, 
where they live over beds of mussels, clams, or scallops, which they 
obtain by diving; but they are sometimes found in ponds near the 
coast where food of this nature is abundant. 

The flight of the Surf Scoter "is marked by a shrill whisthng, and 
when the birds are in large numbers this sound is heard a long distance 
off." (Sanford.) 

1891. Mackay, G. H., Auk, VIII, 279-290; IX, 292-294 (habits in 
Mass.). 

The Velvet Scoter (164. Oidemia fusca), an Old World species, has 
been recorded from Greenland. 

165. Oidemia deglandi Bonap. White-winged Scoter. Ad. cf. — 
A spot below eye and speculum white, rest of plumage black; bill orange, 
black at base, the feathers on it reaching forward far beyond corners of 
mouth. Ad. 9 and Im. d'. — Grayish or fuscous-brown, lighter below; specu- 
lum white, feathers at base of upper bill and a spot on the ears whitish. L., 
22-00; W., 11-00; Tar., 2-00; B. along culmen, 1-50; B. along side, 1;55. 

Rem.arks. — The white speculum and feathering of the bill will always 
serve to distinguish this species from its allies. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from the coast of ne. Siberia, n. Alaska, n. 
Mackenzie, and n. Ungava s. to cen. B. C., Alberta, n. N. D., and s. Que.; 
winters on the Asiatic coast to Bering I., Japan, and China, and in 
N. A., from Unalaska Island to San Quintin Bay, L. Calif., the Great 
Lakes (casually to Colo., Nebr., and La.), and the Atlantic coast from the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence s. (rarely) to Fla. ; non-breeding birds occur in summer 
as far s. as R. I., and Monterey, Calif. 

Washington, casual W. V., Oct.-Apl. Long Island, common W. V., 
Oct. 15-Apl. 1.3. Ossining, tolerably common T. V. Cambridge, occasional 
in fall. SE. Minn., casual W. R. 

Nest, on the ground, beneath bushes, or in high growth. Eggs, "6-14, 
pale dull buff, varying to cream-color, 2-68 x 1"83" (Ridgw.). Date, 
N. D., June 20. 

166. Oidemia perspicillata (Linn.). Surf Scoter. Ad. cf. — A 
square mark on crown and a triangular one on nape white, rest of plumage 
black; bill with white, red and yellow, a IjUick spot on its side at base; 
feathers on culmen extending nearly to a level with nostril, feathers on side 
of bill not extending forward. Ad. 9. and Im. — A whitish spot at base of 
the bill and on ears; upperparts fuscous-brown; throat, breast, sides and 
lower belly grayer, belly white. L., 20-00; W., 9-30; Tar., r60; B. along 
culmen, r55; B. along side 2-30. 

Remarks. — The forward extension of the feathers on the culmen will 
always distinguish this species from O. amcricana, while it may be known 
from deglandi by the absence of white in the wings. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds on the Pacific coast from Kotzebue Sound to 
Sitka, and from nw. Mackenzie and Hudson Strait to Great Slave Lake, 
cen. Keewatin, and n. Quebec; non-breeding birds occur in summer in ne. 
Siberia and s. on the Pacific coast to L. Calif., and in Greenland and s. on 
the Atlantic coast to L. I.; winters on the Pacific coast from the 
Aleutian Islands s. to San Quintin Bay, L. Calif., on the Great Lakes, and 
s. casually to Colo., Kans., Iowa, Ills., and La.; and on the Atlantic coast 
from N. S. to N. C, rarely to Fla.; casual in Bermuda; frequent in 
Europe. 

Washington, casual W. V. until Apl. Long Island, common W. V., 
Sept. 1-Apl. 13. Ossining, common T. V., Oct. 7-Oct. 22. Cambridge, 
occasional in fall. 



210 GEESE 

Nest, in tall grasses near water. Eggs, "5-8, pale buff or pale creamy buff, 
2*47 X l'70"(Ridgw.). Date, Fort Anderson, Mack., June 25. 

167. Erismatura jamaicensis (Gmel). Ruddy Duck. Ad. cf. — Top 
of head black, cheeks and chin white, throat and back rufous-chestnut, 
lower back blackish; breast and belly silvery white; upper tail-coverts very 
short, tail-feathers stiff and pointed; bill blue. Ad. 9 and Im. — Upperparts 
dark grayish brown, the feathers marked with fine wavy bars of buffy; 
sides of head and upper throat whitish, lower throat grayish, rest of under- 
parts silvery white. L., 15-00; W., 5-90; Tar., 1'15; B., 1-55.^ 

Remarks. — The short upper tail-coverts and stiff, pointed tail-feathera 
will always serve to identify this species. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, Great Slave Lake, s. Keewatin, 
and n. Ungava s. to n. L. Calif., cen. Ariz., n. N. Mex,, nw. Nebr., s. Minn., 
s. Mich., s. Ont., and Maine, and rarely and locally in s. L. Calif., Kans., 
Mass., Valley of Mex., Lake Duenas, Guatemala, and in Cuba, Porto Rico, 
and Carriacou; winters from s. B. C., Ariz., N. Mex., s. Ills., Maine, Pa. 
and s. to the Lesser Antilles and Costa Rica; rare in migration to N. F. and 
Bermuda. 

Washington, common W. v., Aug. 20- June 21. Long Island, irregular 
T. V. and W. V., Oct. 17-May 22. Ossining, common T. V., Mch. 14-Apl. 6; 
Oct. 5-Oct. 28. Cambridge, formerly very common in fall; Oct. 10-Nov. 8. 
N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 1-May 15; Oct. 10-Nov. 20. Glen EUyn, rare 
T. v., Mch. 21-May 21. SE. Minn., T. V., and uncommon S. R., Apl. 14. 

Nest, of reeds, in reeds over water. Eggs, 6-10, white, 2*50 x 1'80. 
Date, N. D., June 10. 

This plump little Duck swims jauntily with upturned tail. When 
pursued it dives, unless too hard pressed, and then, after pattering 
over the water, it takes to the air, with rapidly whirring wings and low, 
straight flight which suggests that of a great bumblebee. The male, 
in breeding plumage, is unmistakable and its bright, sky-blue bill is 
distinguishable from a distance. 

The Masked Duck (168. Nomonyx dominicus) is a tropical species rare 
north of the Rio Grande. Single specimens have been taken in Wisconsin, 
Massachusetts, Vermont, and Maryland. 

Suhfamily Anserinoe. Geese. 

Excluding the members of the subfamilies Anseranatince and PleC' 
Iropterince we have left the true Geese, numbering twenty-five 
species, which are included in the present subfamily. With Geese the 
sexes are alike in color. The male is the larger and he takes part in 
incubation and in the care of the young. 

Geese are vegetarians. When on the water, they feed largely by 
tipping, as with head and neck immersed and tail pointing skyward, 
they search for the roots or seeds of aquatic plants. They are far more 
terrestrial than Ducks, and visit the land to nip the herbage, young 
corn, or cereals. When wounded, they dive readily and, with their 
body just below the surface of the water and only the bill exposed, 
head for the shore, where they attempt to hide in the vegetation. In 
migrating, the flock is formed in a V-shaped wedge, the lead, it is said, 
being taken by an old gander. 



i 



GEESE 211 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Whole head or forehead white. 

A. Bill yellowish. 

a. Forehead and feathers at the base of bill white. 

171a. White-fronted Goose (Ad.). 
h. Head and neck white or grayish, sometimes tinged with rusty. 

61. Primaries black, rest of plumage white. 

169. Lesser Snow Goose. 169a. Greater Snow Goose. 

62. Back grayish brown, rump and belly whitish, wing-coverts and 

tertials widely margined with white . . 169. Lesser Snow 
Goose (Im.). 169a. Greater Snow Goose (Im.). 
6^. Back grayish brown, rump, belly and ■nang-coverts gray, the 
latter not conspicuously margined with white. 

169.1. Blue Goose (Ad.). 

B. Bill black, throat and sides of the head white, lores black. 

175. Barnacle Goose, 
II. Head or forehead not white. 

1. Head and neck brown, bill yellow or yellowish. 

A. Nail of bill black, rump fuscous. 

171a. White-fronted Goose (Im.). 

B. Nail of bill yellow, rump gray 169.1. Blue Goose (Im.). 

2. Head black or brownish black, bill black. 

A. Throat white . . 172. Canada Goose. 172a. Hutchins's Goose. 

B. Throat black or brownish black, neck speckled with white. 

a. Belly white 173. Brant. 

6. Belly brownish gray 174. Black Brant 

169. Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus {Pall.). Lesser Snow Goose. 
Ads. — Entire plumage, except primaries with their coverts, white; pri- 
maries black, their bases and coverts ashy. Im. — "Head, neck and upperparts 
pale grayish, the feathers of the latter with whitish edges and (especially 
wing-coverts and tertials) striped medially with darker; rump, upper tail- 
coverts, tail and lower parts plain white. L., 23-00-28-00; W., 14-50-17-00; 
B., r95-2-30; Tar., 2-80-3-25" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from mouth of the Mackenzie e. probably to 
Coronation Gulf and Melville Island; occurs on the Arctic coast of ne. Asia, 
but not known to breed there; winters from s. B. C, s. Colo., and s. Ills. s. 
to n. L. Calif., cen Mex. (Jalisco), Tex., and La., and on the Asiatic coast 
s. to Japan; generally rare in e. U. S. 
SE. Minn., T. V. 

Eggs, uniform dirty, chalky white, 3-40 x 2*20 (B., B., and R.). Dale, 
Pt. Barrow, Alaska, June 18. 

169a. C. h. nivalis (Forst.). Greater Snow Goose. Resembles the 
preceding in color, })ut is larger. L., 30-(X)-38-00; W., 17-35-17-50; B., 2-55- 
2-70; Tar., 3* 15-3-50 (Ridgw.). 

Range. — E. N. Am. Has been found breeding at Whale Sound, n. Green- 
land, and Ellcsmere Land; full bnu-ding range; not known; winters from s. 
Ills., Chesapeake Bay, and Mass. (rarely) s. to La., Fla., and West Indies to 
Porto Rico; in migration rarely w. to Colo., and e. to New England and N. F. 

Long Island, rare T. V., in fall, Oct.8-Jan. 30. Ossining, A. V., Apl. 

Nesting date. Admiralty Bay, Alaska, June 17, 1898 (Norris) ; Mackenzie 
Bay, June 15 (Thayer Coll.). 

The Snow Gooso does not appear to be a common bird on any part 
of the Atlantic coast. It mipratos both by nij2;ht and day, and when 
on the wing its white plumage and hlack-tii)pe(l primari(>s rcndcT it 
easily identifiable. It is a noisier bird than the Canada Goose, and its 
voice is higher and more cackling. 
IG 



212 GEESE 

169.1. Chen cserulescens (Linn.). Blue Goose. Ads. — Head and 
upper neck white; middle of hindneck sometimes blackish, lower neck all 
around fuscous, rest of underparts brownish gray edged with buffy; lower 
belly generally paler, sometimes white; upper back and scapulars like breast; 
lower back, rump and upper tail-coverts gray; tail fuscous-gray edged with 
whitish; wing-coverts like the rump or slightly darker, with little or no 
whitish margins; wing-quills and tertials fuscous, the latter more or less 
margined with whitish. Im. — "Similar to adult, but head and neck uniform 
deep grayish brown, only the chin being white. L., 26'50-30'00; W., 15'00- 
17-00; B., 2'10-2-30; Tar., 3-00-3-30" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeding range unknown, but probably interior 
of n. Ungava; winters from Nebr. and s. Ills. s. to coasts of Tex. and La.; 
rare or casual in migration in Calif., and from N. H. to Fla., Cuba, and the 
Bahamas. 

Long Island, one record. N. Ohio, casual T. V. 

Nest, in a depression on dried grass. Eggs, 4, "brownish buff, 2*50 x 
1-75" (Reed). Date, Cape Bathurst, June 29 (Thayer Coll.). 

The fact that the summer home of the Blue Goose is in the far 
north while its winter range is remarkably restricted, has brought the 
bird to the attention of comparatively few ornithologists. In consequence 
it has until recently been considered a rare species. During the winter 
of 1910, however, it was found in flocks of thousands at the delta of the 
Mississippi River by Job and by McAtee {Auk, 1910, p. 337). Here they 
were doing great damage to pasture lands, through their destruction 
of various grasses. 

171a. Anser albifrons gambeli Hartl. White-fronted Goose. Ads. 
— Forehead and region bordering base of bill white; upperparts and fore- 
neck grayish brown, more or less margined on back with lighter ; longer and 
lateral upper tail-coverts white; breast somewhat lighter than throat, more 
or less irregularly marked with black, and fading gradually into pure white 
on lower belly; sides like back. Im. — Similar, but no white at base of bill 
or black marks on breast; nail of the bill black. "L., 27'00-30*00; W., 
14-25-17-50; B., l'80-2-35; depth of mandible at base, •90-1-20; width, 
•85-1-05; Tar., 2-60-3-20" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Cen. and w. N. A. Breeds on and near the Arctic coast from 
ne. Siberia e. to ne. Mackenzie and s. to lower Yukon Valley; winters com- 
monly from s. B. C. to s. L. Calif., and Jalisco, and rarely from s. Ills., s. 
Ohio, and N. J. s. to ne. Mex., s. Tex., and Cuba, and on the Asiatic coast 
to China and Japan; rare in migration on the Atlantic coast n. to Ungava. 

Long Island, rare T. V. Glen EUyn, rare T. V., Mch. and Oct. SE. 
Minn., T. V., Apl. 1. 

Nest, on the ground, of grasses lined with down. Eggs, 6-7, dull greenish 
yellow with obscure darker tints, 3*10 x 2-07 (Davie). Date, Pt. Barrow, 
Alaska, June 19. 

"These birds are rarely met with on the Atlantic coast, but are 
quite common in the Misissippi Valley and abundant on the Pacific 
slope. They prefer low, wet grounds in the vicinity of timber, or where 
the prairie is dotted here and there with bushes; and, while they occas- 
ionally forage ofT the wheat fields and other grains on the bottom lands, 
they seldom visit the high, dry prairies like the Snow and Canada Geese." 
(Goss.) 

The European White-fronted Goose {171. Anser albifrons albifrons) 
resembles its American representative in color, but averages smaller. It is 
of doubtful record from Eastern Greenland. 



GEESE 213 

The Bean Goose {171-1 Anser fahalis) and the Pink-footed Goose 
{171.2 Anser brachyrhynchus) , Old World species, have been recorded from 
Greenland. 

172. Branta canadensis canadensis {Linn.). Canada Goose. Ads. 
— Throat and a large patch on side of head behind eye white or whitish; 
chin and rest of head and neck black; back and wings grajash brown, more 
or less edged with lighter; tail and shorter upper tail-coverts black, longer 
and lateral ones white; breast and belly grayish, fading to white on lower 
belly; sides like back. Im. — Similar, but throat and cheeks sometimes 
mixed with blackish. "L., 35-00-43-00; W., 15-60-21-00; Tar., 2-45-3-70; 
B., 1-55-2-70" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from limit of trees in valley of the lower Yukon, 
nw. Mackenzie, and cen. Keewatin s. to s. Ore., n. Colo., Nebr., and Ind.; 
formerly bred casually s. to N. M., Kans., Tenn., and Mass.; winters from 
s. B. C, s. Colo., s. Wise, s. Ills., and N. J. (rarely s. Ont. and N. F.), s. to 
s. Calif., Tex., and Fla.; accidental in Bermuda and Jamaica. 

Washington, W. V. and rather common T. V., Oct.-Apl. Long Island., 
common T. V., Feb. 27-Apl. 28; Oct. 1-Dec. 31; some W. V. Ossining, 
tolerably common T. V., Mch. 11-May 21; Oct. Cambridge, not uncommon 
T. v., Mch.-Apl.; Nov. 1-30. N. Ohio, not common T. V., Mch. 1-30. Glen 
Ellyn, W. v., quite common in spring, Oct. 17-May 5. SE. Minn., T. V., 
Feb. 10. 

Nest, on the ground, often on an island, of twigs, grasses, or reeds and 
large quantity of down. Eggs, 4-7, white. Date, Kossuth Co., Iowa, May 7, 
1883; Grant Co., Minn., Apl. 29, 1876. 

Probably the migration of no bird attracts more universal interest 
than that of the Wild Goose. Ornithologists talk of "waves" and 
"flights" of migrants passing in the night, but the semiannual pilgrimage 
of the Canada Goose appeals to us all with the directness of a per- 
sonal experience. We see the living wedge of long-necked birds pass- 
ing high overhead; the unbroken sound-waves bring the sonorous 
"honks" with unexpected distinctness to our ears; and we receive an 
impressive lesson in the migration of birds. They are embarked on a 
journey of several thousand miles, but they come and go as surely a3 
though they carried chart and compass. 

1910. Phillips, J. C, Auk, XXVII, 263-271; XXVIII, 319-323 (migra- 
tion in Mass.). 

172a. B. c. hutchinsi {Rich.). Hutchins's Goose. Resembles 
the preceding in color, but averages smaller. L., 25*00-34'00; W., 14'75- 
17-75; Tar., 2-25-3-20; B., r20-r90 (RidgAv.). 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds from Kowak Valley, Alaska, and from 
mouth of Mackenzie e. along Arctic shores and islands from lat. 70° s. to 
Melville Peninsula and nw. Hud.son Bay; winters from B. C, Nev., Colo., 
and Mo., s. to San Rafael in L. Calif., Tex., and La.; accidental in Vera 
Cruz; in migration rare e. of the Miss. Valley but recorded on the Atlantic 
coast from Maine to Va. 

Long Island, A. V. 

172c. B. c. minima Ridgw. Cackling Goose. To be di.stinguished 
from the two preceding by its smaller size and the much darker brownish 
gray color of the breast and upper belly. "W., 13-60-14-50; Tar., 2-40-2-75; 
B., •95-1-15" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds in w. Aleutians and from Norton Sound 
s. to n. coast of Alaska Peninsula; winters from B. C. s. to San Diego Co., 
Calif.; casual e. to Colo., Iowa, Wise, and Ills. 



214 GEESE 

173. Branta bernicla glaucogastra (Brehm). Brant. Ads. — Head, 
neck, throat and upper breast black; sides of the neck speckled with white; 
back brownish gray, margined with grayish brown ; longer and lateral upper 
tail-coverts white; lower breast ashy gray fading to white on lower belly; 
sides darker. Im. — Similar, but with less white on sides of neck and wing- 
coverts, and secondaries tipped with white. L., 26"00; W., 13*20; Tar., 2*20; 
B., 1-35. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. Breeds on Arctic islands n. of lat. 74° and w, 
to about long. 100°, and on the whole w. coast of Greenland; winters on the 
Atlantic coast from Mass. s. to N. C, rarely to Fla., has been recorded in 
the interior from Man., Ont., Colo., Nebr,, Wise, Mich., Ind,, and La.; 
accidental in B. C. and Barbados. 

Washington, rare W. V. Long Island, common T. V., Nov. 18- Jan. 8; 
Mch. 6-May 10; a few winter. Ossining, A. V. 

Nest, of grasses, moss, etc., lined with down, on the ground. Eggs, 4, 
smooth and creamy white in color, 2-70 x 1"80 (Saunders). Date, Buchanan 
Bay, Ellesmere Land, June 17 (Thayer Coll.). 

"Its manner of flying is different from that of the Canada Goose — 
moving in more compact bodies, less rapidly, and without seeming to 
have a chosen leader — that marked characteristic in the flight of the 
latter. 

''While in our bays it appears inactive, seldom taking to wing unless 
disturbed by a passing boat or the near report of a gun. 

"The Brant rises slowly, and when on the wing moves sluggishly 
for a short distance, and, if not attracted by a distant flock, frequently 
returns to the place it had left. Its food consists of a marine plant 
(Zoster a marina), commonly called 'eel grass.' At low water it is seen 
industriously at work tearing up its favorite plant. After the tide has 
risen to such a height as to compel it to relinquish its vocation, it is 
seen drifting with the current, feeding sumptuously on the fruits of 
its labor." (Giraud.) 

174. Branta nigricans (Lawr.). Black Brant. Bears a general 
resemblance to the preceding species, but may be readily distinguished by its 
much darker lower breast and upper belly, which are nearly as dark as the 
back, and by having white markings on the front as well as on the sides of 
the neck. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds on the Arctic coast and islands from Pt. 
Barrow e. to near mouth of Anderson River, n. probably to Melville Island; 
common on Siberian coast, Chukchi Peninsula, and w. to New Siberian 
Islands; winters on the Pacific coast from B. C. s. to San Quintin Bay, 
L. Calif., in the interior of Ore., and Nev., and on the Asiatic coast s. to 
Japan; recorded as a straggler to Mass., N. Y., and N. J. 

Long Island, A. V. 

Nest, of grasses, moss, etc., lined with down, on the ground. Eggs, 5-7, 
dull ivory-white or grayish white, 2-85 x 1'82 (B., B., and R.). Date, Admi- 
ralty Bay, Alaska, June 19. 

This is the western representative of the preceding species. It is 
of casual occurrence on the Atlantic coast, about a dozen birds having 
been recorded from between Massachusetts and New Jersey. 

1910. Fay, S. P., Auk, XXVII, 336. 

The Barnacle Goose (175. Branta leucopsis) is an Old World species 
which visits Gn^enland regularly in the fall, and is sometimes found on our 



SWANS 215 

coasts. It differs from any of the preceding in ha\'ing the forehead, sides of 
the head, throat and chin white, the lores being black. 

The Fulvous Tree-duck {178. Dendrocygna hicolor) of the South- 
western United States and southward, is accidental in North Carolina. 

Subfamily CygnincB. Swans. 

A group containing eight species distributed throughout the world. 
Swans feed from the surface, either by 'tipping' or by simply immersing 
the long neck and head. Their food consists largely of vegetable matter, 
but they eat also small mollusks. They migrate in V-shaped flocks. 
When on the -^ing, and also when feeding, they utter at times loud, 
trumpeting notes. When pursued, they do not at once take flight, but 
swim rapidly away, and in this manner easily distance a strong rower. 
The sexes are alike in color and both share in the task of incubation 
and care of the young. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. With yellow on the lores; distance from the eye to the nostril greater than 

the distance from the nostril to the tip of the bill. 

180. Whistling Swan. 

B. No yellow on the lores; distance from the eye to the nostril not greater 

than from the nostril to the end of the bill . . 181. Trumpeter Swan. 

180. Olor columbianus (Ord). Whistling Swan. Ads. — White; 
bill and feet black; a small yellow spot on the lores; tail usually with but 
20 feathers. Im. — Head and neck brownish and rest of plumage more or 
less washed with grayish; bill and feet hght. L., 55-00; W., 22-00; Tar., 4*00; 
Eye to N., 2-40; N. to tip of B., 2-25. 

Remarks. — Few unquestionably distinct species of birds resemble each 
other more closely, superficially, than do the Whistling and Trumpeter 
Swans. In freshly killed specimens, at least in the spring, the yellow on the 
bill of the former and red on the bill of the latter is wholly and sufficiently 
diagnostic. Lacking these characters, which are always wanting in old, 
dried skins, the birds can be distinguish(!d by the larger size of buccinator 
in connection with the fact that its nostrils arc nearer the centcft- of the bill 
than in columbianus (which has them nearer the tip) while buccinator usually 
has 24, instead of the 20 tail-feathers of columbianus. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from n. Alaska s. to Becharof Lake, Alaska 
Peninsula, and on Arctic islands from about lat. 74° s. to n. Mackenzie and 
nw. Hudson Bay; in migration occurs w. to Bering Islands; winters on the 
Pacific coast from s. B. C., rarely s. to s. Calif., and in the interior from Lake 
Erie and s. Ills, to coast of La. and Tex., and on Atlantic coast from Del. 
and Md. to S. C, rarely n. to Mass., and s. to Fla.; casual in n. Mex.; 
accidental in Scotland and Bermuda. 

Washington, rare W. V., Oct. 15-Mch. 25. Long Island, rare T. V. 
Cambridge, A. V. in fall. N. Ohio, occasional T. V., Mch., early Apl. SE. 
Minn., T. V., Apl. 12. 

Nest, of grasses, moss, etc., lined with down, on the ground near water. 
Eggs, 2-5, soiled whitish, 4*25 x 2-70. Date, St. Mifhaol's, Alaska, May 29. 

This is a rare bird on the Atlantic coast north of Virginia. In the 
Currituck region, thanks to its excessive wariness, it is not uncommon 
in winter. "When feeding, or dressing their plumage, this Swan is 
usually very noisy, and at night their clamors may be heard to the 



216 FLAMINGOES 

distance of several miles. Their notes are varied, some resembling the 
lower ones made by the common tin horn, others running through the 
various modulations of the notes of the clarionet. These differences are 
presumed to be dependent upon age." (B., B., and R.) 

181. Olor buccinator (Rich.). Trumpeter Swan. Ads. — White, bill 
and feet black, no yellow on the lores; cutting edge of the lower mandible, 
at least in spring, reddish; tail usually with 24 feathers Im. — Head and 
neck brownish, rest of plumage more or less washed with grayish. L., 
65-00; W., 23-00; Tar., 4-25; Eye to N., 2-70; N. to tip of B., 2-20. 

Range. — Interior and w. N. A. Breeds from the Rocky Mountains to 
w. shore of Hudson Bay and from the Arctic Ocean to about lat. 60°; for- 
merly bred s. to Ind., Mo., Nebr., Mont., and Idaho, and casually w. to 
Fort Yukon and B. C; winters from s. Ind. and s. Ills. s. to Tex., and from 
s. B. C. to s. Calif.; casual in migration in the Rocky Mt. region of U. S.; 
accidental in N. Y. and Del. Now of rare occurrence nearly everywhere. 

Nest, of grasses and down, on the ground. Eggs, 2-6, soiled whitish, 
4-40 X 2-80. Date, Mackenzie Bay, June 17, 1900 (Thayer Coll.). 

The Trumpeter Swan is now one of the rarest of American birds. 
I know of no recent records of its capture. Heard in captivity, its call 
has more of a clarion tone than that of the Whisthng Swan. 

The Whooping Swan {179. Olor cygnus) is an Old World species which 
sometimes is found in Greenland. It differs from either of our Swans in 
having the "basal portion of the bill and entire lores yellow in the adult." 



VI. ORDER ODONTOGLOSS-a:. LAMELLIROSTRAL GRALLA- 

TORES 

16. Family Phcenicopterid^. Flamingoes. (Fig. 35.) 

The six species included in this family are distributed throughout 
the tropics. Four species are American, of which one reaches southern 
Florida in winter. Flamingoes are gregarious at all seasons. Their 
favorite resorts are shallow bays and lakes or vast mud flats which are 
flooded at high water. In feeding, the bill is pressed downward into 
the mud, its pecuhar shape making the point then turn upward. The 
ridges along its sides, as in the bills of Ducks, serve as strainers through 
which are forced the sand and mud taken in with the food. The wing- 
quills are molted simultaneously, as with the Anatidce, indicating rela- 
tionship with that family. 

182. Phoenicopterus ruber (Lwn.). Flamingo. (Figs. 17, 35.) Ads. 
— Beautiful rosy vermilion, scapulars and underparts somewhat paler; 
flanks carmino; primaries and secondaries black; bill red-tinged at base, 
black at the tip. Im. — Above brownish gray, back with black shaft-streaks, 
scapulars basally pink-tinged; wing-quills black, primary and under wing- 
coverts pinkish ; below paler than above fading to whitish, pink-tinged on the 
belly. L., 45-00; W., 1625; Tar., 1250; B., 5-50. 

Range. — Atlantic coast of subtropical and tropical Am., from the 
Bahamas, and Yucatan to Brazil, and in the Galapagos; extremity of Fla. 
in winter; accidental in S. C. 



SPOONBILLS 217 

Nest, in colonies on mud flats, a truncate cone of mud 8-14 inches in 
height, hollowed on top. Egg, 1, whitish with a chalky deposit, 3'55 x 2*20. 
Date, Andros Is., Bahamas, May 5. 

The Flamingo was formerly a regular winter visitant to the vast 
shoals at the extremity of Florida, but it is now of rare occurrence 
there. (Scott, Auk, VII, pp. 221-226; Ingraham, World's Congress in 
Orn., pp. 59-69.) There are probably two large breeding colonies on 
Andros Island, Bahamas. The nests are placed within a few feet of 
each other, 2,000 being counted in a space one hundred and thirty 
yards long. Both sexes incubate. The period of incubation is about 
four weeks. The young are hatched covered with down and leave the 
nest when two or three days old. They are fed by regurgitation on the 
partially digested juices of a small mollusk of the genus Cerithium, 
which forms apparently the only food of the adult. The note of the 
young is a shrill whistling, that of the adult a goose-like honking. 
In flight the neck is fully extended. 

1902. Chapman, F. M., Bird-Lore, IV, 177-181. 1908. Camps and 
Cruises, 155-191 (nesting habits). 



VII. ORDER HERODIONES. HERONS, STORKS, IBISES, ETC, 

17. Family Plataleid^. Spoonbills. (Fig. 38.) 

The Spoonbills inhabit the warmer parts of the world. Only one 
of the six species is found in America. They frequent the shores both 
on the seacoast and in the interior. They are generally found in flocks 
and they nest in colonies. Spoonbills have the general habits of Ibises, 
but feed by immersing the bill and swinging it from side to side in their 
search for food. They fly with the neck fully extended, and with steady, 
uninterrupted wing-stroke. 

183. Ajaia ajaja (Linn.). Roseate Spoonbill. (Fig. 38.) Ads. — 
Head and throat bare, neck and upper back white, sometimes tinged with 
pink; sides of breast in front of the wings and end half of tail ochraceous- 
buff ; rest of plumage pink; lengthened feathers at the base of the neck darker; 
lesser wing-coverts, upper and under tail-covcrts carmine. Im. — Similar, 
but head and throat feathered, ochraceous-buff and carmine of the adult 
replaced by pink. L., .32-00; W., 14*50; Tar., 4-00; B., 6-25. 

Range. — N. and S. A., from Tex., La., Fla., and Ga. s. to Patagonia 
and the Falkland Islands; formerly casual north to Pa. and the lower Ohio 
Valley (Ind. and Ills.); accidental in Calif., Colo., Kans., and Wise. 

Nest, in colonies, a platform of sticks in small trees, usually about 10 
feet up. Eggs, 3-5, white, spotted and speckled with shades of olive-brown, 
2-57 X 1-73. Dale, Marquesas Key, Fla., .Jan. 11, 1883; s. Fla., Mch. 11; 
Tamiahua Lagoon, Vera Cruz, A[)l. 17, second plumag(» well grown. 

There arc probably not more than a few hundnnl Spoonbills existing 
in Eastern North America, and they arc confined to the southern part 
of Florida. The Spoonbill's flight is rather ibislike, the neck being fully 
extended, but the wing-strokes are not interrupted by short sails. The 



218 IBISES 

pink color is very evident at a great distance, either against sky or 
foliage. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 141, 146 (Fla.). 

18. Family Ibidid^. Ibises. (Fig. 37.) 

Ibises are distributed throughout the warmer parts of the globe; 
they number about thirty species, of which four occur in North America. 
They are usually silent birds, and live in flocks during the entire year. 
They feed along the shores of lakes, bays, and salt-water lagoons, and 
on mud flats over which the tide rises and falls. Their food consists 
principally of crustaceans, frogs, and small fish. They fly with the 
neck extended and their wing-strokes are often followed by a short sail. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Plumage deep chestnut . 186. Glossy Ibis. 

B. Plumage scarlet 185. Scaklet Ibis (Ad.), 

C. Plumage white 184. White Ibis (Ad.). 

D. Back brown, belly white. 

a. Rump white 184. White Ibis (Im.). 

b. Rump like the back . . . . 185. Scablet Ibis (Im.). 

184. Guara alba (Linn.). White Ibis. (Fig. 37.). Ads. — White, the 
tips of the four outer primaries black; bare parts of the head orange-red. 
Im. — Head and neck white, streaked with grayish brown; upper back and 
wings grayish brown; rump, breast and belly white. L., 25*00; W., 11.00; 
Tar., 3-40; B. from N., 4-60. 

Range. — N. and S. A., from L. Calif., Tex., and S. C, s. to West 
Indies, Brazil, and Peru, and casually to Great Salt Lake, S. Dak., Ills., 
Vt., Conn., and L. I.; winters from Giilf of Mex., southward. 

Long Island, two records. 

Nest, in colonies, of reeds and weed stalks, in trees, bushes and reedy 
marshes. Eggs, 3-5, pale greenish white, with chocolate markings generally 
most numerous at the larger end, 2*25 x 1'50. Date, s. Fla., Apl. 2. 

This locally abundant species is generally found in flocks of five or 
six to as many hundred birds which frequent mud flats, marshes, or 
the borders of lagoons. They fly in close rank, and when in large flocks, 
with their snowy plumage glistening in the sunlight and their wing- 
strokes accented by the black-tipped primaries, form a strikingly 
beautiful picture. They progress by alternate flapping and saihng, the 
neck being fully extended. Birds in the brown immature plumage may 
be seen in large flocks in the spring, indicating that the birds do not 
breed until at least their second spring. 

The Scarlet Ibis (185. Guara rubra), a South American species, has 
been recorded from Florida, Louisiana, New Mexico, Colorado and Arizona. 
(See Brewster, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club., VIII, 1883, 185; also Scott, Auk, VI, 
1889, 15.) 

186. Plegadis autumnalis (Hasselq.). Glossy Ibis. ^cZs.— Rich 
chf^stnut, upper aii'I unch^r tail-coverts, back, wings and front of the head 
with greenish and purplish reflections; lores (in skins) blackish. Im. — Head 
and neck fuscous-brown, the feathers laterally margined with white; rest of 



STORKS 219 

underparts dull fuscous-brown; back with greenish reflections. L., 24*00° 
W., 11-50; Tar., 3-10; B., o'OO. 

Range. — Tropical and subtropical regions, mainly of E. Hemisphere. 
Rare and local in se. U. S. from La. to Fla., and in the West Indies; casual 
n. to Mo., Wise, Mich., Ont., and N. S. 

Washington, two records. Long Island, two records. Cambridge, one 
record. May. 

Nest, of rushes, plant stems, etc., in reedy swamps or low bushes. Eggs, 
3, rather deep, dull blue, 2'01 x 1'47. Date, Orange Lake, Fla., Apl. 

Of this once doubtless widely distributed species comparatively 
few individuals remain, and in the New World it is of rare and irregu- 
lar occurrence. 

The White-faced Glossy Ibis {187. Plegadis guarauna), a locally com- 
mon species from Texas westward and southward, has been recorded but once 
from east of the Mississippi, viz., at or near Lake AVashington, Florida, where 
a female was shot on a nest containing three eggs (Brewster, Auk, III, 1886, 
482). This species resembles the Glossy Ibis, but adults have the region 
about the base of the bill white. 

19. Family Ciconiid^. Storks 

The nineteen known species of this family are distributed through- 
out the world, but only three are found in the Western Hemisphere, 
and of these but one occurs north of Mexico. The Common Stork 
(Ciconia ciconia) of Europe, the Adjutant (Leptoptilus duhius) of 
India, and Marabou (L. crumeniferus) of Africa are the best known 
of the Old World species. The Marabou feathers of commerce are from 
the last-named species. 

WTiile terrestrial in feeding habit. Storks usually nest some distance 
above the ground. They perch readily in trees and in this respect differ 
from Cranes, with which, however, they agree in flying with the neck 
fully extended. The young are hatched with but a scanty covering 
of down and are reared in the nest, Storks, in this respect, resembUng 
Herons rather than Cranes. They are essentially voiceless. 

188. Mycteria americana Linn. Wood Ibis. Ads. — Head and neck 
bare; primaries, secondaries and tail glossy greenish black, rest of plumage 
white. Im. — Head more or less feathered; head and neck grayish brown, 
blacker on the nape; rest of plumage as in the adult, but more or less marked 
with grayish; wings and tail less greenish, L., 40"00; W., 18'00; Tar., 7"60; 
B. from N., 8-00. 

Range. — Temperate and tropical Am. from s. Calif., Ariz., Tex., Ohio 
Valley, and S. C, s. to Argentina; casual n. to Mont., Wise, N. Y. and Vt. 

Washington, casual in July. Long Island, one record. 

Nesc, in colonies, a platform of sticks in trees. Eggs, 2-3, dull white with 
a soft calcareous deposit, 2"75 x r75. Date, Brevard Co., Fla., Mch. 14. 

This is a locally common species in Florida. 

20. Family Ardeid^e. Herons and Bitterns. (Fig. 36.) 

This family contains about one hundred species distributed in most 
parts of the globe, but more numerously in the intertropical regions. 



220 HERONS AND BITTERNS 

Generally speaking, Herons are gregarious, nesting and roosting in 
flocks. While feeding they are more solitary, but each night they 
regularly return to roost with their kind in a "rookery." Bitterns do 
not associate in flocks, and are generally found singly or in pairs. As a 
rule, they feed in grassy marshes, while Herons more commonly resort 
to the shores of lakes, rivers, bays, or salt-water lagoons. Herons perch, 
and usually nest in trees; Bitterns rarely or never do. Some species 
secure their food of frogs, fish, small reptiles, etc., by standing rigidly 
motionless and waiting for it to come within striking distance, or by 
wading for it with the utmost caution. Others run rapidly and noisily 
through the water, trusting to their agility and the rapidity of their 
spearlike thrusts to supply their wants. Herons", unlike our Ibises and 
Cranes, fly with their folded neck drawn in between their shoulders. 
Their voice is a hoarse squawk. The young are born with a scanty 
covering of long, filamentous down and are reared in the nest. In 
feeding, young Herons, and possibly also young Bitterns, take a scissor- 
like grasp of the base of the parent's bill with their own, when the 
parent disgorges food into the nest or skillfully into the mouth of the 
young. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing over 13-00. 

A. Plumage pure white. 

a. Wing 17'00 or over; feathers on the lower neck long, narrow. 

192. Great White Heron. 
6. Wing under 17"00; neck-feathers not lengthened. 

196. Am. Egret. 

B. Upperparts generally slaty or grayish blue. 

1946. Ward's Heron. 194. Great Blue Heron. 
II. Wing under IS'OO. 

1. Crown without streaks. 

A. Crown white or whitish. 

a. Wing over 11*00. 

fli. Plumage entirely or mostly white .... 198. Reddish Egret. 

a2. Plumage gray streaked with black; throat and sides of neck. 

black 203. Yellow-crowned Night Heron. 

b. Wing under 11 -00. 

61. Plumage pure white; legs and bill black; feet yellow. 

197. Snowy Heron. 

62. Tips of primaries slate-color; plumage white, sometimes irregu- 

larly marked with slaty blue . 200. Little Blue Heron (Im.) 

B. Crown not white or whitish. 

a. Crown umber or reddish brown. 

a'. Head and neck reddish brown; body slate-color. 

198. Reddish Egret. 
a2. Neck conspicuously streaked; body variegated. 

190. Am. Bittern. 
6. Crown not umber or reddish brown. 

b^. Crown slaty or slato-I)lue with sometimes a purplish cast. 
6^. Wing-coverts more or less margined with rvifous. 

199. Louisiana Heron. 
63. Wing-coverts without rufous . . 200. Little Blue Heron. 
ci. Crown not slaty, but greenish or bluish black. 
c2. Wing over 10*00; entire undorparts pure white. 

202. Black-crowned Night Heron. 



HERONS AND BITTERNS 221 

d2. Wing under 10-00. 

d^ Wing-coverts green 201. Little Green Heron. 

e^. Wing-coverts rufous-chestnut and buff. 
e^. Underparts buffy, more or less streaked. 

191. Least Bittern. 
e^. Underparts rufous-chestnut. 

191.1 Cory's Least Bittern. 
2. Crown streaked. 

A. Wing under lO'OO ; upperparts greenish 201. Little Green Heron. 

B. Wing over 10*00 ; upperparts brownish or blackish brown streaked 

with white. 
a. Upperparts light brown; outer edge of primaries reddish. 

202. Black-crowned Night Heron (Im.). 
6. Back dark brown; crown nearly black with white streaks; prima- 
ries dark slate-color. 

203. Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Im.). 

190. Botaurus lentiginosus (Montag.). American Bittern. Ads. — 
A glossy black streak on each side of upper neck; top of head and back of 
neck bluish slate, more or less washed with buffy; back brown, bordered 
and irregularly mottled with buffy, and buffy ochraceous, ^\'ing-coverts 
similarly marked, but ground color grayer; underparts creamy buff, the 
feathers all widely streaked with buffy brown, which is finely speckled with 
buffy and narrowly margined by brownish gray. Im. — Similar, but buffy 
everywhere deeper and more ochraceous. L., 28'00; W., 10'50; Tar., 3'50; 
B., 3-00. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, s. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, 
8. Ungava, and N. F., s. to s. Calif., n. Ariz., Kans., the Ohio Valley and N. 
C, and less frequently in s. U. S.; -ndnters from Calif., Ariz. s. Tex., the 
Ohio Valley, and Va. s. to Cuba and Guatemala, and casually to the Bahamas, 
Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Great Britain. 

Washington, rather! common W. V., July lo-Apl. 30. Long Island, 
common T. V., Apl. 16-May 5; Aug. 4-Dec. 11. Ossining, rare S. R., Apl. 
11-Oct. 5. Cambridge, common T. V., breeds locally, Apl. 15-Oct. 20. N. 
Ohio, tolerably common S. R., Apl. 1-Oct. 1. Glen Ellyn, fairly common 
S. R., Apl. 9-Nov. 1. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 8. 

Nest, of grasses, etc., on the ground in marshes. Eggs, 3-5, pale olive- 
buff, 1*90 X r45. Date, Cambridge, May 5; Pewaukee, Wise, May 23. 

The Bittern makes its home in extensive grassy meadows vdth 
plenty of water, but in the season of migration may be found and 
heard "booming" in smaller and more accessible swampy places. Like 
the other members of its family, it excels in standing still, and will hold 
its head erect and motionless amid the tall grass till the watcher tires 
of looking and pronounces the suspicious object nothing but a stick 
after all. The Bittern's fame rests upon its vocal performance, or 
''boom." This is sometimes exactly Uke the working of an old-fashioned 
wooden pump, and sometimes — even with the same bird — like the 
driving of a stake in a bog. It can be heard for a long distance. The 
performance is best witnessed in spring, while the grass is still low. 
That it is not so very difficult at that season to steal a march upon 
the bird may perhaps be considered as established on the testimony 
of a man who has never lived near a Bittern meadow, and yet has 
watched the performance at much length and at near range on several 
occasions. His first experience of this kind is described somewhat 
fully in The Auk, Vol. VI., page 1. The strange notes are delivered 



222 HERONS AND BITTERNS 

with equally strange contortions, as if the bird were horribly nauseated, 
and are preceded by a succession of quick snapping or gulping sounds — 
"hiccoughs," one observer has called them. No water is employed 
in the operation, in spite of the circumstantial assertions of several 
persons who profess to have seen the bird swallowing and then 
ejecting it. Bradford Torrey. 

Brewster, Wm., Auk, 1911, 90-100 (display of plumes). 

191. Ixobrychus exilis (Gmel.). Least Bittern. Ad.(?. — Top of head, 
back and tail shining black; back of neck chestnut-rufous; most of the greater 
wing-coverts and outer vanes of the secondaries darker; lesser wing-coverts 
and part of greater ones buffy; underparts, including under tail-coverts, 
washed with buffy; a blackish patch at each side of the breast. Ad. $. — 
Similar, but head browner and back light, glossy umber; underparts darker 
and more or less streaked with brownish. Im. cf. — Similar to ad. cf , but the 
back washed and tipped with chestnut; underparts darker and lightly 
streaked with black. Im. 9. — Similar to ad. 9, but the back rufous, mar- 
gined with buffy ochraceous. L., IS'OO; W., 4'60; Tar., I'GO; B., 1*80. 

Range. — Temperate N. A., and n. S. A. Breeds from s. Ore., s. Sask. 
s. Man., s. Que., and N. S. s. to the West Indies and Brazil; winters 
from Fla. and Gulf of Mex., southward. 

Washington, not very numerous S. R., May 5-Sept. 25. Long Island, 
common S. R., May-Sept. Ossining, tolerably common S. R,., to Aug. 10. 
Cambridge, local S. R., May 15-Aug. 1. N. Ohio, not common S. R., Apl. 
20-Sept. 20. Glen Ellyn, local S. R., late spring and summer records only. 
SE. Minn., common S. R. 

Nest, a platform of grasses, reeds, etc., in marshes among rushes, some- 
times in a small bush, usually over water. Eggs, 3-6, pale bluish white, 
1-20 X ;92. Date, Ft. Thompson, Fla., Mch. 25; Mt. Pleasant, S. C., May 1; 
Cambridge, June 1; Pewaukee, Wise, May 27. 

Wet, grassy marshes such as Rail love, or reed-grown ponds that 
Gallinules frequent, are the resorts of these retiring, secretive Uttle 
birds. With outstretched necks and lowered heads they make their 
way without difficulty through the jungle of roots and stalks. Some- 
times they climb up a slender reed, and, hanging on like Marsh Wrens, 
survey theii; surroundings. They take wing almost from beneath one's 
feet, and, with a low, frightened qua, fly slowly for a short distance and 
then drop back into the grass. During the breeding season one may 
hear what presumably is the voice of only the male — a soft, slowly 
repeated, dovelike coo, coo, coo, coo, coo. It floats over the marsh Uke' 
the voice of a spirit bird. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 62-75 (nesting). 

191.1. Ixobrychus neoxenus {Cory). Cory's Least Bittern. Ad. 
cf. — Above shining groonish black, tail the same; wings black, their coverts 
rich chestnut; underparts chestnut, sides black. Ad. 9. — Similar but black 
area duller, chestnut areas slightlv paler, W., 4*30; Tar., 1'40; B., 1.80. (See 
Chapman, Auk, 1S90, 11-19.) 

Range. — Imperfectly known. Breeds in s. Ont. and s. Fla.; occurs 
casually in Mass., Mich., and Wise. 

Nest, "of willow twigs, lined with maiden cane leaves; in a low bush two 
and a half feet above the water." Young two-thirds grown, Lake Flirt, 
Fla., June 8, 1890. (Scott, Auk, 1891, 309.) 



HERONS AND BITTERNS 223 

Twerty-four specimens of this species have been recorded, of which 
five are from Florida and sixteen from the vicinity of Toronto. It 
resembles the Least Bittern in haunts and habits, but I know of no 
description of its notes. Its rarity, sporadic distribution, and albinistic 
tendencies, indicative of physical degeneration, suggest that it is a 
decadent species on the verge of extinction. 

1896. Chapman, F. M., Auk, XIII, 11-19 (historical). 1901. Fleming, 
J. H., Auk, XVIII, 106 (nesting); XIX, 77 (Toronto records). 

192. Ardea occidentalis Aud. Great White Heron. Ads. — Entirely 
white; in breeding plumage, with long, narrow, stiffened feathers on the 
back and lower foreneck, and two narrow plumes on the back of the crown, 
"L., 45-00-O400; W., 17-00-21-00; B., 6-00-7-00; Tar.,v8-00-8-75" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Region bordering Gulf of Mex. from s. Fla. s. to Cuba, Jamaica, 
and Yucatan; casual n. to Anclote River and Micco, Fla. 

Nest, in small colonies, a platform of sticks usually in mangrove bushes. 
Eggs, 3-4, pale, dull blue, 2-50 x I'SO. Date, Florida Keys, Jan. and Feb. 

This is a common species on the coasts of southern Florida, par- 
ticularly in the vicinity of Cape Sable. Rarely it is found as far north 
as the Anclote River on the west coast and Micco on the east coast. 
This bird is as large as the Great Blue Heron, and must not be con- 
fused with Herodias egretta, to which the name Great White Heron is 
frequently applied. 

Ardea wucrdmanni Baird has been considered to be a color phase 
of this species, but its true standing is unknown. It may be described 
as a Ward's Heron with a whitish head and neck, and is thus inter- 
mediate between occidentalis and wardi. On March 27, 1908, on Clive 
Key, southeast of Cape Sable, I found two young Ward's Herons and 
one pure white bird in the same nest. One of the parents was Ardea 
occidentalis, the identity of the other was not ascertained. 

1905. Job, H. K., Wild Wings, 27. 

194. Ardea herodias herodias Linn. Great Blue Heron. Ads. in 
breeding plumage. — Center of crown and throat white, sides of crown bhick, 
this color meeting on l)ack of head, where the feathers are lengthened to 
form an occipital crest; neck pale grayish brown, a narrow black, white, and 
ochraceous line down the middle of the foreneck; feathers of lower foreneck 
narrow and much lengthened, whitish with sometimes l)lack streaks; back, 
wing-coverts, and tail slaty gray, the scapulars paler, narrow and much 
lengthened; bend of wing ch(>stnut-rufous; a patch of black and white 
feathers on side of })reast; breast and belly streaked with black and white and 
sometimes pale rufous; feathers on legs dull rufous, legs and feet black, 
upper mandible olive-yellow, the culmen blackish; lower mandible y(>llow; 
lores blue. 7m. — Similar, but entire crown black, throat white, neck brown- 
ish gray washed with buffy ochraceous; no black at sides of the breast or 
plumes on the lower neck; underparts streaked with black, slaty, white and 
ochraceoiis; bend of wings and feathers on legs paler; back slaty grayish 
brown without lengthened phimes. "L., 42-00-50-00; W., 17'90-19*85; 
B., 4-30-6-25; Tar., 6-00-8-00" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — W. Hemisphere. Tireeds from se. B. C, cen. Alberta, cen. 
Man., n. Ont., and Prince Edward Island s. to s. L. Calif., n. Tex., and S. 
Atlantic States (except Fla.); winters from Ore., the Ohio Valley, and Middle 
States s. to the West Indies, Panama, and Venezuela. 



224 HERONS AND BITTERNS 

Washington, rather common, absent only in midwinter. Long Island, 
common T. V., Apl. and May; Aug.-Dec. (Dutcher). Ossining, common 
T. v., Apl. 4-Apl. 18; Aug. 16-Oct. 6. Cambridge, uncommon T. V., Apl. 
1-Mayl; Sept. 1-Oct. 20; occasional in winter. N. Ohio, tolerably com- 
mon S. R., Mch. 20-Oct. 10. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., Apl. 3-26; 
Aug. 3-Oct. 24. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 26-Oct. 1. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, generally in colonies, usually in tall trees, 
sometimes on the ground on islets. Eggs, 3-4, pale, dull blue, 2*50 x 1*50. 
Date, Coast S. C, Mch. 20; Oneida Co., N. Y., May 1; SE. Minn., Apl. 28. 

Is it due to the influence of the artists of the Orient that these 
long-legged, long-necked birds are so frequently miscalled "Cranes?" 
With head drawn in and legs trailing on behind, they flap slowly over 
the water, resembling, no doubt, the "Cranes" of fans, screens, and 
bronzes; nevertheless, they are Herons. With all a Heron's immovable 
alertness they watch patiently for passing fish, sometimes wading with 
extreme caution, placing one foot slowly after the other. They feed 
both by day and night. Fishes, frogs, reptiles, even small mice, all 
are welcome; and all are powerless to escape the Hghtning thrust of 
the spearlike bill. Their voice is harsh and rasping. When alarmed 
they utter a croak which is sometimes prolonged into a series of squawks. 
They nest and roost in colonies, but at other times are soHtary birds. 

194.b. A. h. wardi {Ridgw.). Waed's Heron. The Florida repre- 
sentative of vl. h. herodias. The average differences in color between it and 
A. h. herodias consist in its whiter lower parts, darker neck, and olive instead 
of black legs. These differences, however, cannot always be relied upon, 
and size is the character by which the two birds can best be distinguished, 
wardi being the larger, as the following measurements show; L., 52*00; W,, 
19-75-20-50; B., 6*40-6-80; Tar., 8*00-8*50. 

Range. — Fla. and the Gulf coast to Tex. 

Nest, in colonies, a platform of sticks, usually in trees, sometimes bushes, 
generally over water. Eggs, 3^, pale, dull blue, 2*65 x 1*85. Date, Tarpon 
Springs, Fla., Jan. 20. 

This is the Florida form of the Great Blue Heron, which it resembles 
in habits. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 119-122 (nesting). 

The European Great Blue Heron (195. Ardea cinerea) is accidental 
in southern Greenland. It may be distinguished from our species by the 
white instead of rufous feathers on the legs. 

196. Herodias egretta (Gmel.). Egret. Ads. in breeding plumage. — 
Entire plumage pure white; about fifty straight 'aigrette' plumes grow from 
the interscapular region and reach beyond the tail; legs and feet black; bill 
yellow; lores orange, bordered below by greenish. Ads. after the breeding 
season and Im. — Without the interscapular plumes. L., 41*00; W., 15*00; 
Tar., 5*60; B., 4.50. 

Range. — Temperate and tropical Am. Breeds in Ore. and Calif., and 
from N. C, Fla., the Gulf coast, and Mex. s. to Patagonia; formerly bred 
n. to N. J. and Wise; winters from the Gulf of Mex. southward; casual to 
Man., Que., N. Y-, New England, and N. S. 

Washington, not common and irregular S. R., May-Aug. Long Island, 
rare from July-Oct. Ossining, A. V. N. Ohio, tolerably common S. R., 
Mch. 20-Oct. 10. SE. Minn. A. V. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, in colonies, in trees or bushes over water. 



HERONS AND BITTERNS 225 

Eggs, 3-5, dull blue, of a rather deeper shade than those of the preceding, 
2-25 X 1-60. Date, s. Fla., Feb.; Santee, S. C, Apl. 5. 

Tourists who went to Florida prior to 1880 have told me of prairies 
white with Egrets, of bushy islands glistening in the sun like snow 
banks. Now you may look for miles along a lake shore and perhaps 
in the distance see a sohtary Egret, which, as you approach, with a 
frightened squawk takes wing a rifle-shot away. The rapid exter- 
mination of these plume-bearing birds is starthng e\ddence of man's 
power in the animal world. xA.t his word a species is almost immediately 
wiped out of existence. I have heard a "plume-hunter" boast of killing 
three hundred Herons in a "rookery" in one afternoon. Another proudly 
stated that he and his companions had killed one hundred and thirty 
thousand birds — Herons, Egrets, and Terns — during one winter. The 
destruction of these birds is a blot on Florida's history. 

1887. Scott, W. E. D., Auk, IV, 135 (destruction in Fla.). 1905. Job, 
H. K., Wild Wings, 134-149 (habits, destruction).— 1908. Chapman, F. 
M., Camps and Cruises, 122-134 (nesting). 

197. Egretta candidissima candidissima (GmeL). Snowy Egret. 
Ads. in breeding plumage. — Entire plumage pure white; about fiftj^ recurved 
'aigrette' plumes grow from the interscapular region and reach to or just 
beyond the end of the tail; legs black, feet yellow, bill black, yellow at the 
base; lores orange-yellow. Ads. after the breeding season and Im. — Without 
the interscapular plumes. L., 24*00; W., 9*75; Tar., 3-80; B., 3-20. 

Range. — Temperate and tropical Am. Formerly bred from Ore., Nebr., 
Ind., Ills., and N. J. s. to Chile and Argentina; now breeds locally in the U. 
S. from N. C, to La.; winters from Fla., southward; casual in B. C, Ont., 
Mass., and N. S. 

Washington, casual; irregular in fall. Long Island, rare S. R. May- 
Sept. Ossining, A. V. 

A^e.s^ a platfom of sticks, in colonies, in bushes over water. Eggs, 3-5, 
pale, dull blue, 1*80 x r20. Date, s. Fla., March; Coast S. C, May 5. 

The "curse of beauty" has numbered the days of this the most 
dainty and graceful of Herons. Formerly it was abundant in the South, 
now it is the rarest of its family. The delicate 'aigrettes' which it 
donned as a nuptial dross were its death warrant. Woman demanded 
from the bird its wedding plumes, and man has supplied the demand. 
The Florida Egrets are near the verge of extermination and now he 
is pursuing the helpless birds to the uttermost parts of the earth. 
Mercilessly they are shot down at their roosts or nesting-grounds, the 
coveted feathers are stripped from their backs, the carcasses are loft 
to rot, while the young in the nest above are starving. Consular reports 
show that in 1898 the plumes of about 1,538,000 White Herons were 
shipped from Venezuela alone. 

198. Dichromanassa rufescens (GmeL). Reddish Egret. Ads. dark 
phase. — Head and nock nifous-rliestnut, glossed with vinaccous; rest of 
plumage dark bhiish slate-color; about thirty 'aigrette' i)lumes grow from 
interscapular region and reach beyond tail; legs and feet black. Im. — Simi- 
lar, but without 'aigrette' plumes. White phase. — Similar in size and form, 
but entire plumage white, except tips of primaries, which are sometimes very 



226 HERONS AND BITTERNS 

finely speckled with grayish. Im. — Similar, but without 'aigrette' plumes, 
L., 29-00; W., 12-50; Tar., 5-40; B., S'GO. 

Remarks.— The two color phases of this bird were supposed to represent 
two species, the white phase being called Ardea pealei Bonap. They have, 
however, been found mated together, and intermediates or parti-colored 
specimens are known. 

Range. — S. N. Am. Breeds from L. Calif, and Gulf of Mex. to Jamaica 
and Guatemala; winters from s." Fla. southward; casual in Colo, and s. Ills. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, singly or in colonies, in bushes generally over 
salt-water. Eggs, 2-4, pale, dull blue, 1'95 x 1*45. Date, Tampa Bay, Apl. 

This is now a rare bird on the coasts of southern Florida and it is 
occasionally seen in the interior; the reddish phase prevailing. It is a 
graceful, active fisher and instead of waiting for its prey to come within 
spearing distance, pursues it rapidly through the shallow water. 

199. Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis (Gosse). Louisiana Heron. 
Ads. — Upperparts dark bluish slate-color ; back of head and upper neck with 
elongated chestnut-rufous and white feathers ; back with pale brownish gray 
'aigrette' plumes reaching to tail; lower back, rump and belly white; neck 
bluish slate-color; throat white, an indistinct rufous line dov/n the middle 
of foreneck; legs blackish; base of bill and lores bluish. Im. — Throat, and 
an indistinct line down the foreneck, white; rest of head and neck brownish 
rufous; upper back and wings bluish slate-color, more or less washed with 
brownish rufous; no plumes; lower back, rump and belly white; breast with 
more or less slaty streaks; legs yellow behind, blackish before; lower mandible 
and lores orange; upper mandible black. L., 26-00; W., lO'OO; Tar., 3*70; 
B., 3-90. 

Range. — S. N. Am. Breeds from N. C, and the Gulf States to the West 
Indies, Mex. (both coasts), and Cen. Am.; winters from S. C. southward; 
casual in Ind., N. J., and L. I. 

Long Island, one record. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, in colonies, in bushes or smaU trees over water. 
Eggs, 3-4, pale, dull blue, 1 -75 x 1-35. Date, s. Fla., Apl. 1 ; Santee, S. C, Apl. 20. 

The Louisiana Heron has fortunately never found favor with the 
milliners and consequently is doubtless as abundant today as it ever 
was; rookeries containing thousands of birds being not uncommon in 
Florida. It flies with its neck less drawn in than do our other Herons, 
and its sharply defined white abdomen is a further excellent field-mark. 
It is very noisy and excitable when mating and nesting, and when 
challenging a rival the neck-feathers are so erected and ruffled that the 
bird seems to be wearing a feather boa. It is sometimes a slow, stealthy 
feeder, and at others dashes for its prey. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 143. 

200. Florida cserulea cserulea (Linn.). Little Blue Heron. Ads. — 
Head and neck maroon-chestnut; rest of plumage dark bluish slate-color; in- 
terscapulars and lower neck feathers lengthened and narrowly pointed ; lores 
blue; legs and feet black. Im. — White, plumage sometimes more or less 
washed with slaty; tips of the primaries always bluish slate-color; legs, feet 
and lores greenish yellow. L., 22-00; W., 10-25; Tar., 3-70; B., 3-00. 

Remarks. — Between the young and adult there is every stage of inter- 
gradation of color, some specimens being irrcgvilarly marked with blue and 
white in about equal proportions. Young birds are sometimes mistaken for 
Snowy Herons, but can always be distinguished l:)y the greenish yellow legs 
and slaty tips of the primaries. They breed in the white plumage. 



HERONS AND BITTERNS 227 

Range. — N. and S. Am. Formerly bred from Mo., Ind., Ills., and N. J. to 
w. Mex. and s. to Argentina and Peru; in the U. S. now breeds locally in the 
Gulf states and n. to S. C; after breeding season wanders casually to Nebr., 
Wise, Ont., New England, and N. S.; winters from S. C. southward. 

Washington, casual in July and Aug.; sometimes quite common. Long 
Island, rare from Apl.-Sept. Cambridge, casual. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, in colonies, in bushes or small trees over water. 
Eggs, 3-4, pale, dull blue, 1*70 x 1*30. Date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 1; coast 
S. C, Apl. 23. 

Thanks to their lack of 'aigrette' plumes Little Blue Herons are 
one of the most common Herons in Florida today. They are gen- 
erally found in flocks, sometimes composed entirely of blue adults, 
sometimes of white, immature birds, and at others both young and old 
are associated. I have seen a few white-plumaged birds nesting in colon- 
ies composed of blue adults. The white birds resemble E. candidissima, 
but the color of their legs and feet serves as a distinguishing character 
at some distance. They are silent when feeding, but when undisturbed 
in their rookeries, each bird seems to have something to say, and the 
result is a strange chorus of croaking voices. They feed by day, and 
generally wait for their prey to come within striking distance. 

201. Butorides virescens virescens (Linn,). Little Green Heron. 
(Fig. 36.) Ads. — Crown and a short line below eye glossy greenish black; 
throat buffy white, this color extending down foreneck as a narrow line 
mixed with blackish, widening on breast; rest of head and neck rufous- 
chestnut glossed with vinaceous; back, with lengthened interscapulars, 
green, more or less washed with bluish gray; wing-coverts green, margined 
with white or buffy; belly ashy gray, more or less washed with buffy. Im. — 
Similar, but with neck and underparts streaked with blackish; back without 
lengthened feathers or wash of blue-gray; wing-coverts widely margined 
with buffy ochraceous. L., IT'OO; W., 7-25; Tar., 1*90; B., 2-50. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from s. S. D., n. Wise, s. Ont., s. Que., 
and N. S. s. to the West Indies; winters from the West Indies southward, 
and rarely in se. U. S. ; casual in Colo. 

Washington, very common S. R., Apl. 9-Sept. 15. Long Island, common 
S. R., Apl. to Oct. Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 6-Sept. 26. Cambridge, 
common S. R., May 1-Sept. 30. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 14-Nov. 15. 
Glen Ellyn, fairly common S. R., Apl. 25-Aug. 31 and doubtless later. SE. 
Minn., uncommon S. R., Apl. 23-Sopt. 25. 

Nest, a platform of sticks in a bush or low branch of a tree. Eggs, 3-6, 
pale, dull blue, ToO x 1*14. Date, San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 25; Chester Co., 
Pa., Apl. 30; Cambridge, May 10. 

The shores of wooded streams or ponds are frequented by this small 
Heron in preference to more exposed situations. It is most active in 
the early morning or at nightfall, during the day it rests quietly in some 
sheltered situation. When startled, it springs into the air with a fright- 
ened skeow or explosive whistle, and, alighting at a safe distance on a 
tree or on some elevated porch, with upstretched nock watches the 
intruder, betraying its approhnnsion by nervous twitchings of the tail. 
It is a solitary bird, and, unlike most Herons, is not found in flocks, 
and usually nests alone, though as many as a dozen pairs may somotimos 
be found associated. In the mating season it utters a surprising variety 
of hen-like notes and a hoarse, choking gulp. 



228 HERONS AND BITTERNS 

202. Nyeticorax nyctieorax nsevijis (Bodd.). Black - crowned 
Night Heron. Ads. — Forehead, lores, neck and underparts white or 
whitish; crown, upper back and scapulars glossy, greenish black; lower 
back, wings and tail ashy gray; legs and feet yellow; lores greenish; two or 
three white rounded occipital plumes about 8*00 in length. Int. — Upper- 
parts grayish brown, the feathers streaked or with wedge-shaped spots of 
white or buffy; outer web of primaries pale rufous; underparts white, 
streaked with blackish. L., 24-00; W., 12-00; Tar., 3-20; B., 3-00. 

Range. — N. and S. Am. Breeds from n. Ore., s. Wyoming, s. Man., n. 
Que., and N. S, s. to Patagonia; winters from n. Calif, and Gulf States 
southward ; casual in winter n. to Mass. and s. Ills. 

Washington, not uncommon S. R., occasional in winter. Long Island, 
S. R., Apl. 12-Sept. 29; a few winter. Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 6-Oct. 
20. Cambridge, formerly P. R., now found sparingly chiefly in late sum- 
mer and early fall; Apl. 10-Nov. 1, N. Ohio, occasional in summer. Glen 
Ellyn, quite common S. R., Apl. 8-Oct. 15. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., 
May 15. 

Nest, of sticks, in colonies, in the upperparts of tall trees, sometimes in 
bushes or on the ground. Eggs, 3-6, pale, dull blue, 2-00 x 1-40. Date, 
San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 29; Chester Co., Pa., May 3; Ossining, N. Y., May 7. 

These birds live in colonies composed sometimes of thousands of 
pairs. Their day begins after sunset, when they leave their roosts and 
start for their feeding-grounds. Occasionally they utter a loud, hoarse 
quawk, the origin of their common name; and looking up we may 
catch a glimpse of them hurr3n.ng through the gloom. During the 
nesting-season the demands of the young force them to feed both by 
day and night. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 76-85 (nesting on 
L.L). 

203. Nyctanassa violacea (Linn.). Yellow-crowned Night Heron. 
Ads. — Crown white, generally washed with buffy; ear-coverts white; rest of 
head and throaty black; neck, breast and belly blue-gray; back the same; 
the lengthened interscapulars, scapulars and wing-coverts streaked with 
black; two or three black and white rounded occipital plumes; lores greenish 
yellow; legs greenish. Im. — Crown black, the feathers streaked with white 
or buffy; rest of upperparts, including wing-coverts, fuscous-brown with 
wedge-shaped buffy or white spots; primaries dark bluish slate-color without 
rufous; underparts white or buffy streaked with blackish. L., 23-00; W., 
12-00; Tar., 3'75; B., 3-00. 

Remarks. — Young birds bear a general resemblance to those of the pre- 
ceding species, but differ in being darker, in having the head darker than the 
back, and the primaries without rufous. 

Range. — Warm temperate and tropical Am. Breeds from s. L. Calif., 
Kans., s. Ills., s. Ind., and S. C. s. to Brazil and Peru; casual n. to Colo., 
Ont., Mass., Maine, and N. S.; winters from s. L. Calif., and s. Fla., 
southward. 

Washington, A. V., one record, Aug. 1901. Long Island, three records. 
Cambridge, A. V., one record, July. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, in pairs or small colonies, generally on a 
branch over water. Eggs, 4-5, pale dull blue, 1'95 x 1*45. Date, San Mateo, 
Fla., Apl. 2; eoast, S. C, Apl. 20. 

This is a less common species than the preceding. It nests in paira 
along the borders of wooded streams and is also found nesting in asso- 
ciation with other Herons. 



CRANES 229 

Vin. ORDER PALUDICOLZE. CRANES, RAILS, ETC. 

21. Family Gruid^. Cranes. (Fig. 40.) 

The Cranes number nineteen species, of which three are North 
American, while the remaining sixteen inhabit the Old World. They 
frequent plains and marshes, and are omnivorous feeders, eating frogs, 
lizards, field-mice, snakes, etc., and various kinds of vegetable food. 
Our species migrate in flocks, but are sohtary rather than gregarious 
at other times of the year. Their voice is loud and resonant. Unlike 
the Herons, they fly with the neck fully extended. The nest is placed 
in the ground, and the eggs number two or, rarely, three. The young, 
again unhke Herons, are born covered with down and leave the nest 
shortly after birth. 

204. Grus americana {Linn.). Whooping Crane. Ad. — Top of 
head, lores and sides of the throat dull red, with a thin growth of black 
'hairs'; primaries black, rest of the plumage white. Im. — Similar, but 
whole head feathered, and plumage more or less washed with buffy ochra- 
ceous. L., 50-00; W., 25-00; Tar., 11-50; B., 5-00. 

Range. — N. Am. Bred formerly from N. Mackenzie s. to Ills, and Iowa; 
now mainly restricted to s. Mackenzie and n. Sask. ; in migration, formerly 
not rare on the Atlantic coast from New England to Fla. and casual west to 
Colo, and Idaho; winters from the western Gulf States to cen. Mex, 
SE. Minn., T. V., Mch 3. 

Nest, an islet of grasses and weed stalks, in marshy places. Eggs, 2, 
olive-gray, spotted and blotched with distinct and obscure cinnamon- 
brown markings, 4*00 x 2-50. Date, Dubuque, Iowa, Apl. 25, 1868. 

This is now one of the rarest of North American birds. There are 
no recent records of its nesting. 'Tn flight their long necks and stiltlike 
legs are stretched out in a line with the body to the full extent, moving 
strongly with slowly beating wings, but not swiftly, . . . often cir- 
cUng spiral-like to a great height. They occasionally bunch up, and I 
have seen them in triangular form; but as a rule they travel in single 
file, following their leader in a wavy line, croaking as they go, like 
hounds upon a cold trail." (Goss). 

The Little Brown Crane {205. Grus canadensis) breeds from Hudson 
Bay to Alaska, and winters in Texas and Mexico. There are but two instances 
of its occurrence east of the Mississippi (Rho<le Island and South Carolina). 
It resembles G. mexicana, but is smaller; W., 18-50; B., 4-10. 

206. Grus mexicana {Miill.). Sandhill Crane. (Fig. 40.) Ad. — 
Whole top of the head to below the eyes covered with rough, minutely 
warty, dull reddish skin thinly grown with short, black 'hairs'; i)luni:ige 
brownish gray, with more or less silvery gray and huffy ochraccous. Im. — 
Similar, but whole head f(!athered, and with more biiffv ochraceons in the 
plumage. "L., 40-00-48-00; W., 21-83; Tar., 10-25; B., .5-47" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N. A. Resident in La. and Fla.; bred, formerly, from s. 
B. C, Sask., Man., and w. Ont. s. to Calif., Colo., Nebr., Ills., 'and Ohio; 
formerly in migration e. to New England; now rare e. of the Miss., except in 
Fla., and rare as a breeder in the s. half of its former breeding range; winters 
from Calif., Tex., and La. s. to Mex. 

Washington, A. V., one record. SE. Minn., T. V., Mch. 29. 



230 COURLANS 

Nest, an islet, of roots, rushes, weed stalks, etc., in marshy places. Eggs, 
2, olive-gray, spotted and blotched with distinct and obscure cinnamon- 
brown markings, 3"90 x 2'40. Date, Lantana, Fla., Mch. 2; Dubuque, Iowa, 
May 11, 1865. 

Thanks to the preserving influences of peninsulation, this splendid 
bird is still common in south-central Florida, where its loud, resonant 
trumpeting is one of the characteristic bird-notes. It feeds about the 
borders of sloughs in the prairies and pines and particularly over 
burned areas, and is one of the most wary of birds. 

''During courtship and the early breeding season their actions and 
antics at times are ludicrous in the extreme, bowing and leaping high in 
the air, hopping, skipping, and circling about with drooping wings and 
croaking whoop, an almost indescribable dance and din, in which the 
females (an exception to the rule) join, all working themselves up into 
a fever of excitement only equaled by an Indian war dance, and, like 
the same, it stops only when the last one is exhausted" (Goss). 

22. Family Aramid^. CoimLANS. (Fig. 41.) 

Courlans might be called large Rails with some of the habits of 
Herons. Two species are known, Aramus scolopaceus of South America, 
and A. vodferus of Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, and 
Florida. They frequent the borders of wooded streams and swamps, 
and at times the uplands. Their flight is short, and when on the wing 
their legs dangle below them. Like the Herons, they perch in trees. 
Their prolonged, melancholy call has won for them the name "Crying- 
bird." Their usual note is a loud, rather high wah-ree-ow; the last 
syllable is drawn out into a wail, and the effect is most grewsome. 
Courlans feed to a large extent on land shells (Ampullaria) , and, as 
Barrows has shown, the tip of the Courlan's biU is sometimes turned 
slightly to one side, an evident result of forcing it into the spiral open- 
ing of the shell to extract the animal. 

207. Aramus vociferus (Lath.). Limpkin. (Fig. 41.) Ads. — Glossy 
olive-brown, the feathers of the head and neck narrowly, those of the body 
broadly, striped with white; wings and tail more bronzy. Im. — Similar, 
but paler and duller. L., 28-00; W., IS'OO; Tar., 4-50; B., 4-25. 

Range. — Fla. Greater Antilles, and both coasts of Can, Am.; casual n. 
to S. C; accidental in Tex. 

Nest, of leaves, twigs, etc., in a bush or small tree. Eggs, 4-7, pale bufify 
white, blotched, stained and speckled with light cinnamon-brown, 2*30 x 1*70. 
Date, Ocklawhaha River, Fla., Mch. 6. 

This is a locally common species in Florida. Its general habits 
are described in the remarks on the family Aramidce. 

23. Family Rallid^. Rails, Gallinules, and Coots. (Fig. 39.) 

The one hundred and eighty odd species contained in this family are 
distributed throughout the greater part of the world, fifteen species 
inhabiting North America. Rails and Gallinules are not strictly gre- 



RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 231 

garious, but are generally associated through a community of interests; 
Coots, however, are usually found in flocks. Rails inhabit grassy 
marshes, in which they seek safety by running or hiding, taking to 
wing, when pursued, only as a last resort. Their large, strong legs, 
therefore, have been developed at the expense of their weak, rounded 
wings. In several island species, this degeneracy of wing has been carried 
to such an extreme that the birds have lost the power of flight. At the 
best, their flight when flushed is short and labored, and with dangling 
legs they soon drop back into cover. Nevertheless, they perform 
extended migrations, traveling hundreds of miles without resting. 

Gallinules Hve near the marshy borders of bodies of water, while 
the more aquatic Coots rese«ible some Ducks in habits. They are at 
times noisy birds and are more often heard than seen. All the forms 
nest on the ground, laying generally large sets of eggs, and the young 
are bom covered with (usually black) down and can run soon after 
hatching. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Bill over 1-75. 

A. Cheeks below the eye einnamon-rufous, like the breast; flanks black 

barred with white; upperparts rich olive-brown streaked with black. 

208. King Rail. 

B. Cheek below the eye gray; flanks generally gray or brownish, barred 

with white; upperparts generally grayish, streaked with black. 

211. Clapper Rail and races. 
[I. Bill under 1-75. 

A. Wing over 6*00. 

a. General color blue, feet yellow 218. Purple Gallinule. 

b. General color slaty, feet dark greenish. 

61. Toes with large scalloped webs or flaps at the side . . . 221. Coot. 

62. Toes without flaps or webs 219. Florida Gallinule. 

B. Wing under 6-00. 
a. Wing under 3"50. 

ai. Back blackish, with small round, white spots. 216. Black Rail. 
a2. Back blackish, barred with white and margined with buffy. 

215. Yellow Rail. 
6. Wing over 3*50. 

61. Bill over I'OO 212. Virginia Rail. 

cK Bill under I'OO. 

c^. Wing over 4'50, lesser wing-coverts inifous . 217. Corn Crake. 
c^. Wing under 4'50, lesser wing-coverts olive 214. Sora. 

208. Rallus elegans Aud. King Rail. Ads. — Upperparts varying 
from olive-brown to black, the back and scapulars widely margined with 
olive-gray; wings and tail olive-brown; wing-coverts rufous; throat white; 
neck and breast cinnamon-rufouH\ belly and sides fuscous, sharply barred 
with white. Downy Fownf?.— Glossy black. L., IS'OO; W., G'SO; Tar., 2-20; 
B., 2-40. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from Nebr., s. Minn., Ont., N. Y., and Conn. 
s. to Tex., Fla., and Cuba; winters mainly in the s. part of its breeding 
range. 

Washington, uncommon S. R., almost a P. R. Long Island, rare S. R. 
Cambridge, casual. N. Ohio, not common S. R., May 1-Sept. 5. Glen 
Ellyn, common S. R., Apl. 19-Sept. 16. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., Apl. 15. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground in fresh-water marshes. Eqgs, 7-12, 
buffy white, more heavily spotted and speckled with rufous-brown than 



232 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 

those of the next species, 1'68 x 1'20. Date, Mercer Co., 111., May 5; Raleigh, 
N. C, May 31; se. Minn., June 6. 

The King Rail is the fresh- water representative of the Clapper Rail. 
It is, however, a much less common bird, and less is known of its habits. 
Like other Rails, it is a skulker, and never flies when it can escape 
by running or hiding in the dense grass of its home. On three occasions 
I have heard what I am quite sure was the King Rail's call, a loud, 
startling hup, hup, hup, hup, hup, uttered with increasing rapidity 
until the syllables were barely distinguishable, then ending somewhat 
as it began. The whole performance occupied about five seconds. 

211. Rallus crepitans crepitans Gmel. Clapper Rail. (Fig. 39, a.) 
Ad. — Upperparts very pale greenish olive, the feathers widely margined 
with gray; wings and tail grayish brown; wing-coverts pale cinnamon 
much washed with gray; throat white; neck and breast pale, between ochra- 
ceous and cream-buff, more or less washed with grayish ; belly and sides gray 
or brownish gray, barred with white. Downy young — Glossy black. L., 
14-50; W., 5-00; Tar., 2*00; B., 2-50. 

Remarks. — The Clapper Rail may always be known from the King Rail 
by its generally grayish instead of brownish or blackish upperparts, and its 
much paler breast and flanks and paler wing-coverts. 

Range. — Salt marshes of the Atlantic coast. Breeds from Conn, to N. 
C; winters mainly s. of N. J.; casual n. to Maine. 

Washington, A. V., one record. Long Island, common S. R., Apl.-Oct., 
a few winter. Ossining, A. V. 

Nest, of grasses, near or on the ground, in grass-grown, salt-water marshes. 
Eggs, 8-12, buffy white, spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1*72 x 1*20. 
Date, Cobb's Island, Va., May 19; Oyster Bay, N. Y., May 24. 

The Clapper Rail is an inhabitant of grassy, salt-water marshes, and, 
in the southern parts of its range, of mangrove swamps. It is almost 
impossible to flush these birds unless their haunts are invaded by an 
unusually high tide, when a boat may be pushed through the meadows 
and the birds forced to take wing. I have heard birds calling in the 
tall grass within a few feet of me, and have made a wild rush in their 
direction, only to be mocked a moment later by apparently the same 
bird calling from a point almost within reach. They dodge about over 
well-traveled pathways like children in a game of blindman's buff. 

While not strictly gregarious, they live in colonies, and the call of 
one bird is sometimes taken up and repeated by others until the marsh 
vibrates with their cries. 

211a. R. c. saturatus Hensh. Louisiana Clapper Rail. A local race 
of the Clapper Rail found in the marshes of Louisiana. It is much darker 
than crepitans, but not so dark as scottii. "W., 5'65; Tar., 1'97; B., 2"27" 
(Ridgw.). 

Range. — Coast of Louisiana. 

211b. R. c. scotti Senn. Florida Clapper Rail. Differs from 
crepitans in being ])lack, fuscous or olive-brown above, with olive-gray mar- 
gins to the feathers; in having the neck and breast cinnamon-rufous washed 
with brownish, and in having the l:)elly and flanks black instead of gray. In 
fact, the general color of scottii suggests a King Rail, but the latter may 



RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 233 

always be known by its rufous wing-coverts and clear cinnamon-rufous neck 
and breast. W., 5-50; Tar., 1-90; B., 2*40. 

Range. — Salt marshes of the Gulf coast of Florida. 

Nesting date, Raccoon Pass, La., May 19. 

211c. R. c. waynei (Brewst). Wayne's Clapper Rail. "Similar to 
R. crepitans, but the general coloring much darker, the underparts with 
more ashy, the under tail-coverts with fewer markings" (Brewst., Proc. 
N. E. Zool. Club, I, 1899, p. 50). 

Range. — Salt marshes of the s. Atlantic coast from N. C. to Fla. 

Nesting date, Mcintosh, Ga., Mch. 29; Ft. Macon, N. C., May 9. 

212. Rallus virginianus Linn. Virginia Rail. Ad. — Upperparts 
fuscous or black, the feathers bordered by pale grayish brown; wings and 
tail dark grayish brown; wing-coverts rufous, lores whitish, cheeks gray, 
throat white, rest of the underparts cinnamon-rufous; flanks and under tail- 
coverts barred or spotted with black and white. Downy young. — Glossy 
black. L., 9-50; W., 4-30; Tar., I'SO; B., 1*50. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from B. C., s. Sask., s. Keewatin, Ont., s. Que., 
and N. B. s. to s. Calif., Utah, Kans., Mo., Ills., N. J., and e. N. C, and in 
Toluca Valley, Mex.; winters from Ore., Utah, and Colo., to L. Calif, and 
Guatemala, also in the Lower Miss. States, and from N. C. (casually Mass.) 
to Fla. ; occurs casually n. to n. Que. and N. F. 

Washington, probably P. R. Long Island, rather common S. R., Apl.- 
Oct. ; a few winter. Ossining, tolerably common S. R., to Sept. 29. Cambridge, 
locally abundant S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 25. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 25- 
Sept. 10. Glen Ellyn, not very common S. R., Apl. 25-Sept. 13. SE. Minn., 
common S. R., May 12. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground in marshes. Eggs, 6-12, pale buffy white, 
spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1"26 x "96. Date, Cambridge, 
May 15; Pewaukee, Wise, May 20; se. Minn., May 28. 

In almost any extensive fresh or brackish marsh, especially if it 
has beds of cat-tail flags or scattered thickets of low bushes and briers, 
one may hear in May and June, particularly in the early morning, late 
afternoon, or during cloudy weather, a succession of grunting sounds 
not unlike those of a hungry pig. Although by no means loud, they 
have a pentrating quality which makes them carry to a considerable 
distance; and they are apt to attract attention even when, as is usually 
the case, they mingle with the songs of innumerable Red-winged Black- 
birds, Marsh Wrens, and other swamp-loving birds. It is no easy matter 
to trace them to their author, but if you are persevering and at the 
same time fortunate, you may at length discover him .skulking under 
a bush or behind a tuft of grass. He is the Virginia Rail, an odd-look- 
ing bird about the size of a Snipe. If you remain motionless, he may 
presently come out into fairer view and walk slowly around the edge 
of some A, hfting and putting down his large feet with curious 
deliberation, cocking up his absurdly short tail at each step, and every 
now and then stopping to thrust his bill deep into the ooze in search of 
food. As he pauses to look at you, you are struck by his half-quizzical, 
half-sinister expression, due, no doubt, to the fact that his eyes arc 
blood-red and deeply sunk in their long, narrow head. Startle him by 
some sudden movement, and he will do one of three things — dart back 
into cover as swiftly as a frightened mouse, skip across the pool over 



234 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 

the floating leaves of the water plants, using both wings and feet, or 
rise with feebly fluttering wings and hanging legs to fly only a few 
rods before dropping beyond some intervening screen of grass or bushes. 
In any case you are not hkely to find him again on this occasion. 

Besides the grunting sound, the Virginia Rail utters during the 
breeding season, especially at night and in lowering weather, a gut- 
tural cut, cutta-cutta-ciitta, often repeated at brief intervals for hours 
in succession. This cry appears to be peculiar to the male, and is, no 
doubt, his love-song. When heard at a distance of only a few yards it 
has a vibrating, almost unearthly, quality, and seems to issue from the 
ground directly beneath one's feet. The female, when anxious about 
her eggs or young, calls ki-ki-ki in low tones, and kiu much like a 
Flicker. The young of both sexes in autumn give, when startled, a 
short, explosive kep or kik, closely similar to that of the CaroHna Rail. 

William Brewster. 

214. Porzana Carolina (Linn.). Soea. (Fig. 39c.) Ad. — Region 
about the base of the bill, center of crown, and a line down the middle of the 
neck black; rest of the breast and throat, sides of the head, and front part 
of the crown pale blue-gray; rest of the upperparts olive-brown, most of the 
feathers with black centers, the scapulars and back streaked on each side 
with white; wings fuscous-brown, their coverts grayish cinnamon, outer 
edge of first primary white; lower belly white, flanks barred with black and 
white. 7m. — Similar, but without black at the base of the bill or on the 
throat; breast washed with cinnamon and upperparts darker. L., 8"50; 
W., 4-30; Tar., 1-30; B., '80. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, s. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, 
and Gulf of St. Lawrence s. to s. Calif., Utah, Colo., Kans., Ills., and N. J.; 
winters from n. Calif., Ills., and S. C. through tKe West Indies and Cen. Am. 
to Venezuela and Peru; accidental in Bermuda, Greenland and England. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch.-May; July-Nov. Long Island, com- 
mon T. v., Apl. and May; Aug.-Oct. ; rare S. R. Ossining, common T. V. May; 
Aug. 19-Oct. 24. Cambridge, locally abundant S. R., Apl. 15-Oct. 31. N. 
Ohio, common S. R., May 1-Oct. 23. Glen Ellyn, tolerably common S. R., 
Apl. 14-Oct. 17. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 25-Dec. 5. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground in or near marshes. Eggs, 8-15, buffy 
white or ochraceous-buff, spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1*24 x 
•90. Date, Cambridge, May 20; se. Minn., June 3; Pewaukee, Wise, 
May 19. 

The Soras' summer home is in fresh-water marshes, where, if it 
were not for their notes, the reeds and grasses would long keep the 
secret of their presence. But knowing their calls, you have only to 
pass a May or June evening near a marsh to learn whether they in- 
habit it. If there, they will greet you late in the afternoon with a clear 
whistled ker-wee, which soon comes from dozens of invisible birds 
about you, and long after night has fallen it continues like a spring- 
time chorus of piping hylas. Now and again it is interrupted by a 
high-voiced, rolling whiniiy which, like a call of alarm, is taken up and 
repeated by different birds all over the marsh. 

They seem so absorbed by their musical devotions that even when 
calling continuously it requires endless patience and keen eyes to see 



RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 235 

the dull-colored, motionless for.ms in places where one would not sup- 
pose there was sufficient growth to conceal them. 

Floating silently near the shore on my back in a canoe, I have seen 
them venture out to feed. With tails erect they step gingerly along, 
evidently aware of their exposed position, for on the least alarm they 
dart back to cover. Sometimes they cross small streams by swim- 
ming, and they are expert divers. 

In the fall they gather in the wild-rice or wild-oat {Zizania aquat- 
ica) marshes, and a well-directed stone or imusual noise may bring a 
series of protesting interrogative kuks or jpeeps from the apparently 
deserted reeds. At this season "gunners" in small flat-bottomed boats 
are poled through the flooded meadows, and the Soras, waiting until 
the last moment, rise on feeble wing — a mark which few can miss. 
Numerous puffs of smoke float over the tall grasses, and the dull reports 
come booming across the marsh with fateful frequency. 

The Spotted Crake {213. Porzana jporzana) — an Old World representa- 
tive of our Sora — is recorded as "occasional in Greenland." 

215. Coturnicops noveboracensis (Gmel.). Yellow Rail. (Fig. 
39, b.) Ads. — Upperparts black, the feathers bordered with ochraceous-buff 
and with from one to three narrow white bars; breast ochraceous-buff; mid- 
dle of the belly white; sides and lower belly black or brownish, barred with 
white. L., 7-00; W., 3-40; Tar., -95; B., '52. 

Range. — Chiefly e. N, A. Breeds from s. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, 
and s. Ungava s. to Minn, and Maine; winters in the Gulf States, rarely 
in Calif., 111^, and N. C; casual in Nev., Utah, and Bermuda. 

Washington, rare T. V., Mch.-Apl. 14; Oct. 4-Nov. 12. Long Island, rare, 
probably S. R. Cambridge, rare T. V., in fall. N. Ohio, rare S. R. SE. Minn., 
rare. May 14-Sept. 24. 

Nest, on the ground in grassy marshes. Eggs, 6-10, creamy buff, densely 
sprinkled and speckled on larger end with rusty brown, 1*12 x '83 (Ridgw.). 
Date, Winnebago, Ills., May 17. 

This little Rail inhabits marshes with others of its family. It seems 
to know that it can escape its enemies much more easily by hiding in 
the tangled grasses of its home than by taking wing, and it flies only 
to avoid actual capture. It can be hunted successfully, therefore, only 
with dogs. 

Nuttall describes its notes as "an abrupt and cackling cry, 'krbk, 
'krek, 'krek, 'krek, 'kuk, 'k'kh," and compares them to the croaking of 
the tree frog, while a captive bird in the possession of J. H. Ames uttered 
a scolding kik-kik-kik-kik-queah. (Auk, XIX, p. 94.) 

216. Creciscus jamaicensis (Gmel). Little Black Rail. (Fig. 14.) 
Ads. — ;Head, breast and upper belly .slate-color; lower belly and wings 
brownish black, barred or spotted with white; nape dark reddish brown. 
L., 5-00; W., 2-80; Tar., '80; B., 'GO. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Broods from s. Ont. and Mass. s. to Kans., Ills., 
and S. C.; winters from Tex. c. through the Gulf States and s. to Jamaica 
and Guatemala; casual in Bermuda. 

Washington, rare. May, June, Sept. Long Island, rare, probably S. R. 
N. Ohio, rare S. R. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground in marshes. Eggs, 8-10, white, thinly 



236 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 

sprinkled with reddish brown dots, more numerous at the larger end, 1*00 x 
•80 (Nelson, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, I, 1876, 43). Date, Saybrook, Conn., 
July 10; Garden City, Kans., June 6. 

This bird is about as difficult to observe as a field-mouse. It is said to 
prefer grassy meadows, where it never flies when it can escape by 
running or hiding. Apparently it is not common. Wayne describes the 
call of the female as croo-croo-croo-o, like the beginning of the song of 
the YeUow-billed Cuckoo. To this the male responded kik, kik, kik, kik, 
or kuk, kuk, kuk, kuk. 

1900. Allen, J. A., Auk, XVII, 1-8 (historical); Stone, W., Ibid, 171 
(nesting).— 1901. Brewster, W., Ibid, XVIII, 321-328 (in Mass.).— 1905. 
Wayne, A. T., The Warbler, No. 2.— 1910. Bds. So. Car., 39 (nesting). 

The Corn Crake {217. Crex crex), a bird of Europe and northern Asia, is 
casual in Greenland, Bermudas and eastern North Axaerica. It is about the 
size of a Clapper Rail, but has a bill no larger than that of the Sora. The 
general color of the upperparts is between ochraceous-buff and cream-buff, 
the feathers with black centers; the wing-coverts and most of the quills are 
pale rufous; the breast is pale ochraceous-buff; the sides are the same, barred 
with white; the middle of the belly is white. 

218. lonornis martinicus (Linn.). Purple Gallinule. Ad. — Front 
of crown with a bare, bluish plumbeous plate; rest of head and underparts 
rich dark purplish blue; under tail-coverts white; back shining olive-green; 
wings light blue tinged with greenish; bill carmine, tipped with pale greenish 
(in skins, reddish orange, tipped mth yellowish) ; legs yellow. Im. — Upper- 
parts more or less washed with brownish; underparts more or less mottled 
with white; plate on the head smaller; bill without orange-red. Downy young. 
— Glossy black, head with numerous white, hairlike feathers; bilse of the bill 
yellowish, end black. L., 13*00; W., 7*10; Tar., 2-40; B., from posterior 
margin of nostril, "80. 

Range. — Tropical and subtropical Am. Breeds from Tex., Tenn., and 
S. C, s. through Mex. and the West Indies to Ecuador and Paraguay; winters 
from Tex., La., and Fla. southward; irregularly n. in summer to Ariz., 
Nebr., Wise, Ont., Que., N. S., and N. B.; accidental in England and 
Bermuda. 

Long Island, two records. 

Nest, a platform of reed stalks built in rushes over the water or in grassy 
marshes. Eggs, 4-10, buffy white, finely speckled with rufous-brown 1*60 X 
1-15. Date, Avery's Is., La., Apl. 15; Coast S. C, May 21. 

This is a common species on ponds densely grown with yellow pond- 
lilies (in Florida known as 'bonnets') and other aquatic plants, where it 
may be seen walking daintily over the leaves or swimming when occasion 
requires. It may be easily identified by its bright colors and conspicuous 
white under tail-coverts. The latter are especially evident when the 
bird takes wing. 

219. Gallinula galeata galeata {Licht.). Florida Gallinule. Ad. 
— Dark Ijluish slate-color; back and scapulars washed with olive-brown; 
belly whitish; flanks with a few conspicuous white streaks; under tail-coverts 
white; crown with a bare, bright-red plate; bill the same color tipped with 
yellowish; legs bright-red at the tibia?. Itn. — Similar, but underparts grayish 
white; crown plate much smaller and with the bill brownish; no red on the 
legs. Downy young. — "Glossy black, the lowerparts sooty along the median 
line; throat and cheeks interspersed with silverv white hairs" (Ridgw.). 
L., 13'50; W., 7*00; Tar., 2-15; B., from posterior margin of nostril, '80. 



RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 237 

Range. — Tropical and temperate Am. Breeds from cen. Calif., Ariz., 
Nebr., Minn., Ont., N. Y., and Vt. s. through the West Indies and Mex. to 
Chile and Argentina, and in the Galapagos and Bermuda; winters from s. 
Calif., Ariz., Tex., and Ga. southward; casual in Colo., Que., N. S., N. B., 
and Maine. 

Washington, rare T. V., Apl.; Aug.-Oct. Long Island, uncommon T. V,, 
May; Sept. and Oct. ; a few breed. Ossining, rare S. R., June 5-Nov. 5. Cam- 
bridge, uncommon S. R., May 15-Oct. 25. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 25- 
Sept. 20. Glen Ellyn, rare and local S. R., May 26. SE. Minn., common S. R. 

Nest, of rushes on a bed of rushes or similar slight elevation in marshes, 
lagoons, or swampy lake sides. Eggs, 8-13, buffy white or ochraceous-buff, 
spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1"80 x 1"25. Date, Coast S. C, 
May 21; Cambridge, June 5; Pewaukee, Wise, May 20. 

There is something about the appearance and habits of Gallinules 
which always suggests to me the thought that they are chickens which 
for unknown reasons have been forced to adopt the ways of both Coots 
and Rails. Indeed, the names Water-hen and Moor-hen are applied 
to near relatives of our bird. 

They frequent marshy, reed- or bush-grown shores of ponds and 
lakes, walking gracefully through the tangled vegetation. Their flight 
is short, and, like a Rail, with danghng legs they drop awkwardly to the 
ground. They swim readily, and when on the water resemble a Coot, 
though they are by no means so aquatic. Their notes are loud and 
varied, and during the nesting season they are unusually noisy. Their 
common note is an explosive chuck; other calls are suggestive of the 
barnyard, and remind one of the protest of a disturbed brooding hen 
or even the squawking of a struggling fowl. 

Brewster, Wm., Auk, VII, 1-7 (nesting in Mass.). — 1910. Miller, 
R. F., Auk, XXVII, 181-184 (nesting in Pa.). 

The European Coot (220. Fulica atra) inhabits the northern parts of the 
Old World, and sometimes occurs in Greenland. It closely resembles the 
American Coot, but lacks the white markings on the edge of the wing and 
under tail-coverts. 

221. Fulica americana Gmel. Coot. (Figs. 21&; 39e.) Ads. — Head 
and neck blackish; rest of plumage dark, bluish slate-color, paler below; 
edge of wing, tips of secondaries, and under tail-coverts white ; bill whitish, 
two spots near its tip and crown plate brownish; legs and feet greenish; toes 
with scalloped flaps. Im. — Similar, but much whiter below, a slight brownish 
wash above; crown plate much smaller. Downy young. — Blackish, white 
below; throat and upperparts with numerous bright orange hairlike feathers; 
lores red; bill red, tipped with black. L., 15-00; W., 7-50; Tar., 2-25; B. 
from posterior margin of nostril, "80. 

Remarks. — The Coot boars a general resemblance to the Florida Gal- 
linule, but, aside from the differences in color, the scalloped webbed feet of 
the Coot will always serve to distinguish it. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, s. Mackenzie, Man., Que., and 
N. B. s. to n. L. Calif., Tex., Tenn., and N. J., and also in s. Mex., s. West 
Indies, and Guatemala; winters from s. B. C, Nev., Utah, the Ohio Valley, 
and Va., s. to Colombia; casual at Fort Yukon, Alaska, and in Greenland, 
Lab. and Bermuda. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch.-May; Sept. 1-Oct. 31. Long Island, 
uncommon, T. V., Apl.; not uncommon, Sept.-Nov. (Dutcher). Ossining, 
common T. V., Apl. 28-May 16; Sept. 22-Nov. 13. Cambridge, T. V., rare 
in Apl.; not uncommon, Sept. 15-Oct. 25. N. Ohio, tolerably common T. 



238 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS 

v., Mch. 15-May 5; Sept. 1-Nov. 1. Glen Ellyn, not common S. R., Api. 
14-Oct. 4. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 3-Oct. 14. 

Nest, of reeds, grasses, etc., among reeds in fresh-water marshes. Eggs, 
8-15, pale, buffy white, finely and uniformly speckled with chocolate or 
black, 1-85 x 1-25. Date, St. Clair Flats, Mich., May 17; se. Minn., May 27. 

As one might imagine after seeing their lobed feet, Coots are more 
aquatic than either of the GaUinules. In the Middle States they are 
found in creeks and rivers with marshy and reed-grown shores, while 
in Florida they resort in enormous numbers to lakes covered with the 
yellow Hhes locally known as 'bonnets' (NymphoBa); and in some of the 
large, shallow rivers, like Indian River, they may be found in myriads, 
associated with Lesser Scaup Ducks. 

In my experience they are as a rule quite shy; but near the long 
railway pier at Titusville, Florida, where shooting is prohibited, they 
are as tame as domestic Ducks. They evidently know the boundary 
line between safety and danger, however, and when beyond the pro- 
tected limits show their usual caution. 

Coots swim easily, with a peculiar bobbing motion of the head and 
neck. When alarmed they patter over the watei*, using their feet as 
much as their wings. Both the sound produced and the wake left are 
characteristic. 

They are noisy birds, and when alarmed break out into a great 
chorus of high, cackling notes which I have heard at a distance of half 
a mile. Their ivory-white bill is an excellent field-mark, and readily 
serves to distinguish Coots from GaUinules. 

1902. EvERMANN, B. W., The Osprey, 57 (feeding habits). 



IX. ORDER LIMICOLiE. SHORE BIRDS 

Although placed in several well-defined family groups, the Limicolse 
have many traits in common. Their center of abundance is in the north- 
ern parts of the Northern Hemisphere, a large number of species nesting 
in the Arctic zone. Many of these winter in the southern portions of the 
Southern Hemisphere, their migrations, therefore, being the most ex- 
tended of those performed by birds. With the exception of the European 
Green Sandpiper and its American representative, our SoHtary Sand- 
piper, the Limicola) all nest on the ground, the nest being more or less 
simple in structure. The eggs, usually four in number, are large in 
proportion to the size of the bird, and are decidedly conical in shape, 
and some species, at least, arrange them in the nest, point down, in 
order that the exposed upper surface may be decreased in extent and 
thus be more easily and fully covered by the sitting bird. The young 
are born with a downy covering, usually of soft browns, grays and buffs, 
and with more or less pronounced markings, and can run about actively, 
shortly after hatching. This natal down is soon followed by the juvenal 
plumage, to the tips of which it may, in places, be seen adhering. 



PHALAROPES 239 

With some species (e. g., Spotted and Solitary Sandpipers) there is 
no postjuvenal molt, the postjuvenal plumage being also the first 
winter plumage. The larger number, however, acquire a winter plumage 
by postjuvenal molt during the fall migration. At the postnuptial 
molt, which often occurs during migration, the adults assume a plumage 
similar to the first winter plumage of the immature bird, when, as a rule, 
old and young birds, males and females, are alike in color. The spring 
or prenuptial molt often begins in January or February, which involves 
all the body feathers, and, in some cases, also the wings and tail (see 
Dwight). 

1888. Seebohm, H., Distribution of the Family Charadriidae, 4to, pp. 524, 
plls. 21.— 1895. Elliot, D. G., North American Shore Birds, 8vo, pp. 268; 
plls. 74 (Francis Harper). — 1897. Cory, C. B., How to Know the Shore 
Birds, 8vo, pp. 89; many ills.— 1900. Dwight, J., Jr., The Moult of 
the North American Shore Birds, Auk, XVII, 368-385.— 1903. Hunt- 
ington, D. W., Our Feathered Game, 8vo, pp. 396, plls. 37. — 1903. 
Sanford, L. C., Bishop, L. B., Van Dyke, T. S., The Water-Fowl Family, 
12mo, pp. ix + 598, plls. 20 (Macmillan).— 1905. Job, H. K., Wild Wings, 
203-255. (Houghton, Mifflin.)— 1905. Clark, A. H., Migrations of Certain 
Shore Birds, Auk, XXII, 134-140.-1907. Rich, W. H., Feathered Game of 
the Northeast, 8vo, pp. 432, plls. 87.— 1910. Cooke, W. W., Distribution 
and Migration of North American Shore Birds, Bull. 35, Biol. Surv. U. S. 
Dept. Agr., plls. 4, pp. 100. 

24. Family Phalaropodid.^. Phalaropes. (Fig. 43a.) 

There are three known members of this family: one is confined to 
the interior of North America, the other two may be called Sea Snipe, 
and are found in the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The 
lobate feet of these pelagic species enable them to swim with ease, and 
during their migrations they may be found in flocks resting upon the 
sea, far from land. After nesting, their presence on land is largely depend- 
ent upon the weather, severe storms sometimes bringing them to our 
coasts in numbers. Contrary to the usual rule, the female in this family 
is the larger and more brightly colored — indeed, in the domestic economy 
of the Phalarope household, the female is male, except in the prime 
essentials of sex. She does the wooing, takes the lead in selecting the 
nesting-site, and, although she lays the eggs, the duties of incubation 
fall upon the male. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 268-271 ; 321, 322. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Bill over 1*10 224. Wilson's Phalarope. 

B. Bill under I'lO. 

a. Bill very slender; wing under 4"75 . . 223. Northern Phalarope. 
h. Bill stout; wing over 4*75 222. Red Phalarope. 

222. Phalaropus fulicarius {Linn.). Red Phalarope. Toes webbed 
at base and with scalloped lobes terminally; bill hea\^, wider than deep. 
Ad. 9 in summer. — Crown and chin fuscous; cheeks white; back black, the 
feathers bordered with cream-buff; wings gray; some of the secondaries and 



240 PHALAROPES 

tips of greater coverts white; upper tail-coverts rufous; underparts dull, 
reddish brown, often with scattered white feathers. Ad. cf in summer. — 
Similar, but smaller, crown striped like back, little or no white in cheeks. 
Juv. — Similar to ads. in winter but upperparts margined with buff, chest 
washed with buff. Ads. and juv. in winter. — Top of head and underparts 
white; region about eye and back of neck fuscous; back and scapulars dark 
pearl-gray; wings grayish fuscous, the coverts and secondaries tipped with 
white; rump and tail fuscous. L., 8*12; W., 5-37; B., '87; Tar., -82. 

Remarks. — The juvenal plumage is worn until October or November. 
Molting spring birds are strikingly pied below. 

Range. — N. and S. Hemispheres. In N. A. breeds from n. Alaska, 
Melville Island, and n. Ellesmere Land s. to mouth of the Yukon, n. Macken- 
zie, cen. Keewatin, Hudson Strait, and s. Greenland; winter home unknown 
but probably on the oceans, at least as far s. as Falkland and Juan Fernandez 
Islands; migrates along both coasts of U. S.; casual in migration in interior 
s. to Colo., Kans. Ills., and Md. 

Washington, casual, one record, Oct. Long Island, rare T. V., Apl. 30- 
June 5; Sept. 24-Nov. 27. Cambridge, one record, Aug. 

Nest, a slight hollow in the ground lined with a few bits of moss and 
grasses. Eggs, 3-4, similar to those of the following species, 1*25 x '90. 
Date, Pt. Barrow, Alaska, June 14. 

This pelagic species is found in numbers some distance off the 
coast; it occurs on our shores rarely, and generally only after storms. 

223. Lobipes lobatus (Linn.). Northern Phalarope. Toes webbed 
at base and with scalloped lobes terminally; bill very slender and sharply 
pointed. Ad. 9 in summer. — Upperparts slaty gray; back and scapulars 
edged with ochraceous-buff ; sides and front of the neck rufous, more or less 
mixed with slaty gray; rest of underparts white. Ad. cf in summer. — Similar, 
but upperparts black, and with more ochraceous ; sides and front of the neck 
mixed with fuscous. Ads. in winter and juv. — Upperparts grayish, more or 
less mixed with white; tips of greater wing-coverts and sometimes part of 
the secondaries white, occasionally (in ads.) with traces of rufous on the 
sides of the neck ; underparts white, more or less mottled with grayish on the 
breast. Juv. — Upperparts black, edged with straw-color; forehead white; 
underparts white, chest sometimes lightly washed with buffy. L., 7'75; W., 
4-50; Tar., "80; B., '85. 

Range. — N. and S. Hemispheres. In N. A. breeds from n. Alaska, 
Melville Island, and cen. Greenland s. to Aleutian Islands (including Near 
Islands), valley of the Upper Yukon, n. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, s. James 
Bay, and n. Ungava; winter home unknown, but probably the oceans s. of 
the equator; in migration occurs nearly throughout the U. S. and in Mex., 
Cen. Am., Bermuda, and Hawaii. 

Washington, casual, one record, Sept. Long Island, uncommon, T. V., 
Apl. 27-May 29; Aug. 5-Oct. 22. Cambridge, of rare occurrence in spring. 
SE. Minn., T. V. 

Nest, a slight hollow in the ground lined with grass and mosses. Eggs, 
3-4, pale olive-gray heavily blotched with deep chocolate, 1*18 x "83. Date, 
Ft. Yukon, Alaska, June 7. 

During its presence ofT our coasts this species resembles the preceding 
in habits. It is, however, more common, and under proper conditions 
sometimes occurs in larger flights. I have seen it in great numbers 
about one hundred miles off Barnegat, New Jersey, in May. For 
several hours the steamer passed through flocks of these 'Sea Snipe,' 
which were swimming on the ocean. They arose in a body at our 
approach, and in close rank whirled away to the right or left in search 



AVOCETS AND STILTS 241 

of new feeding-grounds. On March 10, when sailing to Florida, I saw 
Phalaropes in numbers, doubtless of both this and the preceding species, 
off the coast of North Carolina. 

224. Steganopus tricolor Vieill. Wilson's Phalarope. Ad. 9 in 
summer. — Top of the head and middle of the back pearl-gray, nape white; 
a black streak passes through eye to side of neck, and, changing to rufous- 
chestnut, continues down the sides of the back and on scapulars; neck and 
upper breast washed vnth pale, brownish rufous; rest of underparts and 
upper tail-coverts white. Ad. cf in summer. — Upperparts fuscous-brown, 
bordered with gra^-ish brown; upper tail-coverts, nape, and a line oVev the 
eye white or whitish; sides of the neck and breast washed with rufous; rest 
of the underparts white. Ads. and juv. in winter. — Upperparts gray, 
margined with white; upper tail-coverts white; wings fuscous, their coverts 
margined with buffy; underparts white. Juv. — "Top of head, back, and 
scapulars dusky blackish, the feathers distinctly bordered ^\dth buff; wing- 
coverts also bordered with pale buff or whitish; upper tail-coverts, super- 
ciliary stripe, and lowerparts white, the neck tinged with buff" (Ridgw.). 
d'L., 8-75; W., 4-75; Tar., 1*20; B., 1*20. $ L., O'SO; W., 5-25; Tar., I'SO; 
B., 1-30. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from cen. Wash., cen. Alberta, and Lake 
Winnipeg s. to cen. Calif., s. Colo., s. Kans., n. Iowa, and nw. Ind.; winters 
from cen. Chile and cen. Argentina s. to Falkland Islands; casual in migra- 
tion on Pacific coast from s. B. C. to L. Calif., and on Atlantic coast from 
Maine to N. C. 

Long Island, three records, Aug., Sept. and Oct. N. Ohio, casual T. V. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., May 12-Sept. 13. 

Nest, a shallow depression in soft earth lined with a thin layer of frag- 
ments of grass. Eggs, 3-4, cream-buff or buffy white, heavily blotched with 
deep chocolate, 1*28 x -94. (See Nelson, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, II, 1879, 
38-43.) Date, Minor Co., S. D., May 25; s. Saskatchewan, June 15, downy 
young. 

This beautiful bird is a common summer resident of our interior 
prairie sloughs, and ranges westward as far as the San Joaquin valley 
of California. It feeds about the shores and often swims gracefully 
with a nodding motion of the head. Although the female does not 
incubate, she appears to be keenly interested in the welfare of the nest, 
and when I have flushed a sitting male, he has soon been joined by his 
mate who seemed to share his anxiety. Pairs of birds which evidently 
had young would utter a soft qua or quok and fly about me with a 
slow, jerky, halting flight and a peculiar sinuous stretching of the neck. 
Usually the female led. 

25. Family RECURViROSTRiDiE. Avocets and Stilts. 

The twelve species comprising this family are distributed through- 
out the warmer parts of the world. They are generally found in flocks, 
and may be called Wading Snipe. They feed in shallow water, wading 
to their heels, and when necessary swim with ease. 

225. Recurvirostra americana Gmel. American Avocet. (Fig. 12.) 
Bill slender, recurved. Ads. in summer. — Head and neck cinnamon-rufous, 
back and tail white, scapulars and primaries black; middle coverts, tips of 
the greater ones, and part of secondaries white; belly white, bill turned 



242 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

upward. Ads. in winter and juv. — Generally similar, but head and neck 
white or pearl-gray. L., 16-50; W., 9-00; Tar., 3-75; B., 3-75. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from e. Ore., cen. Alberta, and s. Man. (rarely n. 
to Great Slave Lake) s. to s. Calif., s. N. Mex., nw. Tex., n. Iowa, and cen. 
Wise; winters from s. Calif., and s. Tex. to s. Guatemala; casual from Ont. 
and N. B. to Fla. and the West Indies, but rare e. of the Miss. River. 

Long Island, two records. 

Nest, a slight depression in the ground, near water. Eggs, 3-4, pale olive 
or buffy clay-color, thickly spotted with chocolate, 1*95 x 1*35. Date, 
Loveland, Colo., June 3. 

Avbcets are common birds in parts of the interior, but are rare on 
the Atlantic coast. They frequent shores and shallow pools, and in 
searching for shells, crustaceans, etc., their peculiar recurved bill is 
used in a most interesting manner. Dropping it beneath the surface 
of the water until its convexity touches the bottom, they move rapidly 
forward, and with every step swing their bill from side to side, as a 
mower does his scythe. In this way they secure food which the muddy 
water would prevent them from seeing. They are very noisy when 
nesting and with a loud, sharp plee-eek charge bravely toward one, 
swinging aside only when a few feet away. 

226. Kimantopus mexicanus {MillL). Black-necked Stilt. Ad. 
d'. — A white spot above and another below eye; front of head, front of neck, 
lower back, rump, and underparts white; tail grayish; rest of plumage glossy, 
greenish black. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but with back fuscous-brown. Juv. — • 
Similar, but whole upperparts margined with rusty. L., 15'00; W., 9'00; 
Tar., 4-15; B., 2*00. 

Range. — Temperate N. A. and n. S. A. Breeds from cen. Ore., n. Utah, 
and s. Colo, to s. Calif., s. N. Mex., s. Tex., coast of La., and in Mex., and 
from cen. Fla., and Bahamas throughout the West Indies to n. Brazil and 
Peru; formerly bred to N. J.; winters from s. L. Calif., s. Tex., s. La., and s. 
Fla. s. through Cen. Am. and the West Indies to n. Brazil, Peru, and the 
Galapagos; casual north in migration to Nebr., Wise, and N. B. 

Long Island, two records. 

Nest, near water, a slight depression in the ground lined with grasses. 
Eggs, 3-4, olive or bufify clav-color, thickly spotted wdth chocolate, 1'70 x 
1-25. Date, Fla. Keys, Apl. 25; Brownsville, Tex., Apl. 26. 

Stilts are fond of wading in shallow ponds in both fresh and salt 
marshes, and are graceful and alert in their movements. During the 
nesting season they become very noisy, and express their solicitude for 
their eggs or young by the most surprising demonstrations. After 
nightfall I have heard Stilts utter their sharp ip-ip-ip as they darted 
erratically about over the marshes. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 288 (nesting). 

26. Family Scolopacid^. Snipes, Sandpipers, Etc. 
(Figs. 42 a, h, 43 6, c.) 

About one hundred species are considered as belonging to this 
family. They are distributed throughout the world, but during the 
breeding season are mostly confined to the northern parts of the North- 
em Hemisphere. Some forty-five species are found in North America. 



I 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 243 

With the Plovers they constitute the great group known as Shore 
Birds or Bay Birds, and with few exceptions they are rarely fo'und far 
from the vicinity of water. Generally spealdng, they are more abundant 
on the coast than in the interior, but many species are quite as 
numerous inland as they are near the sea. As a rule, thej^ migrate and 
pass the winter in flocks, but they are not gregarious during the nesting 
season. 

Their long bills serve the purpose of both probes and forceps. Most 
of the species probe the soft mud for food, while some are knowTi to 
have the power of moving the upper mandible independently of the 
lower one, curving it at the tip as one would a finger. 

Snipes are not supposed to be song birds, but during the breeding 
season many species are highly and pecuharly musical, and at other 
times of the year they utter characteristic whistles, to an imitation 
of which the birds are quick to respond. 



KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Bill 2-00 or over. 

A. Axillars* barred with black, 
a. Bill curved downward. 

o>. Bill over 3'00, under 4'50 265. Hudsonian Curlew. 

oP-. Bill under 3 '00 266. Eskimo Curlew. 

a?. Bill over 4*50 264. Long-billed Curlew. 

6. Bill straight or curved slightly upward. 

61. Tail-feathers with numerous black bars. 

6^. Wing over 7"00, primaries black or fuscous. 

254. Greater Yellow-legs. 
h^. Wing over 7'00, inner web of primaries buff or rufous. 

249. Marbled Godwit. 
6^ Wing under 7"00, bill widened and pitted at the tip. 

231. DowiTCHER. 232. Long-billed Dowitcher. 
&. Tail black with a broad rufous tip or marked with rufous, 
c^. Outer web of primaries with rufous bars. 

227. European Woodcock. 
c^. Primaries not barred 230. Wilson's Snipe. 

B. Axillars not barred. 

a. Axillars rufous or ochraceous-buff. 

a>. Bill over 5"00, much curved downward. 

264. Long-billed Curlew. 
a}. Bill nearly straight, between 3*50 and 5"00. 

249. Marbled Godwit. 
o?. Bill straight, under 3"50 .... 228. American Woodcock. 
h. Axillars black. 

fei. Underparts chestnut-rufous, barred with black. 

25L HuDSONiAN Godwit. 

62. Underparts white, with or without blackish bars. 

258. WiLLET. 258a. Western Willet. 
II. Bill under 2-00. 

1. Tail with cross-bars. 
A. Wing over 5"75. 

a. Outer tail-feathers white, more or less barred; outer primary -vsnth- 

out bars 255. Yellow-legs. 

6. Outer primary with numerous black bars. 261. Upland Plover. 

*See Fig. 82. 
18 



244 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

B. Wing under 5'75. 

a. Underparts white, with numerous round blackish spots; upper- 
parts brownish gray, barred with blackish. 

263. Spotted Sandpiper. 
1 Underparts white, breast streaked with blackish; upperparts fus- 
cous, spotted with white . . . 256. Solitary Sandpiper. 

c. Underparts tinged with buffy,. inner web of outer primary speckled 

with blackish 262. Buff-breasted Sandpiper. 

d. Underparts white, breast washed with grayish, inner primaries 

and secondaries with a concealed white patch. 

263. Spotted Sandpiper (Im.). 
2. Tail without cross-bars. 

A. Toes 4. 

a. Bill over I'lO. 

ai. Middle upper tail-coverts with cross-bars or streaks. 

a2. Tarsus over 1*50 233. Stilt Sandpiper. 

a^. Tarsus under 1*50, wing under 6*00 244. Curlew Sandpiper. 

a^. Tarsus under 1*50, wing over 6"00 234. Knot. 

6^. Middle upper taU-coverts without cross-bars or streaks. 

62. Middle upper taU-coverts black or fuscous, without bars; bill 
straight. 
&3. Tarsus under 1*50; upperparts blackish, more or less mar- 
gined with gray 235. Purple Sandpiper. 

6^. Tarsus under 1'50; upperparts more or less margined with 

rufous 239. Pectoral Sandpiper. 

65. Tarsus over 1;50 . . . . . . . . . . 260. Ruff. 

c^. Middle upper tail-coverts grayish, bill curved slightly down- 
ward 243a. Red-backed Sandpiper. 

6. Bill under I'lO. 
61. Wing under 4-00. 
62. Toes partly webbed. 

246. Semipalmated Sandpiper, 247. Western Sandpiper. 

6^. Toes not webbed 242. Least Sandpiper. 

ci. Wing over 4'00. 

c^. Inner webs of primaries plain. 

c^. Breast white or whitish, streaked or spotted with blackish; 
middle upper tail-coverts white . 

240. White-rumped Sandpiper. 
c^. Breast buffy, heavily spotted or streaked with blackish; mid- 
dle upper tail-coverts black, slightly margined with rufous. 
239. Pectoral Sandpiper. 
c^. Breast buffy lightly spotted or streaked with black; middle 
upper tail-coverts fuscous, lightly margined with buff3^ 

241. Baird's Sandpiper. 
<P. Inner webs of primaries speckled. 

262. Buff-breasted Sandpiper. 

B. Toes 3 248. Sanderling. 

228. Philohela minor (G^meZ.). American Woodcock. (PI. VIII. Figs. 
11, 15.) Ads. — Front of crown slaty, washed with buff, an indistinct black- 
ish lino in its center, and another from eye to bill ; back of head black, with 
two or three bars of ochraceous-buff; rest of upperparts black, mar- 
gined with slaty and barred and mottled with rufous or ochraceous-buff; tip 
of tail ashy gray above, silvery beneath; underparts between ochraceous 
buff and rufous; outer three primaries very narrow and much stiffened. 
L., 11-00; W., 5-40; Tar., 1-25; B., 2-90. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from ne. N. D., s. Man., n. Mich., s. Que. 
and N. S. s. to s. Kans., s. La., and n. Fla.; winters from s. Mo., the Ohio 
Valley, and s. N. J. (rarely Mass.) s. to Tex. and s. Fla.; ranges casually to 
cask., Keewatin, Colo., N. F., and Bermuda. 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 245 

Washington, rather common from Feb. to Nov.; a few winter. Long 
Island, rare S. R. Apl.-Nov., a few winter. Ossining, common S. R., Feb. 
19-Dec. 2. Cambridge, rare S. R., uncommon T. V., Mch. 15-Nov. 10. 
N. Ohio, tolerably common, S. R., Mch. 10-Oct. 20. Glen Ellyn, not com- 
mon S. R., May 17 (doubtless earlier) to Sept. 18. SE. Minn., Apl. 5-Oct. 18. 

Nest, of a few dry leaves, on the ground in the woods. Eggs, 4, buffy, 
distinctly and obscurely spotted with shades of rufous, 1'60 x 1'23. Date, 
Caper's Is., S. C, Feb. 13; Lower Cedar Point, Md., Feb. 25; Cambridge, 
Apl. 15; Wheatland, Ind., Mch. 4; Petersburg, Mich., Apl. 16. 

During the spring and early summer this Owl among Snipe haunts 
low; wooded bottom-lands; in August, while molting, it resorts to corn- 
fields near woods, and in the fall migrating birds frequent wooded 
uplands. But at all times it requires a soft, moist earth in which it may 
easily probe with its long bill for its fare of earthworms. The holes 
it makes are known as 'borings.' They are generally found in little 
groups, and are, of course, certain evidence of the presence of Wood- 
cock. Gurdon Trumbull discovered that the Woodcock can move the 
tip of its upper mandible independently of the lower one, and this 
organ is made to act as a finger to assist the bird in drawing its food 
from the ground. {Forest and Stream, XXXV, 1890, 412.) 

The fhght of the Woodcock is sometimes accompanied by a high, 
whistling sound produced by its narrow, stiffened primaries in beating 
the air. When flushed near its nest or young, the parent bird gen- 
erally feigns lameness or a broken wing, and leads the intruder some 
distance from its treasures before taking wing. 

The cloak of night always lends a certain mystery to the doings of 
nocturnal birds, and more often than not their habits justify our unusual 
interest in them. Few of the mating evolutions of our birds are more 
remarkable than the sky dance of the Woodcock. He begins on the 
ground with a formal, periodic -peent, peent, an incongruous preparation 
for the wild rush that follows. It is repeated several times before he 
springs from the ground, and on whistling wings sweep's out on the first 
loop of a spiral which may take him three hundred feet from the ground. 
Faster and faster he goes, louder and shriller sounds his wing-song; 
then, after a moment's pause, with darting, headlong flight, he pitches 
in zigzags to the earth, uttering as he falls a clear, twittering whistle. 
He generally returns to near the place from which he arose, and the 
peent is at once resumed as a preliminary to another round in the sky. 
In the gray of early morning this strange performance is repeated. 

1894. Brewster, W., Auk, XI, 291-298 (song). 

The European Woodcock (227. Scolopax rusticola) bears a general re- 
semblance to our Woodcock, but is much larger; the underparts are barred 
with black, the wings are barred with rufous, and the outer priinurics are not 
emarginate. It is of accidental occurrence in eastern North America. 

230. Gallinago delicata (Ord). Wilson's Snipe. Ads. — Upperparts 
black, barred, bordered, and mottled with different shades of cream-buff; 
wings fuscous; outer edge of outer primary and tips of greater coverts white; 
throat white; neck and breast ochraceous-buff, indistinctly streaked with 
blackish; belly white, sides barred with black; under tail-coverts buffy, 



246 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

barred with black; outer tail-feathers barred with black and white, inner 
ones black, barred with rufous at their ends and tipped with whitish. L., 
11-25; W., 5-00; Tar., 1-20; B., 2-50. 

Range. — N. A. and n. S. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, 
cen. Keewatin, and n. Ungava s. to n. Calif., s. Colo., n. Iowa, n. Ills., Pa., 
and n. N. J.; winters from n. Calif., N, Mex., Ark., and N. C, through Cen. 
Am. and West Indies to Colombia and s. Brazil; remains in winter casually 
and locally n. to Wash., Mont., Nebr., Ills., and N. S.; accidental in Hawaii, 
Bermuda, and Great Britain. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch. 9-May 11; Aug. 30-Nov. 18, occasional 
in winter. Long Island, common T. V., Mch. and ApL; Aug.-Oct., a few 
winter. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., Mch. 20-May 6; Oct. 6-Nov. 
20. Cambridge, common T. V., Apl. 6-May 6; Sept. 12-Nov. 15. N. Ohio, 
common T. V., Mch. 19-May 15; Sept. 15-Oct. 30. Glen Ellyn, common 
T. v., Mch. 26-May 11; Sept. 1-Nov. 4. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 
11-Oct. 31., A. V. in winter. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground in marshy places. Eggs, 3-4, olive, clay- 
color, or brownish ashy, heavily marked with chocolate, principally at the 
larger end, 1*60 x 1*17. Date, Lake Co., Ills., Apl. 24; se. Minn., May 10. 

Wilson's Snipe frequents fresh-water meadows and swamps, and 
in spring is often found in low-lying swales in meadows or mowing 
fields, but, excepting in very dry seasons, it seldom alights on salt 
marshes. At times, especially in winter or early spring, when the 
meadows are covered with snow or ice, it resorts to springy runs wooded 
with alders, birches, and maples, but as a rule it prefers open places. 
Two things are essential to its requirements — ground so thoroughly 
water-soaked as to afford slight resistance to its long and highly sen- 
sitive bill when probing, and such concealment as tussocks, hillocks, 
or long grass afford, for, unlike the Sandpipers, the Snipe rarely ven- 
tures out on bare mud flats, save under cover of darkness. Although 
less strictly nocturnal than the Woodcock, it feeds and migrates chiefly 
by night or in 'thick' weather. Its migratory movements are noto- 
riously erratic, and meadows which one day are alive with birds may be 
quite deserted the next, or the reverse. 

Dear to our sportsmen is Wilson's Snipe, partly because of the 
excellence of its flesh, but chiefly from the fact that it furnishes a mark 
which taxes their skill to the utmost, and which no mere novice need 
hope to hit, unless by accident; for the bird's flight is swift and tortu- 
ous, and it springs from the grass as if thrown by a catapult, uttering 
a succession of hoarse, rasping scaipes which have a peculiarly start- 
ling effect on inexperienced nerves. 

In the springtime — and occasionally in autumn also — Wilson's 
Snipe mounts to a considerable height above his favorite meadows and 
darts downward with great velocity, making at each descent a low, yet 
penetrating, tremulous sound which suggests the winnowing of a domes- 
tic Pigeon's wings, or, if heard at a distance, the bleating of a goat, and 
which is thought to be produced by the rushing of the air through the 
wings of this Snipe. The performance may be sometimes witnessed in 
broad daylight when the weather is stormy, but ordinarily it is reserved 
for the morning and evening twilight and for moonhght nights, 
when it is often kept up for hours in succession. 



i' 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 247 

Besides this 'drumming' or 'bleating/ as it is called, the Snipe, 
while mating, sometimes makes another pecuHar sound, a kuk-kuk-kuk- 
kuk-kup, evidently vocal and occasionally accompanying a slow, labored, 
and perfectly direct flight, at the end of which the bird alights on a 
tree or fence-post for a few moments. William Brewster. 

1902. Gault, B. T. Wilson Bull., 7-10 (food habits). 

The European Snipe {S29. Gallinago gallinago) inhabits the northern 
parts of the Old World, is of frequent occurrence in Greenland, and accidental 
.in the Bermudas. 

The Great Snipe {230.1 Gallinago media), an Old World species, has 
been taken once on Hudson Bay (Coues, Auk, XIV, 1897, 209). 

-^ 

231. Macrorhamphus griseus griseus (Gmel.). Dowitcher. (Figs. ' 
42a, 43c.) Ads. in summer. — Upperparts, tertials, and Tving-coverts black, 
the feathers edged or barred with ochraceous-buff or rufous; rump, upper 
tail-coverts, and tail barred with black and more or less ochraceous-buff; 
primaries fuscous; underparts dull, pale rufous, whitish on belly, more or 
less spotted and barred with black. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upperparts 
brownish gray; rump and tail barred with black and white; throat and breast 
washed with ashy, belly white, sides and under tail-coverts barred with 
black. Juv. — Upperparts black, the feathers edged with rufous; rump and 
tail barred with black and white, and sometimes washed with rufous; 
secondaries widely edged with white; underparts more or less washed with 
ochraceous-buff and obscurely spotted with blackish. L., 10"50; W., 5'75; 
Tar., 1-30; B., 2-05-2-50. 

Remarks. — The barred tail and tail-coverts, with the peculiar flattened, 
pitted tip of the bUl, are characteristic of this species. 

Range. — E. N. and S. Am. Breeding range unknown, but probably n. 
Ungava; winters from Fla. and the West Indies s. to n. Brazil; in migration 
regularly on the Atlantic coast, and occasionally in Ills., Ind., and Ont.; 
accidental in Greenland, Bermuda, Great Britain, and France. 

Washington, casual, one specimen, Sept. Long Island, common T. V., 
May 15-30; July 12-Sept. 29. 

Eggs, 4, light buffy olive, distinctly spotted and speckled especially 
about the larger end, with deep brown, 1*65 x 1'13 (Ridgw.). 

The Dowitchers are among our best-known Bay Birds. They 
migrate in compact flocks which are easily attracted to decoys by an 
imitiation of their call. Mud-flats and bars exposed by the falhng tide 
are their chosen feeding-grounds. On the Gulf coast of Florida I have 
seen several hundred gathered in such close rank that they entirely 
concealed the sandbar on which they were resting. 

232. M. g. scolopaceus {Say). Long-billed Dowitcher. Ads. in summer. 
— Similar to the preceding, but averaging larger; the bill especially is longer, 
the underparts are more uniformly rufous, and the sides are more heavily 
barred with black. Ads. in winter and Juv. — To be distinguished from the 
corresponding stages of griseus only by their larger size. W., 6'00; Tar., 1*50; 
B., 2-10-2-90. 

Range. — W. N. and S. Am. Breeds from Point Barrow to mouth of 
the Yukon, e. to nw. Mackenzie; winters from La., Fla., and Mox. s., 
probably to S. A.; in migration most abundant in w. Miss. Valley; casual 
on the Atlantic coast from Mass. southward and on the n. coast of e. 
Siberia. 

Washington, casual, seven shot in Apl. Long Island, rare T. V., in fall, 
July 23-Oct. 13 ; one record in spring. 



248 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

Eggs, 4, not distinguishable from those of the preceding species. Date, 
St. Michael's, Alaska, May 23. 

This is a bird of the interior and Western States, and occurs on our 
coasts as a rare but regular late fall migrant. It resembles the pre- 
ceding species in habits, but the baymen who 'gun' for Snipe say 
they can recognize it by its somewhat different notes. Like the Wood- 
cock, Wilson's Snipe, and its near ally, M. g. griseus, the male utters a 
flight song in the nesting season. It is weU described by Mr. E. W. 
Nelson in his Report on Collections made in Alaska, p. 101. 

233. Micropalama himantopus (Bonap.). Stilt Sandpiper. Ads. 
in summer. — Upperparts black, bordered with grayish and buffy; ear- 
coverts and an indistinct line around back of head rufous; secondaries gray- 
ish, edged with white; primaries fuscous; rump ashy; upper tail-coverts 
barred with black and white; outer tail-feathers with broken dusky bars, 
inner ones with central streaks or margins of brownish gray or white ; under- 
parts white, heavily barred vrith. fuscous. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upper- 
parts brownish gray; upper tail-coverts white; tail white, margined with 
brownish gray; underparts white; throat, neck and sides indistinctly streaked 
or washed with grajdsh. Juv. — Similar, but upperparts blackish, margined 
wdth ochraceous-buff. L., 8*25; W., 5-00; Tar., 1-60; B., 1-55. ' 

Remarks. — The distinguishing characters of this species are the flattened, 
pitted tip of the bill, in connection with the very long tarsi. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds near the coast of Mackenzie and probably 
s. to cen. Keewatin; winters in S. A. s. to Uruguay and Chile; casual in 
winter in s. Tex., and Mex. ; in migration occurs in w. Miss. Valley, West 
Indies, and Cen. Am.; less common on the Atlantic coast, and casual in B. 
C, N. F. and Bermuda. 

Washington, casual, one record, Sept. Long Island, not uncommon T. 
v.. May; July to Oct. 10 (Dutcher). SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., May 14- 
Aug. 20. 

Eggs, 3-4, pale grayish buff, or grayish buffy white, boldly spotted with 
rich vandyke-brown and purpHsh gray, 1*42 x I'OO (Ridgw.). Date, Ander- 
son River, Mack., June 23. 

Colonel N. S. Goss, in his admirable "Birds of Kansas," writes that 
he has observed this species along the edges of old channels of rivers 
or muddy pools of water, in which it wades while feeding; immersing 
the head and feeUng with its sensitive bill in the thin mud for food. 
It moves about rather slowly as compared with the true Sandpipers, 
and at times will try to avoid detection by squatting close to the 
ground, flying only as a last resort, and then darting swiftly away 
with a sharp tweetj tweet. 



234. Tringa canutus Linn. Knot. (See Figs. 42&, 43&.) Ads. 
in summer. — Upperparts barred and streaked with black and white and 
rufous; tail ashy gray, narrowly margined with whitish; underparts dull 
rufous; lower belly white or whitish, sides sometimes with black bars. (See 
Auk, X, 1893, p. 25.) Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upperparts plain brownish 
gray; upper tail -coverts barred with black and white, tail brownish 
gray; breast and sides barred with black, belly white. Juv. — Upperparts 
pale brownish gray; head streaked with blackish; back, wing-coverts, and 
scapulars with distinct black and white borders; upper tail-coverts barred 
with blackish; tail ashy gray, narrowly margined with white; underparts 
white; breast finely streaked or spotted with blackish; flanks barred or 
streaked with blackish. L., lO'SO; W., 6-75; Tar., 1-20; B., 1*30. 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 249 

Range. — N. and S. Hemispheres. Breeds from n. Ellesmere Land s. to 
Melville Peninsula and Iceland, and also on Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia; 
winters s. to s. Patagonia, and from the Mediterranean to S. Africa, India, 
Australia, N. Zealand; casual in winter on the Atlantic coast of U. S.; in 
migration occurs on the Atlantic coast of N. A., and over most of the E. 
Hemisphere; rare in the interior of N. A., and on the Pacific coast. 

Long Island, not uncommon T. V., May 15- June 10; July 15-Nov. 
(Butcher). SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., Sept. 7. 

Eggs, one specimen collected in the vicinity of Fort Conger by General 
Greely, is described as "light pea-green, closely spotted with brown in small 
specks about the size of apinhead," I'lO x I'OO (see Merriam, Auk, II, 1885, 
313). A breeding-place of thirty pairs was discovered in northeast Green- 
land by the Danish expedition of 1906-8. (See Geog. Journ., XXXV, 541 
and Ihis, 1910, 766.) 

Knots feed along the beaches on the small crustaceans and mol- 
lusca brought in by the waves, and they also frequent muddy places 
where, like the true Snipe, thej^ probe the ground for food. They 
decoy with ease, 'bunching' so closely as they wheel into the stools 
that the entire flock is sometimes killed by a single discharge. Mr. 
George H. Mackay, in one of his careful and detailed studies of our 
Shore Birds,, describes their notes as a soft wah-quoit and a Httle honk. 
The first is particularly noticeable when flocks are coming to the decoys 
(see Auk, x, 1893, 25-35). 

235. Arquatella maritima maritixna (Brunn.). Purple Sandpiper. 
Ads. in summer. — Upperparts black, margined with ochraceous-buff and 
cream-buff; wings fuscous-gray, greater coverts margined with white and 
some secondaries entirely white; upper tail-coverts fuscous, outer tail- 
feathers ashy gray, inner ones fuscous; throat and breast brownish gray, 
streaked with black; belly white, sides and under tail-coverts streaked with 
brownish gray. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Head, neck, breast, and sides 
ashy, the two latter margined with white; back fuscous, margined with ashy; 
wings fuscous, the coverts, secondaries, and tertials distinctly bordered with 
white; upper tail-coverts and middle tail-feathers black or fuscous, outer 
tail-feathers ashy; belly and linings of the wings white. L., 9*00; W., 5'00; 
Tar., 9-00; B., r40. 

Remarks. — The brownish gray or ashy breast of this species is a good 
distinguishing character. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. Breeds from Melville Is., Ellesmere Land, and 
n. Greenland s. to Melville Peninsula, Cumberland Sound, and s. Greenland, 
and in Norway, Russia, Siberia, Iceland, and Faroe Islands; winters from s. 
Greenland and N. B., to L. I.; casual in migration to the Great Lakes, Ga., 
Fla., and Bermuda, and in the E. Hemisphere s. to Great Britain and the 
Mediterranean. 

Long Island, uncommon W. V., Nov. 1-Mch. 1 (Dutcher). Cambridge, 
one instance, Oct. 

Eggs, 3-4, olive clay-color or brownish ashy, heavily marked with rufous- 
brown, 1*45 X 1*08. Date, Umanak, Greenland, June 19; Faroe Ids., May 31. 

This bird might be called Winter Snipe or Rock Snipe. Indeed, I 
find the latter name has been applied to it from its habit of frequent- 
ing rocky coasts, where it secures its food in the alga3 attached to rocks 
exposed by the falhng tide. -.^ 

239. Pisobia maculata (Vieill.). Pectoral Sandpiper. Ads. in 
summer. — Upperparts black, the feathers all heavily bordered with pale 



250 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

ochraceous-buff; rump and upper tail-coverts black, lightly tipped with 
ochraceous-buff ; middle tail-feathers longest, pointed and margined with 
buffy; outer tail-feathers brownish gray, narrowly margined with white; 
throat white, neck and breast heavily streaked with black and buffy; rest of 
underparts white. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Similar, but ochraceous-buff 
of upperparts replaced by rufous, and breast heavily washed with bufify. L. 
9-00; W., 5-40; Tar., flO; B., I'lS. 

Remarks. — This bird somewhat resembles both P. fuscicollis and P. 
bairdi, but it differs from them in its larger size, black instead of white or 
fuscous upper tail-coverts, and longer, more pointed middle tail-feathers. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds on the Arctic coast from n. Alaska to 
nnouth of Yukon and ne. Mackenzie; winters in S. A. from Peru and Bolivia 
to n. Chile, Argentina, and cen. Patagonia; in migration very rare on Pacific 
coast south of B. C, except in L. Calif.; common in fall migration in Miss. 
Valley and on the Atlantic coast, rare in spring; casual in ne. Siberia, Un- 
alaska, and Greenland; accidental in Hawaii and England. 

Washington, common T. V., ApL; Aug. 23-Oct. 22.^ Long Island, T. V., 
rare in May, common from July 15 to Nov. 1. Ossining, rare T. V., Sept, 
10-Oct. 16. Cambridge, uncommon T. V., Oct. 5-20. N. Ohio, common 
T. v., Apl. 1-May 5. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Apl. 4-May 10; Aug. 5- 
Sept. 28. SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 23; Sept. 15. 

Eggs, 4, drab, sometimes wdth a greenish tinge, blotched with clear 
umber-brown markings, more numerous at the larger end, 1*50 x 1'09 (Mur- 
doch). Date, Pt. Barrow, June 18. 

The names Grass Snipe and Krieker describe with equal truth and 
conciseness the haunts and notes of this Snipe, It frequents wet, 
grassy meadows rather than beaches, and, although it flies in flocks, 
the birds scatter while feeding and take wing one or more at a time. 
They thus remind one of Wilson's Snipe. Their note is a squeaky, 
grating whistle. They will respond to an imitation of it, but do not 
decoy so readily as the larger Bay Birds. Mr. E. W. Nelson writes 
that during the breeding season the male inflates its breast and throat 
until they are double their normal size, and utters a deep, hollow, reso- 
nant note. (Rep. on Nat. Hist. Coll. made in Alaska, p. 108.) 

240. Pisobia fuscicollis (VieilL). White-eumped Sandpiper. Ads. in 
summer. ^ — Upperparts black, edged with rufous; rump grayish fuscous, mar- 
gined with ashy; longer upper tail-coverts white, with sometimes brownish 
gray markings; central tail-feathers fuscous, outer ones brownish gray, upper 
throat white; neck, breast, and sides distinctly streaked and spotted with 
black and more or less washed with ochraceous-buff. Ads. and Juv. in winter. 
— "Upperparts plain brownish gray, with indistinct, narrow mesial streaks 
of dusky; otherwise as in summer, but streaks on chest, etc., less distinct" 
(Ridgw.). Juv. — Similar to summer examples, but the feathers of the upper- 
parts with rounded whitish or ochraceous-buff tips; breast less distinctly 
streaked. L., 7-50; W., 4-90; Tar., '90; B., -95. 

Remarks. — The white upper tail-coverts distinguish this species. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds along the Arctic coast from nw. Mack- 
enzie to Cumberland Is. ; has occurred in summer w. to Point Barrow and e. to 
Greenland; winters from Paraguay to s. Patagonia and the Falkland Islands; 
in migration most abundant in th(i Miss. Valley, less so on the Atlantic 
coast; casual in Bermuda, Great Britain, the West Indies, and Cen. Am. 

Long Island, not uncommon, T. V., July 20-Oct. 10. Ossining, casual 
T. v., Sept. N. Ohio, casual T. V. 

Eggs, 3-4, light olive, or oli\^e brownish, spotted (usually rather finely) 
with deep brown and dull, purplish gray, 1'37 x "94 (Ridgw.). Da^e, Herschel 
Is., June 10 (Thayer Coll.). 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 251 

"They frequent the sandy beach as well as the marshy shores 
upon the coast, but inland seem to prefer the edges of pools of water 
upon the uplands. They move in small flocks, are very social, often 
associating with other waders, are not as a rule shy or timid, and, when 
startled, usually fly but a short distance, drop back, and run about 
in an unconcerned and heedless manner, picking up the minute forms 
of life that usually abound in such places, occasionally uttering a 
rather sharp, piping weet, weet. Their flight is s-wift and well sustained" 
(Goss). 

241. Pisobia bairdi (Coues). Baird's Sandpiper. Ads. in summer. — 
Upperparts fuscous; feathers of crown and nape margined laterally with 
pale buffy; back and scapulars tipped with pale buffy or brownish gray; 
middle upper tail-coverts /mscous, sometimes tipped with buffy; central tail- 
feathers fuscous, margined with whitish, outer ones pale brownish gray; 
throat white; breast washed with buffy and lightly spotted or streaked with 
fuscous sides and belly white. Juv. — Similar, but the back, scapulars, and 
wing-coverts with rounded white tips. (In the winter these tips are more or 
less worn off.) L., 7-40; W., 4*90; Tar., '90; B., 'So. 

Remarks. — This bird most closely resembles P. fuscicollis. In any plu- 
mage it may be known from that species by the fuscous instead of white middle 
upper tail-coverts. In summer it differs also in the absence of rufous above, 
the less heavily spotted throat, and the white instead of spotted sides. In 
winter the chief distinguishing marks of the two species, aside from the dif- 
ferently colored upper tail-coverts, are the buffy breast and generally paler 
upperparts of bairdi. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds along the Arctic coast from Point Barrow 
to n. Keewatin; winters in Chile, Argentina, and Patagonia; occurs regularly 
in migration from the Rocky Mts. to the Miss. River, and in Cen. Am., and 
n. S. A., and irregularly in autumn on the Pacific coast from Alaska to 
L. Calif., and on the Atlantic coast from N. S. to N. J.; casual in summer in 
Guerrero, Mex.; accidental in England and S. Africa. 

Washington, casual, one record, Sept. Long Island, rare T. V., in fall, 
Aug. 14-Oct. 31. N. Ohio, casual T. V. SE. Minn., T. V., May 10. 

Eggs, 3-4, light, creamy buff, sometimes tinged with rusty, thickly 
speckled and spotted with deep reddish brown or chestnut, 1*30 x '93 
(Ridgw.). Date, Pt. Barrow, June 20. 

"In habits they are similar to the White-rumped (which they so 
closely resemble), but are more inclined to wander from the water's 
edge. I have flushed the birds on high prairie lands, at least a mile 
from the water" (Goss). 

242. Pisobia minutilla (Vieill.). 
Least Sandpiper. Ads. in summer. — 
Upperparts black or fuscous, edged and 
tipped with buffy or rufous; nimp and 
middle upper tail-coverts plain black or 
fuscous; central tail-feathers black or 
fuscous, outer ones ashy gray; upper 
throat white; neck and breast white or 
buffy, streaked with fuscous; belly and 
sides white. Juv. — Similar, but feathers 
of the back with rounded rufous or buffy 
tips; breast not distinctly streaked. 

Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upperparts Fig. 80. Least Sandpiper, 

brownish gray, sometimes with more (Natural size.) 




252 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 



or less black in the centers of the feathers; breast white or ashy, not dis- 
tinctly streaked. L., 6-00; W., S'SO; Tar., -70; B., -75. 

Remarks. — This is the smallest of our Sandpipers, and can be confused 
only with Ereunetes pusilhis, from which, however, it may always be distin- 
guished by the absence of webs between the bases of the toes. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska, s. Arctic islands, and n. 
Ungava to Yakutat Bay, Alaska, valley of the Upper Yukon, n. Mackenzie, 
cen. Keewatin, s. Ungava, N. S., and Sable Is.; winters from Calif., Tex., 
and N. C, through the West Indies and Cen. Am., to Brazil, Chile, and the 
Galapagos; in migration occurs throughout the U. S., and w. to ne. Siberia 
and the Commander Islands, n. to Greenland, and in Bermuda; accidental 
in Europe. 

" Washington, uncommon T. V., May; Aug.-Oct. Long Island, abundant 
T. v., Apl. 25 through May; July through Sept. Ossining, tolerably com- 
mon T. v., Mav 9-May 22; Oct. 3. Cambridge, very common T. V., May 
15-May 28; July 20-Sept. 1. N. Ohio, common T. V., May 5-20; Sept. 1-30. 
Glen Ellyn, tolerably common T. V., May 4-15; Aug. 2-Sept. 5. SE. 
Minn., common T. V. May 9; Sept. 15. 

Eggs, 3-4, pale, grayish buffy, varying to pale brownish, thickly spotted, 
speckled, or sprinkled with deep chestnut and dull, purplish gray, 1'15 x "83 
(Ridgw.). Date, Kadiak Islands, June 25 (Thayer Coll.). 

This, the smallest of our Sandpipers, is frequently associated with 
its larger cousin, the Semipalmated Sandpiper, on the shores and 
beaches, but it also visits the grassy meadows, and for this reason is 
known by baymen as the 'Meadow Oxeye.' 

243a. Pelidna alpina sakhalina (Vieill.). Red-backed Sandpipeb. 
Ads. in summer.— -Uppernarts broadly margined with rufous, centers of the 
feathers black, wings brownish gray; breast whitish, lightlj^ streaked with 
blackish; middle of the belly with a large black -patch, lower belly white. Juv. 




Fig. 81, Red-backed Sandpiper. (Natural size.) 

— Upporparts blackish, the feathers with rounded tips of rufous or buffy; 
breast washed with buffy and indistinctly streaked with blackish; belly 
spotted with black. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upperparts brownish gray; 
middle upp(>r tail-coverts fuscous; wing-coverts brownish gray margined with 
buffy; throat white; breast af?hy, indistinctly streaked; belly white, the sides 
sometimes spotted with black. L., S'OO; W., 4-75; Tar., I'OO; B., 1-50. 

Remarks. — There is, of course, every degree of intergradation between 
summer and winter plumage, but the species may always be known by its 
slightly curved bill. 

Range.— N. A. and E. Asia. Breeds on the n. coast of Siberia w. to 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 253 

mouth of the Yenisei, and from Point Barrow to mouth of Yukon, and in 
Boothia and Melville Peninsulas and n. Ungava; winters on the Pacific 
coast from Wash, to s. L. Calif., and from N. J. (rarely Mass.) s. to La. and 
s. Tex., and in Asia from China and Japan to the Malay Archipelago; rare 
in migration in the interior of the U. S. except about the s. end of Lake Mich- 
igan. 

Washington, rare T. V., Apl.; Sept.-Nov. Long Island, T. V., uncom- 
mon in spring, Apl. 1-May 15; common in fall, Aug. 31 through Oct. 
(Butcher). Ossining, tolerably common, T. V. in fall, Oct. 3-24. Cambridge, 
casual, one instance, Oct. N. Ohio, casual T. V. SE. Minn., T. V.,May 14.. 

Eggs, 3-4, varying from pale, bluish white to ochraceous-buff, heavily 
marked with chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 1*43 x 1*01. Date, Pt. 
Barrow, Alaska, June 21. 

Generally speaking, this is a shore or beach bird, though it also 
visits grassy marshes. It flies and feeds in flocks, and is an unsus- 
picious, rather stupid little Snipe, less active than most members of 
this family. The gray-plumaged fall birds are known as 'Leadbacks,' 
while in the spring they go by the names 'Blackbreast' or 'Redback.' 

The Dunlin {2Jf3. Pelidna alpina alpina) is the Old World representa- 
tive of our Red-backed Sandpiper, from which it differs only in being less 
brightly colored and somewhat smaller. L., about 7'40; W., 4'12-4'50; Tar., 
•78r-90; B., 1'05-1*25. It is of casual occurrence in North America. 

244. Erolia ferruginea (Brunn.). Curlew Sandpiper. Bill slightly 
decurved. Ads. in summer. — Below reddish brown, above rusty and black. 
Juv. — Above brownish gray, margined with whitish, back blacker; below 
white. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Above plain brownish gray; below white. 
L., 8-00; W., 5-00; B., I'.dO; T., I'lO. 

Range. — Chiefly E. Hemisphere; occasional in N. and S. A. Breeds in 
the Yenisei delta and on the Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia; winters in Africa, 
India, Malay Archipelago, and Australia; in migration occurs from Great 
Britain to China and the Philippines; occasional in N. A.; Alaska (Pt. 
Barrow), Ont., N. S., Maine., Mass., N. Y., and N. J., and in the West 
Indies and Patagonia. 

246. Ereunetes pusillus (Linn.). Semipalmated Sandpiper. Ads. 
in summer. — Upporparts black or fuscous, margined with brownish gray and 
a small amount of rufous; rump grayish brown; upp(>r tail-coverts blackish; 
tail-feathers brownish gray, central ones darkest; breast streaked or spotted 
with blackish. Juv. — Similar, but upperparts and wing-coverts blackish, 
with rounded rufous or buffy tips to the feathers; breast unstreaked, tinted 
with buffy. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upperparts brownish gra3% with 
darker shaft streaks; upper tail-coverts darker; underparts white, sometimes 
with faint streaks on the breast. L., 6-30; W., 3-75; Tar., '75; B., -GS-'SO. 

Remarks. — The small size of this and the next species prevents their be- 
ing confused with any other except Pisohia minutilla, from which they may 
always be known by their partially webbed toes. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from the Arctic coast of N. A. s. to mouth 
of Yukon and to s. Ungava; winters from Tex. and S. C. through West 
Indies and C^en. Am. to Patagonia; migrates mainly e. of the Rocky Mts. ; 
casual in B. C, Pribilof Islands, and nc. Siberia; accidental in ]';un)p(\ 

Washington, rare T. V., May; Aug. 10-Oct. 2G. Long Island, alnindant 
T. v., May; July through Sept. Os.sining, conmion T. V., in fall, Aug. 14- 
Oct. 20. Cambridge, T. V., in fall, Aug. 1()-S(>pt. 15. N. Ohio, common T. 
v., May 5-May 25; Sept. 1-25. Glen Ellvn, T. V., May; Aug. and Sept. 
SE. Minn., common T. V., May 22; Sept. 15. 

Eggs, 3-4, pale, dull grayish.buff, sprinkled, speckled, or spotted with 
dark brown and purplish gray, 1'21 x *85 (Ridgw.). Date, Lab., June 12. 



254 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

The thought of these Uttle Sandpipers always cceates a mental pic- 
ture of a long stretch of dazzhng beach with its ever-changing surf- 
Hne. I hear the oft-repeated booming of the rolhng, tumbling breakers, 
and in the distance see a group of tiny forms hurrying to and fro over 
the sand smoothed by the frothy waves. With what nimble grace- 
fulness they follow the receding waves, searching for treasm-es cast up 
by the sea! What contentment and good-fellowship are expressed by 
their cheery, conversational twitterings! Up and down the beach they 
run, now advancing, now retreating, sometimes, in their eagerness, ven- 
turing too far, when the waters threaten to engulf them, and in momen- 
tary confusion they take wing and hover back to a place of safety. 
Suddenly, as though at a signal, they are off; a compact flock moving 
as one bird, twisting and turning to right and left, now gleaming white 
as the sun strikes their snowy bodies, now dark again like a wisp of 
sunless cloud flying before the wind. 

247. Ereunetes mauri {Cab.). Western Sandpiper. This bird 
closely resembles the preceding, from which, in summer plumage, it differs 
in having the upperparts conspicuously margined with rufous and the breast 
more heavily streaked. In fall and -wnnter plumage the differences in color- 
ation are not so apparent, but the birds are to be distinguished at any season 
by the size of the bill, which in the western species is always longer. 
W., 3-80; Tar., 80; B., •85-1-20. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds along the Alaska coast from Kotzebue 
Sound to mouth of Yukon; winters from N. C. to Fla., and from s. L. Calif, 
to Venezuela; in migration occurs mainly w. of the Rocky Mts., but also 
on the Atlantic coast as far n. as Mass., and in the West Indies. 

Washington, rare T. V., Aug.-Sept. Long Island, uncommon T. V., in 
fall, occurring with E. pusillus. 

Eggs, 3-4, deep cinnamon buffy, sprinkled, speckled, or thickly spotted 
■udth bright rusty brown or chestnut, the general aspect decidedly rusty, 
1-24 X -87 (Ridgw.). Date, St. Michael's, Alaska, May 28. 

This western representative of the preceding species is found on 
our coasts associated with its eastern relative. According to Wayne 
(Birds So. Car.) this is the most abimdant winter wader on the South 
Carolina coast. 

248. Calidris leucophsea (Pall). Sanderling. Ads. in summer. — 
Feathers of upperparts with generally black centers, bordered and some- 
times barred with pale rufous and tipped wdth ashy white; wings fuscous, 
basal half of outer web of inner primaries white; wing-coverts grayish fuscous, 
greater ones, broadly tipped with white; tail brownish gray, narrowly 
margined with white; throat and upper breast washed with pale rufous and 
spotted with blackish; rest of the underparts pure white. Juv. — Similar, 
but upperparts without rufous, glossy black, the feathers sometimes bor- 
dered with white, but generally Avith two white spots at their tips separated 
by the black of the central part of the feather; nape grayish white, lightly 
streaked with blackish; underparts pure white, with occasionally a few spots 
on the breast. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Upperparts pale brownish gray, 
wings as in the preceding; underparts pure white. L., 8*00; W., 5'00; Tar., 
1-00; B., 1-00. 

Remarks. — The Sanderling is the only one of our Snipes or Sandpipers 
having three toes, and it may always be known by this character in combi- 
nation with its transversely scaled tarsi. 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 255 

Range. — N. and S. Hemispheres. Breeds from Melville Is., EUesmere 
Land, and n. Greenland to Pt. Barrow, Alaska, n. Mackenzie, Iceland, and 
in n. Siberia; winters from cen. Calif., Tex., Va.. and Bermuda to Patagonia, 
and casually to Mass., and Wash.; also from the Mediterranean, Burma, 
and Japan to S. Africa and various Pacific islands, including Hawaii. 

Washington, rare T. V., Sept.-Oct. Long Island, common T. V., Mch. 
15 through May; July 20-Oct. 1. Ossining, tolerably common T. V. to 
June 5; Sept. 9-Oct. 5. Cambridge, casual, one instance, Sept. N. Ohio, 
common T. V., May 1-20; Sept. 1-Oct. 10. SE. Minn., T. V., May 14. 

Eggs, 3-4, light olive-brown, finely spotted or speckled with darker, 
the markings larger and more blended on the larger end, 1'41 x '91 (Ridgw.). 
Date, Anderson River, Mack., June 27. 

This is a true beach bird, and is usually found on shores washed 
by the sea. It frequently associates with the Semipalmated Sandpiper, 
or Oxeye, which it resembles in habits, but its larger size and lighter 
colors distinguish it from that species. 

249. Limosa fedoa {Linn.). Marbled Godwit. Ads. in summer. — 
Upperparts black, the head and neck streaked with buffy, back barred or 
the feathers spotted on the sides and sometimes tipped with buffy or ochra- 
ceous-buff ; inner web of outer primaries and both webs of inner ones ochra- 
ceous-buff or pale buffy, speckled with black; tail ochraceous-buff barred with 
black; throat white, rest of underparts pale buffy, spotted or barred with 
black; bill curved slightly upward, yellowish at the base, black at the end. 
Juv. — Similar, but underparts with few or no bars except on flanks and under 
tail-coverts. L., IS'OO; W., 8-75; Tar., 275; B., 4-00. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from valley of the Saskatchewan s. to N. D. 
(formerly to Iowa and Wise); winters from s. L. Calif., La., Fla., and Ga. to 
Guatemala and Belize; casual in Calif, in winter; in migration occurs on the 
Pacific coast n. to B. C, and on the Atlantic coast to the Maritime Provinces 
(formerly) and s. to the Lesser Antilles; accidental in Alaska. 

Long Island, rare T. V., Aug. and Sept. 

Eggs, 3-4, clay-color or brownish ashy, blotched, spotted, and scrawled 
with grayish brown, 2*15 x 1-60. Date, Minor Co., S. D., May 16. 

This is a common bird about the sloughs of Alberta prairies where 
its loud, frequently uttered double-noted call makes it conspicuous. 
It is rare on the Atlantic coast. 

1907. Bent, A. C, Auk, XXIV, 160-167 (nesting). 

251. Limosa hsemastica (Linn.). Hudsqnian Godwit. Ads. in 
summer. — Bill slightly curved upward. Upper tail-coverts black and white; 
tail black at the end, white at the base; above black, rusty and grayish; 
below reddish brown, barred with blackish and faintly tipped with white. 
Juv. — Similar, but below buffy whitish, breast grayer. Ads. and Juv. in 
winter. — Similar to the young below, but above brownish gray. L., 15; 
W., 8-2; Tar., 2*2; B., 3-2. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from the lower Anderson River se. to cen. 
Keewatin; winters in Argentina, Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands; 
in migration occurs principally e. of the Great Plains, most commonly on 
the Atlantic coast in autumn and in the Miss. Valley in spring; casual in 
Alaska. 

Long Island, rare T. V., Aug.-Oct. Cambridge, one record. 

Eggs, 3-4, deep olive, hair-brown, or broccoli-brown (sometimes paler), 
usually more or less spotted with darker brown, but sometimes nearly 
uniform, 2-20 x 1'42 (Ridgw.). Date, Ft. Anderson, Mack., June 9. 

This species is becoming one of our rarest Shore Birds. 



256 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

The Black-tailed Godwit {252. Limosa limosa) inhabits the northern 
parts of the Old World and is of accidental occurrence in Greenland. 

The Green-shank {253. Glottis nebularia) is an Old World species, of 
which three specimens were taken by Audubon, May 28, 1832, near Cape 
Sable, Florida. It resembles our Greater Yellow-legs, but differs chiefly in 
having the lower back and rump white. 

254. Totanus melanoleucus {Gmel.). Greater Yellow-legs. Ads. 
in summer. — Upperparts black, head and neck streaked and back spotted 
or barred with white or ashy; upper tail-coverts white, more or less barred 
with black; tail white or ashy, barred with black; breast heavily spotted 
with black; sides barred with black; middle of the belly white. Ads. and 
Juv. in winter. — Similar, but upperparts brownish gray, edged Tvdth whitish; 
sides of scapulars, tertials, and wing-coverts mth blackish and whitish 
spots; breast only lightly streaked with blackish, anil sides slightly barred. 
L., 14-00; W., 7-70; Tar., 2-40; B., 2-20. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from Lake Iliamna, Alaska, and s. 
Mackenzie to s. B. C., Ungava, Lab., and Anticosti Is.; winters from s. 
Calif., Tex., La., and Ga. (casuaUy N. C.) s. to Patagonia; occurs in Ber- 
muda in migration. 

Washington, rather common T. V., Apl., May; July 25-Nov. Long 
Island, common T. V., Apl. 10 through May; July 15 through Oct. Ossining, 
common T. V., to June 5;-0ct. 28. Cambridge, common T. V., Apl. 20- 
May 20; Aug. 1-Oct. 20. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 10-May 15; Sept. 
1-Oct. 30. Glen Ellyn, uncommon T. V., May; Sept. 18-Oct. 24. SE. Minn., 
common T. V., Apl. 1; Sept. 17-Oct. 28. 

Eggs, 3-4, brownish buffy, distinctly but very irregularly spotted with 
rich Vandyke- or madder-brown, 1*43 x 1'20 (Ridgw.). Date, Ft. George, 
B.C., May 20. 

It needs only the musical notes of the Yellow-leg to recall memo- 
ries of many days passed along the shore and in the marshes. Half 
reclining in my blind, I see in fancy the staring decoys, pointing like 
weathercocks mth the wind, and hear the dull booming of surf behind 
the brown sand-dunes. 

Few birds are flying; lulled by the lap, lap of the water, I have 
almost fallen asleep, when from far up in the gray sky comes a soft, 
flutelike whistle, when, wheu-wheu-wheu-wheu, when, wheu-wheu. I 
respond quickly, and, lying on my back, look eagerly upward. Not a 
bird can be seen, but the questioning call grows stronger and is repeated 
more frequently. Finally I distinguish flve or six black points sailing 
in narrow circles so high that I can scarcelj^ beheve they are the birds 
I hear. But no bar or shoal breaks the sound waves. The birds grow 
larger and on widening circles sweep earthward. Their soft whistle 
has a plaintive tone; their long bills turn inquiringly from side to side. 
The stolid decoys give no response, they repel rather than encourage, 
but the whistling continues, and with murmured notes of interrogation 
the deluded birds wheel over them and, if permitted, will alight 
before discovering the deception. 

255. Totanus flavipes {Gmel.). Yellow-legs. Ads. in summer. — 
Upperparts generally brownish gray, head and neck streaked with black 
and white; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts with sometimes black centers, 
spotted or tipped with whitish or brownish gray; upper tail-coverts white, 
more or less barred with black, tail varying from white to brownish gray, 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 257 

with numerous black or blackish cross-bars; breast heavily spotted or 
streaked and sides barred with black; belly white, legs yellow. Ads. and 
Juv. in winter. — Similar, but upperparts brownish gray, the sides of the 
feathers with whitish spots; tail-bars grayish; breast lightly streaked with 
ashy. L., lO'To; W., 6-40; Tar., 2-05; B., 1-40. 

Remarks. — This bird closely resembles the Greater Yellow-legs in 
color, but may always be distinguished by its smaller size. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, n. Macken- 
zie, cen. Keewatin, and s. Ungava to the valley of the Upper Yukon, s. 
Sask., and n. Que.; winters in Argentina, Chile, and Patagonia, and 
casually in Mex., Fla., and the Bahamas; in migration occurs mainly e. of 
the Rocky Mts. (rare in spring on the Atlantic coast), and in the Pribilof 
Islands, Greenland, and Bermuda; accidental in Great Britain. 

Washington, rather common T. V., Mch. to May 15; Aug.-Oct. Long 
Island, T. V., very rare in spring, abundant in fall; July 15-Oct. 1. Ossining, 
tolerably common T. V., in fall; Aug. 25-Oct. 5. Cambridge, rare T. V., 
May; Aug. 4-Sept. 15. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 20-May 15; Sept. 1- 
Oct. 30. Glen EUyn, quite regular, Apl. 15-May 19; July 6-Oct. 17. SE. 
Minn., common T. V., Apl. 7; Aug. 23-Oct. 11. 

Eggs, 3-4, buffy (variable as to shade), distinctly (sometimes broadly) 
spotted or blotched with dark madder- or vandyke-brown and purplish 
gray, 1'69 x 1'15 (Ridgw.). Date, Ft. Anderson, Mack., June 5. 

This species closely resembles the preceding in notes, habits, and 
choice of haunts. It decoys, however, more easily, and, generally 
speaking, is more common. 

The European Red-shank (Totanus totanus) has been once recorded 
from Hudson Bay (Coues, Auk, XIV, 1897, 211). 

256. Helodromas solitarius solitarius (Wils.). Solitary Sand- 
piper. Ads. in summer. — Upperparts olive-fuscous, with a slight greenish 
tinge', head and neck streaked and back spotted with white; upper tail- 
coverts fuscous, with fine whitish spots on their sides, lateral ones sometimes 
barred; central pair of tail-feathers fuscous, the others white, barred with 
black; breast streaked, and sides sometimes barred with black; belly white; 
axillars barred with black and white; legs greenish fuscous. Ads. and Juv. 
in winter. — Similar, 
but upperparts gray- 
ish brown; head and 
neck generally un- 
streaked, and back 
only lightly spotted 
with buffy white; 
breast streaked with 

brownish gray. L., _. oo t • / • r c .-x d j • 

e-AO- w n-or:- T'r.T. FiG. 82. Inner view of wing of Solitary Sandpiper, 

1-20'b''i-15 showing barred axillars. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Summers from cen. Keewatin, n. Ungava, and 
N. F. s. to Nebr., 111., Ind., Ohio, and Pa.; probably breeds regularly in the 
n. part of its range, locally and casually in the s. part; winters from the 
West Indies to Argentina; recorded from Greenland, Bermuda, and Great 
Britain. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl.-May 25; July 25-Nov. Long Island, 
common T. V., May; July 15-Oct. 1. Ossining, common T. V., May 3-30; 
Aug. 27-Oct. 2. Cambridge, common T. V., May 12-23; Aug. 10-Sept. 30. 
N. Ohio, tolerably common in summer, Apl. 20-Sept. 15. Glen Ellyn, fairly 
common T. V., Apl. 8-May 31; July 16-Oct. 6. SE. Minn, common T. V., 
Apl. 28; July 23-Oct. 4. 

Nest, lays in the abandoned nests of such tree-building birds as the 




258 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

Robin, Bronzed Grackle or Cedar Waxwing. Eggs, 4, "pale greenish- white, 
heavily blotched and spotted chiefly at the larger ends with vandyke-brown, 
chestnut-brown, and purplish gray," 1'36 x '98. (Raine, Ottawa Nat., 1904, 
135-138; Auk, 1905, 100). Date, n. Alberta, June 9. 

This is a wood Sandpiper. It is rarely found on the beaches or salt 
marshes near the sea, but frequents fresh-water ponds, or lakes and 
woodland streams, both in the lowlands and mountains. It is a quieter, 
more dignified bird than the Spotted Sandpiper, and as a rule only 
utters its tweet-tweet when flushed. The nest of this species has long 
been sought for, but it was not until 1903 that, like its European repre- 
sentative, the Green Sandpiper, it was found laying in the nests of tree- 
building birds. 

The Green Sandpiper (S57. Helodromas ochropus) has been twice 
recorded from America (Nova Scotia and Hudson Bay, Coues Auk, XIV, 
1897, 210). 

258. Catoptrophorus semipalmatus semipalmatus (Gmel.). Willet. 
Ads. in SMmmer.-^Upperparts brownish gray, the head and neck streaked, 
and the back barred with black, and sometimes buffy, the centers of the 
feathers being occasionally wholly black; basal half of primaries and greater 
part of secondaries white; upper tail-coverts white with a few blackish bars; 
central tail-feathers ashy, indistinctly barred with blackish; outer ones whitish, 
lightly mottled with grayish; foreneck heavily streaked; breast and sides 
heavily barred with dark brownish gray and more or less washed with buffy; 
belly generally white, with sometimes a few bars. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — 
Upperparts brownish gray, unmarked; tail gray without bars; rump and 
wings as in the adult; breast washed with grayish; belly white; axillars black. 
L., 15-00; W., 8-00; Tar., 2-30; B., 2*15. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from Va. (formerly N. S.) s. to Fla. and 
the Bahamas; winters from the Bahamas to Brazil and Peru; accidental in 
Bermuda and Europe. 

Washington, rare T. V., Aug. Long Island, T. V., rare in May; uncom- 
mon in Aug. and Sept. (Dutcher). Ossining, A. V. SE. Minn, rare T. V., 
Apl. 10. 

Nest, in grassy marshes. Eggs, 3-4, clay-color or buffy, thickly spotted 
with chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 2*10 x 1*55. Date, Sapelo Is., Ga., 
Apl. 22; Cobb's Is., Va., May 16. 

Willets frequent both fresh- and salt-water marshes, shores, and 
beaches. If you visit their haunts during the nesting season, on flut- 
tering wings they will hover above your head or fly low over the marsh 
to draw you away from their home, uttering, with scarce a moment's 
cessation, their loudly whistled call of pilly-will-willet, pilly-will- 
willet. All day long, and even at night, I have heard them repeat 
these notes until, wearied by their persistence, one is thankful to leave 
them in undisturbed possession of the ground. 

Job, H. K., Wild Wings, 250 (nesting). 

258a. C. s. inornatus (fireu's^) . Western Willet. Slightly larger than 
the preceding, and, in summer plumage, upperparts paler and less heavily 
marked with black; breast less heavily streaked and more suffused with 
buffy, middle tail-feathers without black bars. In winter plumage the two 
forms can be distinguished only by the slight and inconstant character of 
size. W., 8-50; Tar., 2-50; B., 2-40. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds from cen. Ore., s. Alberta, and s. Manitoba 



SNIPES AND S.^DPIPERS 259 

s. to n. Calif., cen. Colo., s. S. D., and n. Iowa, and on the coasts of Tex. 
and La.; winters from cen. Calif., Tex., La., and Gulf coast of Fla. to Mex. 
(L. Calif., Tepic, and Guerrero) ; in fall migration occurs in B. C. and on the 
Atlantic coast from New England south. 

260. Machetes pugnax {Linn.). Ruff; Reeve. Ad. d' in summer. — ■ 
Very variable; above and below black with purplish reflections; or rusty- 
barred with purplish, etc.; feathers of breast much lengthened to form a 
shield of rusty, black, or black and white feathers; two variously colored 
tufts on the hindneck. d" in winter. — Above grayish brown; below white; 
throat and breast grayish; end of tail -n-ith remains of blackish bars; ruff 
absent. Ad. 9. — Head, neck and underparts as in winter male; back black 
margined with gra:y'ish brown; inner wing-feathers barred with black and 
grayish brown. L., 12-50; W., T'OO; Tar., I'TO; B., 1-50. 

Range. — E. Hemisphere. Breeds from the Arctic coast s. to Great Brit- 
ain, Holland, Russia, and Siberia; winters throughout Africa, India, and 
Burma; strays occasionally to the W. Hemisphere, from Ont. and Greenland 
s. to Ind., N. C, Barbados, and n. S. A. 

Washington, one record, Sept. 3. 

The nineteen records of the occurrence of this European species are 
about equally divided between spring and faU dates, and fourteen of 
them are from the Atlantic coast. 

1905. Deane, R., Auk, XXII, 410. —1906. Palmer, T. S., Ibid., 
XXIII, 98 (Am. records). 

261. Bartramia longicauda (Bechst.). Upland Plover. Ads. — 
Head and neck streaked with black and ochraceous-buff ; back and wing- 
coverts ochraceous-buff, barred with black; tertials olive, barred with black 
and margined with ochraceous-buff; primaries fuscous, the outer one ba/vcc^ 
with white; inner tail-feathers brownish graj', outer ones varying from ochra- 
ceous-buff to white, all more or less barred with black; breast and sides 
washed with buffy and streaked or barred with black; belly white or whitish. 
Juv. — Similar, but the ochraceous-buff is deeper. L., 11*50; W., 6"50; Tar., 
1-90; B., ri5. 

Remarks. — The white bars on the outer primary will always serve to 
identify this species. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska, s. Mackenzie, cen. 
Keewatin, cen. Wise, s. Mich., s. Ont., and s. Maine to s. Ore., n. Utah, 
cen. Okla., s. Mo., s. Ind., and n. Va.; winters on the pampas of S. A. to 
Argentina; in migration occurs n. to N. F. and in Europe; accidental in 
Australia. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch. 21-Apl. 24; June 29-Sept. Long 
Island, uncommon S. R., Apl.-Sept. Cambridge, T. V., not uncommon in 
fall; Apl. 20-May 6; July 26-Sept. 14. N. Ohio, common S. R., Mch 20- 
Sept. 20. Glen Ellyn, fairly common S. R., Apl. 10-Sept. 11. SE. Minn., 
S. R., formerly common, now rare, Apl. 7. 

Nest, concealed in the grass. Eggs, 4, creamy buff or white, spotted with 
reddish brown or chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 1*80 x 1*30. Date, 
Haddonfield, N. J., May 6, 1887; Holland Patent, N. Y., May 21; Green- 
wood Co., Kans., May 11; se. Minn., June 17. 

The Upland 'Plover' is at home on grassy plains and pastures. 
It is usually a shy bird, and can rarely be successfully api:)roached on 
foot. It shows no fear, however, of a man who is riding or driving, 
and when on horseback I have passed within a few yards of birds 
which regarded me with some interest but no alarm. They so closely 
resemble dried grass in color that it is sometimes exceedingly diffi- 
19 



260 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

cult to distinguish them from their surroundings. One may ride over 
a prairie upon which, at first glance, not a Plover is visible, and find, 
after careful scrutiny, that dozens of birds are scattered about him 
feeding. This, at least was my experience near Corpus Christi, Texas, 
in April, 1891, but market hunters were then killing as many as sixty 
birds a day, and years of this kind of persecution have greatly reduced 
the numbers of these birds even in the thinly settled West. In the 
East it now breeds only locally, but Eaton states that it is increasing in 
Western New York. 

In alighting, the birds stretch their wings to the utmost, high over 
their backs, as if to get the wrinkles out before gently folding them. 
When flushed they utter a soft, bubbling whistle. During their migra- 
tions one may clearly hear these sweet notes from birds traveling beyond 
the limits of human vision. Langille describes their alarm note as a 
spirited and rapidly uttered quip-ip-ip-ip, quip-ip-ip-ip, and their 
song, given from the ground, a fence, or even a tree, as chr-r-r-r-r-ee-e-e- 
e-e-e-oo-o-o-o-o-oo. He remarks: ''This prolonged, mournful, mellow 
whistle, more hke the whisthng of wind than a bird's voice, may be 
heard even in the night, and is one of the most weird and never-to-be- 
forgotten sounds in Nature." 

262. Tryngites subruflcollis (VieilL). Buff-breasted Sandpiper. 
Ads. — Upperparts greenish black widely margined with pale grayish brown; 
primaries fuscous, inner half of their inner webs speckled with black; longer 
under wing-coverts conspicuously marked and tipped with black, then white; 
central tail-feathers fuscous, outer ones becoming buffy, irregularly marked 
and tipped with black and buffy; imderparts pale ochraceous-buff, tipped 
with whitish, and with generally concealed black markings. Juv. — Similar, 
but back fuscous narrowly margined or ringed with whitish. L., 8"50; W., 
5-25; B., -80. 

Remarks. — In any plumage this bird may be known by the peculiar 
speckling on the inner webs of all the primaries, and also the markings of 
the under wing-coverts. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds along the Arctic coast from n. Alaska to 
n. Keewatin; winters in Argentina and Uruguay; most abundant in migra- 
tion in the Miss. Valley; occasional on the Atlantic coast in fall; casual on 
the Pacific coast n. to St. Michael, Alaska, and to ne. Siberia; straggles to 
Bermuda and frequently to w. Europe. 

Long Island, rare T. V., Aug. and Sept. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V. 

Eggs, 3-4, buffy grayish white, varying to pale olive-buff, boldly spotted 
longitudinally (and somewhat spirally) with dark Vandyke- or madder-brown 
and purplish gray, 1*53 x 1'04 (Ridgw.). Date, Pt. Barrow, Alaska, June 20. 

This is a rare species on the Atlantic coast. Dr. Hatch writes of 
it as observed by him in Minnesota: "They are an extremely active 
species when on the wing, and essentially ploverine in all respects, 
seeking sandy, barren prairies, where they live upon grasshoppers, 
crickets, and insects generally, and ants and their eggs specially. I 
have found them repasting upon minute mollusks on the sandy shores 
of small and shallow ponds, where they were apparently little more 
suspicious than the Solitary Sandpipers are notably. The flight is in 
rather compact form, dipping and rising alternately, and with a dis- 



SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 261 

position to return again to the neighborhood of their former feeding- 
places." 

263. Actitis macularia (Linn.). Spotted Sandpiper. Ads. in sum- 
mer. — Upperparts brownish gray with a faint greenish luster, head and neck 
more or less streaked, and back barred or spotted with black; inner tail- 
feathers like back, outer ones white with blackish bars; underparts white; 
everywhere spotted with black. Juv. — Upperparts brownish gray, with a 
greenish tinge, back faintly and wing-coverts conspicuously barred with 
black and buffy; underparts pure white, unspotted, but slightly washed with 
grayish on breast. Ads. and Juv. in winter. — Similar, but back without bars. 
L., 7-50; W., 4-20; Tar., '90; B., '95. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from tree limit in nw. Alaska, n. Macken- 
zie, cen. Keewatin, n. Ungava, and N. F. s. to s. Calif., Ariz., s. Tex., s. La. 
and n. S. C; winters from Calif., La., and S. C, to s. Brazil and cen. Peru; 
straggles to Great Britain and Helgoland. 

Washington, common T. V., not common S. R., Apl. 2-Oct. 28. Long 
Island, abundant S. R., Apl. 25-Oct. Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 29- 
Oct. 25. Cambridge, common S. R., Apl. 26-Sept. 30. N. Ohio, common 
S. R., Apl. 9-Oct. 15. Glen Ellyn, not very common S. R., Apl. 19-Oct. 30. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 18-Oct. 22. 

Nest, on dry ground, in the grasses or weeds, or beneath a bush near 
fresh or salt water. Eggs, 4, creamy buff or white, thickly spotted and 
speckled with chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 1"25 x '95. Date, Mont- 
gomery Co., Pa., May 16; Cambridge, May 25; se. Minn., May 30. 

Few Shore Birds are more generally known than this widely dis- 
tributed little Sandpiper. It frequents the margins of bodies of both 
fresh and salt water, but is more common inland on the shores of our 
rivers, ponds and lakes. During the summer it is practically our only 
fresh-water Sandpiper, and is familiar to most of us under its common 
names. It runs rapidly along the beach, then pausing bobs, bows, and 
'teters' in a most energetic manner. When flushed it takes wing with 
a sharp weet-weet weet-weet, and after a few wing-strokes scales over 
the water to the beach beyond. It apparently dishkes to go beyond 
certain limits, and after several flights makes a wide circle and returns 
to the starting point. 

264. Numenius americanus Wils. Long-billed Curlew. Ads. — 
Head and neck streaked, and back barred with buffy and black; wing- 
coverts, inner webs of primaries, secondaries, and tail varying from buffy 
to pale rufous, barred or mottled with blackish; underparts ocliraceous- 
buff, breast more or less streaked and sides sometimes barred with black; 
axillars rufous, generally unbarred. L., 24-00; W., 10-50; Tar., 3-10; B., 6-00. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, s. Sask., and Man. to ne. 
Calif., n. N. Mex., and nw. Tex.; winters from cen. C^alif., and s. 
Ariz. s. to Guatemala, and on the Atlantic coast from S. C, to Fla., La., a»id 
Tex.; formerly a regular migrant n. to Mass. and rarely to N. F., now a 
straggler e. of the Miss., n. of Fla.; casual in the West Indies. 

Washington, rare and irregular T. V. Long Island, casual from July- 
Sept. (Dutcher). Os.sining, A. V. 

Eggs, 3-4, olive clay-color or brownish ashy, spotted or blotched with 
chocolate, 2*58 x 1-85. Date, Salt Lake Co., Utah, May 2; Crane Lake, 
Saskatchewan, June 1. 

"These birds, as a rule, inhabit the muddy shores and moist, grassy 
flats and plains, but often frequent and breed upon the ui)lands remote 



262 SNIPES AND SANDPIPERS 

from water. Their food consists of worms, crickets, beetles, grass- 
hoppers, small snails, crabs and crawfish ; the latter they reach for with 
their long bills and pull them out of their holes; and I have seen them 
probe for and unearth the larvae of the beetles and other forms of life 
that in the spring come to or near the surface preparatory to trans- 
formation. While feeding they move about with an easy carriage. 

"Their flight is not rapid but well sustained, with regular strokes 
of the wings, and when going a distance usually high and in a trian- 
gular form, uttering now and then their loud, prolonged whistling note, 
so often heard during the breeding season; before ahghting, suddenly 
drop nearly to the ground, then gather, and with a rising sweep grace- 
fully ahght" (Goss). 

265. Numenius hudsonicus Lath. Hudsonian Curlew. Ads. — 
Upperparts grayish brown, the sides of the feathers with buff or whitish 
spots; rump and tail barred with buffy and blackish; inner web of outer 
primaries and both webs of inner ones barred with buffy or whitish and black: 
underparts buffy or whitish, neck and breast streaked and sides and under 
wing-coverts barred with black. L., IT'OO; W., Q'SO; Tar., 2-20; B., 3-75. 

Remarks. — ^Young birds often have the bill as short as in N. borealis 
from which, however, they may always be distinguished by their barred 
primaries. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds on the coast of Alaska from mouth of 
Yukon to Kotzebue Sound, and on the coast of n. Mackenzie; winters from 
L. Calif, to s. Honduras, from Ecuador to s. Chile, and from B. Guiana to 
mouth of the Amazon; migrates mainly along the Pacific and Atlantic 
coasts; rare in the interior; casual on the Pribilof Islands and in Greenland 
and Bermuda; accidental in Spain. 

Long Island, T. V., rare Apl. 28-May 30; common from July-Oct. 1. 

Eggs, 3-4, pale olive, spotted with dull brown, 2*27 x 1*57 (Ridgw.). 
Date, 6. of Anderson River, Mack., July 4. 

From Virginia to South Carolina, this is an abundant bird during 
its migrations, but it evidently travels over the sea, for it is compara- 
tively uncommon in our North Atlantic States. During their migra- 
tions they select certain isolated islets as roosting-places and return 
to them night after night. 

1892. Mackay, G. H., Auk, IX, 345-352 (in Mass.). 

266. Numenius borealis (Forst.). Eskimo Curlew. Ads. — Upper- 
parts black, margined and tipped with buffy or whitish; upper t'ail-coverts 
barred with buffy and black; tail brownish gray, edged with buffy and 
barred with black; primaries fuscous without bars; underparts buffj^ or whit- 
ish, the l)reast streaked, the sides and under wing-coverts barred with black. 
L., 13-50; W., 8-40; Tar., 1*75; B., 2-40. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds on the Barren Grounds of n. Mackenzie; 
winters in Argentina and Patagonia; now nearly extinct. 

Long Island, very rare T. V., Aug.-Sept. 

Eggs, 3-4, pale olive-greenish, olive, or olive-brownish, distinctly 
spotted, chiefly on the larger end, with deep or dark brown, 2"04 x 1"43 
(Ridgw.). Date, e. of Anderson River, Mack., June 20. 

"Most of their habits closely resemble those of the Golden Plover. 
In migration they fly in much the same manner, with extended and 
broadside and triangular lines and clusters similar to those of Ducks 



PLOVERS 263 

and Geese at such times. They usually fly low after landing, sweeping 
slowly over the ground, apparently looking it over, generally standing 
motionless for quite a while after aUghting, which, owing to their 
general color approximating so closely to the withered grass, renders 
it difficult at times to perceive them. . . . The only note I ever heard 
them make is a kind of squeak, very much like one of the cries of 
Wilson's Tern {Sterna hirundo), only finer in tone." (Mackay, Auk, 
1892, 16-21, 1893, 79; 1894, 75; 1897, 212; 1899, 180.) The Eskimo 
Curlew is now believed to be on the verge of extinction. The latest 
records appear to be Newburyport, Mass., Aug. 27, 1908 (Thayer, J. E., 
Auk, 1908, 77) and Waco, Nebr., Mch. 22, 1911, two females (Aug. Eiche). 

A specimen of the European Curlew {Numenius arquatus) said to 
have been taken on Long Island in 1853, is in the New York State Museum 
at Albany. (Butcher, Auk, IX, 1892, 390.) 

The Whimbrel (S67. Nutnenius •phcEOpus), an Old- World species, is 
of accidental occurrence in Greenland and has been once recorded from 
Nova Scotia. 

27. Family Charadeiid.^. Plovers. (Figs. 42c, d; 43e, d.) 

The seventy-five odd species contained in this family are, as a 
whole, of less boreal distribution than the Snipes, and during the nest- 
ing season are distributed throughout the world. Only eight species 
arc found in North America. Their habits in a general way resemble 
those of the true Snipes, but their much shorter, stouter bills arc not 
fitted for probing, and they obtain their food from the surface. Probably 
for this reason several species are as frequently found on the uplands 
as near the shores. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Toes three. 

A. Back spotted or streaked with black and white, rufous, or golden 

yellow _ . . . . 272. Golden Plover. 

B. Back ashy, gray, brown, or brownish gray. 

a. Rump rufous 273. Killdeek. 

6. Rump not rufous, 
fei. Bill over '50. 

62. A black or brownish band on the breast . 280. Wilson's Plover. 
h^. No band on the breast; back grayish brown, margined with 

• rufous 281. Mountain Plover. 

c^ Bill under '50. 

c^. A black line from the eye to the bill. 

274. Semipalmated Plover. 

c'. No line from the eye to the bill. . . . 277. Pipin(; Plover. 

II. Toes four 270. Black-bellied Plover. 

270. Squatarola squatarola {Linn.). Black-bellied Plover. 

(Fig. 42c, 43fi.) Ads. in summer. — Upperparts black, bordered with white; 
tail white, barred with black; basal half of inner web of primaries white; 
sides of head and neck and entire underparts, except white lowor belly and 
under tail-coverts, black. J}ir. — Upperparts l)lark, head and neck streaked, 
back spotted with whitish or l)ufTy yc^llow; tail and wings as in achilt; under- 
parts white, breast and sides streaked with brownish gray. Ads. and Juv. in 



264 PLOVERS 

winter. — Similar to the preceding, but upperparts brownish gray, lightly- 
margined ^dth whitish. L., irOO; W., T'SO; Tar., r90; B., laO. 

Remarks. — The rounded scales on the front of the tarsus and the presence 
of a fourth, although very small, toe distinguish this bird. 

Range. — Nearly cosmopolitan. Breeds on the Arctic coast from Pt. 
Barrow to Boothia and Melville Peninsulas, and also on the Arctic coast 
of Russia and Siberia; winters from the Mediterranean to S. Africa, in 
India and Australia, and from Calif., La., and N. C. to BrazU and Peru; 
in migration occurs throughout the U. S., and in Greenland and Bermuda; 
accidental in Hawaii. 

Long Island, common T. V., May 5-June 17; Aug. 1-Nov. 4. Ossining, 
A. V. .Glen Ellyn, two records, May and Sept. SE. Minn., now uncommon 
T. v., May 24. 

Eggs, 3-4, light buffy olive, spotted and speckled with dark brown and 
brownish black or deep black, 2*04 x 1*43 (Ridgw.). Date, Pt. Barrow, 
Alaska, June (Thayer Coll.). 

These Plovers are in a great degree tide birds, and seek a large part 
of their food on sand-flats left by the receding water. As the tide rises 
they resort to adjoining marshes or uplands, beaches, or the exposed 
crests of sandbars. In migrating they fly in lines and also in ranks, 
like Ducks and Geese. When on the ground they usually run very fast 
for four or five yards, then stop, elevate the head, and look around. 
They strike at the object they are going to pick up and eat with a very 
quick motion. They have two calls: one of several notes, with the accent 
on the second one, is mellow, clear, and far reaching; the other is low, 
and is uttered when they are at ease and contented. 

Mackay, G. H., Auk, IX, 1892, 143-152; 300. 

The Lapwing {269. Vanellus vanellus) is an Old-World species of acci- 
dental occurrence in America. The only record for eastern North America 
south of Greenland is based on a specimen shot at Merrick, L. I., in Decem- 
ber, 1883 (Butcher, Auk, III, 1886, 438). 

272. Charadrius dominicus dominicus (Mull.). Golden Plover. 
Ads. in summer. — ^Upperparts black, spotted and margined with golden 
yellow; tail brownish gray, indistinctly barred; forehead, sides of head, 
neck, and breast white; rest of the underparts, including cheeks, black; 
under wing-coverts ashy. Juv. — Upperparts and tail fuscous, spotted or 
barred with whitish or j^ellow; underparts whitish, more or less streaked or 
barred with brownish gray. Ads. and Juv; in winter. — Similar, but less 
streaked below and less spotted above. L., 10-50; W., 7-00; Tar., 1-60; B., '90. 

Remarks. — Immature birds are sometimes confused with those of the 
Black-bellied Plover, but, aside from differences of size and color, the absence 
of the fourth toe in the present species will alwaj^s distinguish it. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from Kotzebue Sound along the Arctic 
coast to mouth of the Mackenzie, and from Melville Island, Wellington 
Channel, and Melville Peninsula s. to nw. Hudson Bay; winters on the pam- 
pas of Brazil and Argentina; migrates s. across the Atlantic from N. S. and 
N. B.; a few pass s. through the Miss. Valley, and all migrate n. by this 
route; in migration to Calif., Greenland, and Bermuda; formerly abundant, 
now becoming rare. (See Fig. 9.) 

Washington, rare and irregular T. V. Long Island, T. V., very rare in 
May; common from Aug. 15-Nov. 10 (Butcher). N. Ohio, casual T. V. 
Glen Ellyn, irregular T. V., Mch. 30-Mav 5; Sept. 6-Oct. 18. SE. Minn., 
now uncommon T. V., May 3; Sept. 28-Nov. 2. 

Eggs, 3-4, ochraceous-buff or buflfy white, heavily marked with choco- 
late, 1-85 X 1-28. Date, N. Alaska, May 23. 



PLOVERS 265 

Golden Plovers frequent marshes, sandy hills, old fields, sand-flats 
exposed by the falling tide, plowed fields, and burned tracts which are 
free of trees and bushes. When on the ground they run rapidly and 
gracefully, and after alighting soon scatter. All their movements are 
quick, and after running a few yards they suddenly stop, hold their 
heads erect, and look about them. In feeding they seem to strike at 
an object mth a motion that reminds one of a Loon or Grebe begin- 
ning to dive. When a flock is approaching decoys, every bird seems to be 
whisthng, uttering a note like coodle, coodle, coodle. Unlike the Black- 
belKed Plover, the young birds are wary and more difficult to decoy 
than the old ones. When driven from a favorite resting- or feeding- 
ground thev generally retiu-n in a short time. (Mackay, G. H., Auk, 
1891, 17-24; 1892, 199; 1893, 79-82; 1894, 75; 1895, 78; 1896, 80; 
1897, 212; 1899, 180.) 

The European Golden Plover (271. Charadrius apricarius) occurs in 
eastern Greenland. It resembles our species, but has the under vnng- 
coverts white instead of gray. 

273. Oxyechus vociferus voeiferus (Linn.). Killdeer. Ads. — Fore- 
head, a spot behind the eye, throat, and a ring around neck, a band on 
breast, lower breast, and belly white; front of crown, lores, a ring around neck, 
and a band on breast black; crown and back grayish brown tipped with rufous; 
rump and upper tail-coverts rufous; inner tail-feathers grayish brown, 
outer ones becoming rufous and white, all tipped with black and white. 
L., 10-50; W., 6-50; Tar., I'So; B., -75. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, s. Mackenzie, cen. 
Keewatin, and cen. Que. s. to the Gulf coast and cen. Mex.; winters from 
Calif., Ariz., Tex., Ind., X. J., and Bermuda s. to Venezuela and Peru; 
casual in X. F., Paraguay, and Chile; accidental in Great Britain. 

Washington, P. R., most abundant in migrations. Long Island, not 
common, T. V., recorded in every month but Jan. (Butcher). Ossining, 
rare T. V., in fall, Sept. 28-Oct. 25. Cambridge, rare T. V., very rare S. R. 
N. Ohio, common S. R., Feb. 27-Nov. 15. Glen Ellyn, local S. R., Mch. 
3-Oct. 29. 8E. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 11-Oct. 10. 

N'est, often far from water, a sHght depression in the ground, usually 
scantily Hned with bits of grass, etc., or stones. Eggs, 4, buffy white, spotted 
and scrawled with chocolate chiefly at the larger end, 1"50 x I'lO. Date, 
Chevy Chase, Md., Apl. 6; Pewaukee, Wise, May 15. 

In localities where this bird is common it is difficult to get bej-ond 
the reach of its notes. Lakesides, meadows, pastures, and cultivated 
fields aU attract it, but it is more numerous in the vicinity of water. 
It is a noisy, restless bird, running rapidly when on the ground, and 
when on the wing flying swiftly and sometimes pursuing a most irreg- 
ular course. As a rule it is found in flocks, which scatter when feeding 
but unite when taking wing. At the first sign of danger it utters its 
half-plaintive, half-petulant kill-dee, kill-dee, and when thoroughly 
alarmed its outcry increases until, beside itself with fear, it reaches 
the limit of its vocal powers. Although by no means shy, the Killdeer 
never seems to gain confidence in man, and at his approach always 
gives voice to its fear. Even at night I have heard it cry out at some 
real or fancied danger, 

1889. Chadbourne, A. P., Auk, VI, 255-263 (great flight of). 



266 



PLOVERS 



274. ^gialitis semipalmata (Bonap.). Sbmipalmated Plover. (Figs. 
42d, 43e.). Ads. in summer. — Feathers at base of upper mandible, frorit 
of crown, sides of head below eye, and a band on breast, which generally 
encircles the neck all around, black; rest of underparts and a ring around the 
neck white; back of head and back brownish gray; inner tail-feathers brown- 
ish gray, outer ones becoming gradually white ; toes webbed at the base. Win- 
ter plumage. — Similar, but black 
replaced by brownish gray. 
L., 6-75; W., 4-80; Tar., -90; 
B., -50. 

Range. — N. and S. A. 
Breeds from Melville Island, 
Wellington Channel and Cum- 
berland Sound to the valley of 
the Upper Yukon, s. Macken- 
zie, s. Keewatin, and Gulf of 
St. Lawrence; winters from s. 
L. Calif., La., and and S. C, 
to Patagonia, Chile, and the 
Galapagos; casual in Siberia, 
Greenland, and Bermuda. 

Washington, rare T. V., 
May; Aug.-Sept. Long Island, 
abundant T. V., Apl. 29- June 
4; July 15- Aug. 8. Ossining, 
common T. V., in fall; Aug. 
23-Sept. 20. Cambridge, rare 
in spring; sometimes common 
in Aug. and Sept. N. Ohio, common T. V., May 5-25; Aug. 25-Sept. 20. 
SE. Minn., common T. V., May 23; Sept. 15. 

Eggs, 3-4, buffy white or creamy buff, spotted with chocolate, 1'30 x '90. 
Date, Ungava Bay, Lab., June 10. 

This species frequents sandy beaches, mud-flats, and marshes. It 
is found generally in small flocks of five or ten individuals, which, 
unlike the Semipalmated Sandpipers, do not feed in a compact body, 
but run rapidly about, independently of one another. When they take 
wing, however, they close ranks at once and move as though governed 
by one desire. Their simple, sweet, plaintive call is one of the most 
characteristic notes heard on our shores. At noonday, when the heat 
waves are dancing over the marshes and even the twittering Oxeyes are 
silent, one may hear the cool, pure notes of this little Plover. They may 

be written F yfrv — ^^ ^^ — • A third, shorter note is sometimes added. 

Even a whistled imitation of them takes me to the beaches. 




Fig. 83. Semipalmated Plover. (Natural size.) 



277. .^gialitis meloda (Ord). Piping Plover. Ads. in summer. — 
Upperparts pale whitish ashy; forehead, underparts, and a ring around the 
neck white; front of the crown and a band on either side of the breast, some- 
times complete, black; inner tail-feathers fuscous, outer ones becoming 
white. Winter plumage. — Similar, but black replaced by brownish gray. 
L., 7-00; W., 4-75; Tar., -85; B., '50. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds localb'' from s. Sask., s. Ont., Magdalen 
Islands, and N. S. s. to cen. Nebr., nw. Ind., Lake Erie, N. J. (probably), 
and Va. ; winters on the coast of the U. S. from Tex. to Ga., and in n. Mex.; 
casual in migration to N, F., the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and Bermuda. 



PLOVERS 



267 



Washington, casual, one record, May. Long Island, not common S. R,, 
Mch., through Sept. Ossining, A. V. N. Ohio, breeds sparingly. May 5- 
Sept. 20. Glen Ellyn, two records, May and Sept. SE. Minn., rare T. V., 
May 11-26. 

Nest, a depression in the beach. Eggs, 3-4, creamy white, finely spotted 
or speckled with chocolate, 1'24 x "95. Date, Cape May, N. J., June 1, 1875; 
Shelter Is., N. Y., June 3, 1881; Minor Co., S. D., June 5. 

Because of their pale colors and absence of pronounced black breast 
bands, Piping Plover are the most difficult to see of our small Plover. 
They patter over the sand or pebbles like spirit birds and disappear 
the" moment they stop. Their liquid peep, peep, or peep-lo has a true 
piping quality. As a breeding bird it is now rare, and man's increasing 
encroachment on its haunts threatens it with extinction as a summer 
resident in our Atlantic States. 

The Ringed Plover {275. JEgialitis hiaticuld), an Old-World species, is 
found in Greenland. It is similar to M. semipalmata but slightly larger, the 
black band on the breast is wider, and there is no web between the inner and 
middle toes. 

The Snowy Plover (278. JEgialitis nivosa) of the southwestern United 
States and southward, is of casual occurrence in Ont., La., and Fla. 

280. Ochthodromus wilsonius wilsonius (Ord.). Wilson's Plover. 
Ad. cf. — Lores, front of crown, and a band on the breast black; rest of under- 
parts, forehead, and an indistinct ring on the nape white ; sides of the head and 
nape sometimes with rufous markings; cheeks, crown, and back brownish 

gray; inner tail-feathers fuscous, 
outer ones becoming white. Ad. 9. — • 
Similar, but black replaced by brown- 
ish gray with rusty on breast. Juv. — • 
Similar to 9, but 
uppcrparts margined 
with grayish. L., 
7-50; W.,4-50; Tar., 
1-10; B., -80. 
Range. — S. N. Am. Breeds from 
Tex. e. along the Gulf coast, and 
from se. Va. (formerly N. J.) s. to 
the n. Bahamas; winters from s. L. 
Calif., Tex., and Fla. s. to s. Guate- 
mala and probably to the West 
Indies; casual in N. S. and New 
England, and at San Diego, Calif. 

Long Island, casual, five May 
records. 

Nest, a depression in the sand. 
3, creamy white, evenly and 
rather finely spotted and speckled 
with chocolate, r42 x r()3. Date, 
Sarasota, Fla., Apl. 12; Cobb's Is., 
Va., May 15. 

This is a more strictly maritime species than the other representa- 
tives of this genus. Sandy beaches are its favorite resorts, but it is 
also found on mud-flats exposed by the falling tide. It is a gentle, 
unsuspicious bird, and when its nest is approached it runs about the 
intruder and begs as plainly as a bird can that he will not disturb its 




Fig. 84. Wilson's Plover. (Natural size.) 



268 TURNSTONES: OYSTER-CATCHERS 

treasures. Its plaintive note is easily distinguishable from the calls 
of its near LJies. 

The MoiCNTAiN Plover {281. Podasocys montanus), a western species, is 
of accidental occurrence in Florida. The upperparts are grayish brown 
margined with rufous, the underparts are white tinged with buffy on the 
breast; in adults the front of the crown and lores are black. L., about 8"75; 
W., 5-75; Tar., 1-50; B., -85. 

28. Family Aphrizid^. Surf-birds and Turnstones 

A small family of three species, all of which are found in North 
America, though but one of these visits our Eastern States. They are 
largely maritime birds, frequenting the seacoasts, where they prefer 
the outer beaches. 

283. Arenaria interpres interpres {Linn.). Turnstone. Similar to 
No. 283a, A. i. morinella, but larger (W. 6.00) and, in the adult the upper- 
parts with black prevailing. Im. — Blacker than young of morinella. 

Range. — Old World. Breeds in w. Alaska from Pt. Barrow to the Yukon 
delta, and in w. Greenland, Scandinavia, n. Russia, Siberia, and Japan; 
winters on the coasts of Europe and Asia to s. Africa, Australia, and 
Oceanica. 

283a. A. i. morinella {Linn.). Ruddy Turnstone. Ads. in summer. 
■ — Upperparts, including wings, strikingly variegated with rufous, black and 
white; tail white at base, a black band near its end, and tipped with white; 
throat and breast black and white; belly white. Winter plumage. — Upper- 
parts blackish, bordered with brownish gray or ashy; lower hack white', 
longer upper tail-coverts white, shorter ones black; tail as in adult; throat 
white, breast black margined with white, belly white. L., 9'50; W., 6'00; 
Tar., -95; B., fOO. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds on Arctic shores from Mackenzie River 
e., probably, to Melville Peninsula, and n. to Melville Is.; winters from cen. 
Calif., Tex., La., and S. C, to s. Brazil and cen. Chile. 

Washington, rare and irregular T. V. Long Island, common T. V., May; 
Aug. and Sept. Ossining, A. V. N. Ohio, irregular T. V., May 5-25; Sept. 
1-25. SE. Minn., rare T. V. 

Eggs, 3-4, clay-color, blotched and scrawled with grayish brown, 1'60 X 
1-15. Date, Mackenzie River, June 28 (Thayer Coll.). 

This rnaritime species is found singly or in small flocks, generally 
on the outer beaches, where it obtains its food by turning over shells 
and pebbles in search of insects, crustaceans, etc. 

29. Family H^matopodid^. Oyster-catchers 

The Oyster-catchers number twelve species, represented in most 
of the warmer parts of the globe. But three species are found in North 
America, and only one of these occurs in the Eastern States. They are 
strictly maritime birds, and resort to the outer bars and beaches in 
search of clams, mussels, etc., exposed by the tide. Their strong bill is 
used as an oyster-knife to force open the shells of these bivalves. 

286. Hsematopus palliatus Temm. Oyster-catcher. Ad, — Head, 
neck, and upper breast glossy black, back and wing-coverts olive-brown, 



MIERICAN QUAIL 269 

secondaries white, primaries fuscous, upper tail-coverts white, base of tail 
white, end fuscous, lower breast and belly white. Im. — Simil' ,.■, but head 
and neck blackish and upperparts more or less margined with buffy. L., 
19-00; W., 10-50; Tar., 2-40; B., 3-40. ' ^. 

Range. — Coasts of N. and S. A. from Tex., La., and Va. (formerly N. J.) 
s. on both coasts of Mex. to the West Indies, s. Brazil, and cen. Chile; 
casual n. to N. B. Breeds probably throughout its range. 

Long Island, A. V. 

Ne^t, a depression in the sand. Eggs, 3, buffy white or creamy buff, 
rather evenly spotted and blotched with chocolate, 2-20 x I'oo. Date, 
Mouth St. John's River, Fla., Apl. 10; Coast S. C, Apl. 20; Cobb's Is., Va., 
May 10. 

This not uncommon species from Virginia southward, is confined 
exclusively to the coast, and breeds usualh^ in isolated pairs. Wayne 
states that in the w^inter it is found on the South Carolina coast in 
flocks of from twenty to seventy-five individuals. It agrees in habits 
with other members of this small family. 

1905. Job, H. K., WHd Wrings, 239 (nesting). 

The European Oyster-catcher {285. Hcematopus ostralegus) is of 
accidental occurrence in Greenland. 

The Mexican Jacana (288. Jacana spinosa) occurs in the lower Rio 
Grande valley of Tex., in Cuba and southward, and has been once 
recorded from Fla. (Lake Okeechobee, Oct. 1889; Mearns, Auk, 1902, 79). 



X. ORDER GALLINJE. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS^ 

30. Family Odontophorid^. American Quail. (Fig. 44.) 

The members of this family, some sixty in number, are the American 
representatives of the Old World Perdicidce, or true Quails and Par- 
tridges, to which structurally they are closely related though differing 
in external appearance. Doubtless the two 'families,' as for conven- 
ience we term them, had a commort origin, just as Old and New World 
Pigeons, or Parrots, or Spoonbills, for example, have had, and we may 
believe that in the later Tertiary Period, when a much warmer climate 
prevailed in Arctic regions, their range was doubtless continuous. 

The present center of abundance of the American species is in the 
tropics, to which the seventeen species of Wood Quail of the genus 
Odontophorus are confined, only seven of the sixty members of the 
family crossing our southern border. This includes our Bob-white 
and the Masked Bob-white of northern Sonora, and formerly, at least, 
southern Arizona, the Scaled, Mearns' and Gambel's Quails of 
our Mexican border States, and the California Valley and Mountain 
Quails. 

In eastern North America we have only one species, our familiar 
Bob-white, not, as we are apt to imagine it, a distinctively North 
American bird, but the most northern representative of a type wkose 
stronghold is in Mexico where ten forms of the genus Colinus are known. 



270 AMERICAN QUAIL 

Some are strikingly unlike our bird with which, however, they have 
been shown by Nelson to be connected by a number of intergrading 
races. All, so far as I am aware, have the characteristic "bob-white" 
call, and I have even heard this note uttered by the Black-throated 
Bob-white of Yucatan and Crested Bob-white of Colombia, both 
members of a different genus (Ewpsychortyx) . Voice is here, therefore, 
evidently more stable than color. 

1897. Elliot, D. G., Gallinaceous Game-Birds of North America, 8Vo, 
220; plls. 46. (Francis Harper.)— 1900. Dwight, J., Jr., The Moult of 
North American Tetraonida?, Auk, XVII, 34-51; 143-166.— 1902. Sandys, 
E. and VanDyke, T. S., Upland Game Birds, 8vo. 429; plls. 9 (Macmillan). 
—1903. Huntington, D. W., Our Feathered Game, 8vo. 396; plls. 37. 
—1907. Rich, W. H., Feathered Game of the Northeast, 8vo. 430; plls. 87. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Tarsi bare .... 289. Bob-white. 289a. Florida Bob-white. 
II. Tarsi not bare. 

1. Toes bare. 

A. Upper third or half of tarsi feathered. 

300. Ruffed Grouse. 300a. Canada Ruffed Grouse. 

B. Tarsi entirely feathered. 

a. With bunches of elongated, stiffened feathers springing from 
either side of the neck. 305. Prairie Hen. 306. Heath Hen. 
h. Feathers of neck normal. 

h^. Outer web of primaries spotted with white. 

308&. Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse and subsp. 
fe2. Primaries not spotted with white . . Spruce Partridges. 

2. Tarsi and toes entirely feathered Ptarmigans. 

289. Colinus virginianus virginianus (Ltnw.). Bob-white. Ad. d' in 
winter. — Upperparts varying from reddish brown to chestnut; interscapulars 
with broken and sometimes complete black bars; inner vane of tertials 
widely margined with cream-buff; rump grayish brown, finely mottled, and 
with a few streaks of blackish; tail ashy gray, the inner feathers finely 
mottled with buffy; front of crown, a band from bill to beneath eye, and a 
band on upper breast black ; throat an.d a broad line from bill over eye white ; 
sides rufous-chestnut, margined with black and white; lower breast and 
belly white barred with black. Ad. 9 in winter. — Similar, but the throat 
and line over the eye, forehead, and lores pale ochraceous-buff; little or no 
black on the upper breast. Summer examples of both sexes have the crown 
blacker, the buffy markings generally paler. L., lO'OO; W., 4-50; T., 2-50; 
B. from N., '35. 

Range. — Upper Sonoran and s. half of Transition zones of e. N. A. 
from S. D., s. Minn., s. Ont., and sw. Maine s. to e. and n. Tex., the Gulf 
coast, and n. Fla., w. to e. Colo: introduced in cen. Colo., N. M., Utah, 
Idaho, Calif., Ore., and Wash. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, 
P. R., sometimes abundant. N. Ohio, not common P. R. Glen Ellyn, rare 
P. R. SE. Minn., common P. R. 

Nest, of grasses, usually arched, on the ground in bushy field borders, 
etc. Eggs, 10-18, white, conical, 1*20 x '95. Date, Charleston, S. C, May 
22; Shelter Is., N. Y., June 2; Cambridge, June 20; Licking Co., Ohio., 
May 22; Mitchell Bay, Ont., June 5; se. Minn., June 17. 

Taking the Old- World species of the genera Coturnix and Caccabis 
as the types respectively of Quails and Partridges, neither of these lat- 



AMERICAN QUAIL 271 

ter names can properly be applied to our Colinus, which should there- 
fore be known under the distinctive title Bob- white. 

During the nesting season Bob-whites are distributed in pairs 
through clearings and cultivated fields. The members of a brood 
constitute a bevy or covey, though occasionally two families or broods 
are found in one bevy. In the fall they frequent grain fields, but as 
winter approaches draw in toward thickets and wooded bottom-lands, 
sometimes passing the coldest weather in boggy alder swamps. They 
roost on the ground, tail to tail, with heads pointing outward; a bunch 
of closely huddled forms — a living bomb whose explosion is scarcely less 
startllcg than that of dynamite manufacture. 

Like most grass-inhabiting birds whose colors harmonize with their 
surroundings, Bob-whites rely on this protective resemblance to escape 
detection, and take wing only as a last resort. Sometimes they take 
refuge in trees, but usually they head for wooded cover, where they 
lomain if the growth is dense, but if it is open they generally run the 
moment they touch the ground. 

About May 1 they begin to pair, and rival males may then be seen 
battling for mates like diminutive gamecocks. The name "Bob-white'* 
originated in the spring call of the male. Mounting a fence or ascend- 
ing to the lower branches of a tree, he whistles the two clear musical, 
ringing notes Bob-white! Sometimes they are preceded by a lower one 
which can be heard only when one is near the singer. After the breeding 
season, when the birds are in bevies, their notes are changed to what 
sportsmen term "scatter calls." Not long after a bevy has been flushed 
and perhaps widely scattered, the mefhbers of the disunited family 
may be heard signaling to one another in sweet minor calls of two and 
three notes, when one can easily imagine them saying "Where are you?" 
"Where are you?" When excited they also utter low, twittering notes. 

1905. JuDD, S. D., Bull. 21, Biol. Surv. (food). 

289a. C. V. floridanus {Coues). Florida Bob-white. Similar to the 
preceding, but smaller, the plumage throughout darker, the black of the 
back more extensive, the rump and upper tail-coverts grayer, the black 
throat-band wider and sometimes reaching down upon the breast, the rufous- 
chestnut of the sides more extensive, the black bars of the breast and belly 
much wider. L., 8'50; W., 4-40; T., 2T)0. 

Range. — Fla., except extreme northern part. 

Nesting date, Manatee Co., Fla., Apl. 19. 

A common bird throughout the pine-grown portions of the Florida 
peninsula. It is especially numerous on old plantations, where it fre- 
quents patches of 'cowpeas.' It resembles the northern Bob-white 
in habits, but is, I think, more inclined to take to the trees when flushed. 
I have seen a whole covey fly up into the lofty pine trees, where, squat- 
ting close to the limbs, they became almost invisible. 

The European or Migratory Quail (Coturnix coturnix) has been intro- 
duced into this country on several occasions, but does not appear to have 
survived. 



272 GROUSE 



31. Family Tetraonid^. Grouse. (Fig. 44.) 

The Grouse, numbering some twenty-five species, inhabit the north- 
ern parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Two species of Ptarmigan are 
found throughout the Arctic regions, while the remaining species are 
about equally divided between the Old World and the New. After the 
nesting season they commonly gather in 'coveys' or bevies. In some 
species, these bevies unite or 'pack,' forming large flocks. As a rule, 
they are terrestrial, but may take to trees when flushed, while some 
species habitually call and feed in trees. They are game birds par 
excellence, and, trusting to the concealment afforded by their protective 
coloration, attempt to avoid detection by hiding rather than by flying, 
or, in sportsman's phraseology, "lie well to a dog." Their flight is rapid 
and accompanied by a startling whirr, caused by the quick strokes of 
their concave, stiff -feathered wings. Though not, as a rule, migratory, 
or given to extended flights, their great weight as compared with their 
wing-expanse, and the necessity of getting under way at once, requires 
great strength, hence the exceptional development of the breast muscles 
which constitute most of the edible portion of these universally esteemed 
birds. 

Many species of this family are polygamous, and their strutting, 
dancing or actual flghting, tootings, hootings, boomings, or drummings 
make them among the most interesting of birds during their periods 
of courtship display. 

The young, as with all Gallinaceous birds, are hatched thickly 
covered with down, usually of a pronounced pattern, and leave the 
nest soon after birth, generally under the care of the female alone. 
Like the young of Terns, they instinctively squat at the warning note 
of the parent, which then flutters painfully before one, using every 
possible effort to draw one from the vicinity of her chicks. (For special 
literature, see under preceding family.) 

298. Canachites canadensis canadensis (Linn.). Hudsonian 
Spruce Partridge. Male indistinguishable from the male of C. c. canace; 
female similar to female of canace but less rusty. 

Range. — Boreal forest region from the e. base of the Rocky Mts. w. of 
Edmonton, Alberta, e. to Lab. Peninsula; also a disconnected area in 
Alaska from Bristol Bay to Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound. 

298c. C. c. canace (Linn.). Canada Spruce Partridge. Ad. cf. — Upper- 
parts barred with black, ashy, gray, and grayish brown; tertials and wing- 
coverts irregularly marked with fuscous and grayish brown; tail black, 
tipped with rufous; black throat separated from black breast by a broken 
circular band of black and white and a band of same color as back of neck; 
sides mottled with black and grayish brown, ends of the feathers with white 
shaft streaks; rest of underparts black, broadly tipped with white, except 
on middle of lower breast; bare skin above eye bright red in life. Ad. 9. — ■ 
Upporparts barred with black and pale rufous and tipped with ashy gray; 
tail black, mottled and tipped with rufous; throat and upper breast barred 
with pale rufous and black; sides mottled with black and pale rufous, ends 
of feathers with white shaft streaks; rest of underparts black, broadly tipped 



GROUSE 273 

with white and more or less washed with pale rufous. L., 15"00; W., 6'50; 
T., 4-75; B. frpm N., -40. 

Range. — Man., s. Ont., and N. B., s. to n. parts of Minn., Wise, Mich., 
N. Y., and New England. 

Nest, on the ground, sheltered by overhanging limbs. Eggs, 9—16, buffy 
or pale brownish, more or less speckled or spotted with deep brown, 1*71 x 
1-22 (Ridgw.). Date, Kentville, N. S., June 2. 

The excessive tameness of this inhabitant of swampy, coniferous 
forests is responsible for its decrease in numbers, and it is now a rare 
bird in the United States. "In April and early May the males strut 
and drum somewhat after the manner of the Ruffed Grouse, the sound 
resembling the distant roll of thunder. It is usually produced when 
the cock is fluttering up an inclined tree trunk or a stump, and from this 
elevation to the ground again, or sometimes by merely springing into 
the air for several feet and fluttering to the ground" (Eaton). 

1911. Hardy, M., Journ. Me. Orn. Soc, 47-49 (habits m Maine). 

300. Bonasa umbellus umbellus {Linn.). Ruffed Grouse. (Fig. 
18.) Ad. cf. — Prevailing color of the upperparts rufous, much variegated 
with black, ochraceous, buffy, gray, and whitish; sides of the neck with 
large tufts of broad, glossy black feathers; tail varying from gray to rufous, 
irregularly barred and mottled with black, a broad black or brownish band 
near the end; tip gray; throat and breast ochraccous-buff, a broken blackish 
band on the breast; rest of the underparts white, tinged with buffy and 
barred with blackish or dark grayish brown, the bars indistinct on the breast 
and belly, stronger on the sides. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with the neck tufts 
very small. L., 17-00; W., 7-25; T., 6-25; B. from N., '52. 

Range. — E. U. S. from Minn., Mich., s. N. Y., and s. Vt., s. to e. Kans., 
n. Ark., Tenn., and Va., and, in the Alleghaj^ies, to n. Ga. 

Washington, not common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, 
P. R., formerly very common. N. Ohio, rare P. R. Glen Ellyn, rare and 
local P. R. 

Nest, a depression lined with leaves, at the base of a stump or tree, or 
beneath brush. Eggs, 8-14, pale ochraceous-buff, 1'52 x 1*13. Date, 
Chester Co., Pa., May 5; Ossining, N. Y., May 5; Portland, Conn., May 7; 
Cambridge, May 15; se. Minn., May 3. 

Of all the characteristics of this superb game bird, its habit of 
drumming is perhaps the most remarkable. This loud tattoo begins 
with the measured thump of the big drum, then gradually changes 
and dies away in the rumble of the kettlo-drum. It may be briefly rep- 
resented thus: Thump thump thump — thump, thump; thump, 

thump-rup rup rup rup r-^-r-r-r-r-r^^ . The sound is produced by 
the male bird beating the air with his wings as he st ands firmly braced 
on some favorite low perch, and it is now quite well known to be the 
call of the male to the female; an announcement that he is at the old 
rendezvous — a rendezvous that has perhaps served them for more than 
one season, and a place that in time becomes so fraught with delight- 
ful associations that even in autumn or winter the male, whon he finds 
himself in the vicinity, can not resist the temptation to mount his 
wonted perch and vent his feelings in the rolling drum-beat that was 
in springtime his song of love. I^ut now, alas! there is no lady Grouse to 
come, shy but responsive, at the sound of his reverberating summons. 



274: GROUSE 

There is good reason for supposing that the Ruffed Grouse is polyg- 
amous, and that the male, if he drums in vain at one place, will fly 
to another retreat and there seek the society of some more comphant 
female. The young Grouse can run about as soon as they are hatched, 
and can fly well when about a week old. Their mother is celebrated for 
the variety of expedients she puts in practice to save her brood from 
threatened danger, and their father has frequently been known to divide 
the charge with her. The young usually continue with their parents till 
the following spring, though it is rare at this time to see more than 
three or four surviving out of the original twelve or fourteen. 

The food of this Grouse is largely insects and berries during the 
summer; in the autumn it adds seeds to the Hst, and when the ground is 
covered with snow the staples are catkins, leaves, and buds. Its toes 
are provided during the winter with a curious fringe of strong, horny 
points which act as snowshoes. In the northern part of its range this 
bird commonly biurrows into a snowdrift to pass the night during the 
season of intense cold; but in summer and in the warmer region of its 
range it roosts habitually among the thickets of evergreen. 

Ernest T. Seton. 

300a. B. u. togata (Linn.). Canada Ruffed Grouse. To be dis- 
tinguished from the preceding by the prevailing color of the upperparts, 
which are gray instead of rufous, and the more distinctly barred underparts, 
the bars on the breast and belly being nearly as well defined as those on the 
side; the tail is generally gray. 

Range. — Cen. Keewatin, s. Ungava, and N. S., s. to Man., n. Mich., n. 
Vt., N. H., and Maine, and in the mountains of N. Y., w. Mass., and n. 
Conn.; birds indistinguishable from the eastern form occur from e. cen. 
B. C. s. to e. Ore. and cen. Idaho. 

301. Lagopus lagopus lagopus (Linn.). Willow Ptaemigan. Ad. 
cf breeding plumage. — Throat and chest, breast and sides rich rufous, chest 
and sides more or less barred with black; upperparts, including tail-coverts, 
black thickly but irregularly barred with ochraceous or rusty; tail 
fuscous narrowly tipped with white (worn off in some July specimens); 
primaries and secondaries white; tertials like back; belly largely white. Ad. 
(f in fall (preliminary winter) plumage. — Similar to the preceding, but with 
a variable number of deep rufous feathers, vermiculated with black, on the 
breast, sides, and upperparts; more white in wings and belly. Ad. d" in 
winter. — The preliminary winter plumage is a transition dress worn chiefly 
in September and October, when it is graduallj- replaced by the full winter 
plumage of snowy white with a fuscous, white-tipped tail. Ad. 9 breeding 
plumage. — Upperparts, tail and wings as in the male, but with less rufous, 
or none, on the head and neck; throat, breast and sides ochraceous broadly 
barred with black; center of belly paler with broken black bars. Ad. 9 in 
fall {preliminary winter) plumage. — Barred feathers of underparts largely 
replaced by rufous, more or less vermiculated feathers, which also appear 
in varying numbers on the upperparts. Resembles male in corresponding 
plumage except for the remaining feathers of the breeding plumage. Ad. 9 
in winter. — Similar to winter male. L., 15*00; W., 7'50; T., 4*40; B. from 
N., -42; depth of B. at N., -44. 

Remarks. — The seasonal plumages of the species are as confusing as they 
are interesting. It is not possible to treat them fully here, and the student 
who would pursue the matter further is referred to Dwight's paper in The 
Auk, 1900, 147- 163. Summer males and all fall plumage specimens may be 



GROUSE 275 

known from corresponding stages of L. rupestris by their rich rufous breasts 
and other characters. Summer females are usually deeper, but cannot 
always be distinguished from summer females of rupestris save by the 
larger bill which alone serves to separate winter specimens of the two 
species. 

Range. — Arctic regions. In Ana. breeds from n. Alaska, n. Banks Land, 
and cen. Greenland s. to e. Aleutian Islands, cen. Mackenzie (in the moun- 
tains to w. cen. Alberta), cen. Keewatin, James Bay, and s. Ungava; s. 
in winter to n. B. C, Sask. Valley, Minn., Ont., and Que., accidental in 
Wise, Mich., N. Y., Maine and Mass. 

Nest, on the ground. Eggs, 7-11, varying from cream-buff to rufous, 
heavily spotted and blotched with blackish, 1*75 x 1'20. Date, Ft. Chimo, 
Lab., June 3; Ft. Anderson, Mack., June 7. 

This abundant and characteristic Arctic bird does not nest south of 
central Labrador, but migrates southward in winter to the St. Law- 
rence, and has once been taken in northern New York and once in 
New Brunswick. An extended account of its habits will be found in "Nel- 
son's Report on Natural History Collections made in Alaska" (p. 131). 
It is quoted by Captain Bendire in his "Life Histories of American 
Birds" (p. 70), where will be found practically all we know concerning 
the habits of this and the following members of this genus. 

301a. L. 1. alleni Stejri. Allen's Ptarmigan. Similar to L. I. lagopus 
but, at all seasons, primaries usually more or less mottled with fuscous or 
with some fuscous along the shaft; shafts of secondaries sometimes black. 

Range. — Newfoundland. 

"It frequents rocky barrens, feeding on seeds and berries of the 
stunted plants that thrive in these exptosed situations" (Merriam, 
Om. and OoL, VIII, 1883, p. 43). 

302. Lagopus rupestris rupestris (Gmel.). Rock Ptarmigan. Ad. 
cf breeding plumage. — Breast and sides rusty ochraceous closely and nar- 
rowly barred with black and more or less tipped with white; belly white; 
crown barred with rusty and ochraceous; back and upper tail-coverts black 
narrowly and irregularly but thickly barred with ochraceous and buff, and 
tipped with white; black predominating in the feathers of the center of the 
back; tail fuscous tipped with white; primaries and secondaries white, 
tertials like back. Ad. cf in fall (preliminary winter) plumage. — Similar to 
the preceding, but with the feathers of the breast, sides, back, and upper 
tail-coverts finely vermiculated with black and ochraceous in about e(iual 
proportions. Ads. d" winter. — The preceding plumage is gradually replaced 
by the winter dress of snow-white, with a fuscous, white-tipped tail and 
black lores. Ad. 9 breeding plimiagc. — SiiTiilar in color to tlu; ])r(;cding female 
of L. I. lagopus, but rusty markings averaging paler, particularly on uiider- 
parts; edgings to feathers whiter, less buff3'. Ad. ? fall {prcliminarij winter) 
plumage. — Resembling corresponding plumage of Ad. cT, but with a varying 
number of the feathers of the breeding plumage remaining. Ad. 9 and Im. 
winter. — Snowy white, tail-feathers fuscous, tipped with white; lores some- 
times black. W., 7-25; B., from N. -35; depth of B. at xN., '32. 

Remarks. — In any plumage rupestris and its allies may be distinguished 
from lagopus by their smaller bill. 

Range. — Arctic Am. Breeds from Melville Is. to Melville Peninsula 
and s. on the Barren Grounds from Alaska to Ungava; also on alpine sum- 
mits s. to cen. Yukon; s. in winter to s. Mackenzie and s. Ungava. 

Nest, usually placed among the dwarf brush or sedge-covered patches of 
the tundras. Eggs, 6-10, pale cream or yellowish buff, sometimes with a 

20 



276 GROUSE 

vinaceous-rufous suffusion, spotted and blotched with clove-brown or dark 
claret-red, 1'65 x 1"18 (Bendire). Date, n. Lab., June 16. 

"In its general manners and mode of living it is said to resemble 
alhus [^=L.lagopus], but does not retire so far into the wooded country 
in the winter" (B., B., and R.). 

302a. L. r. reinhardi (Brehm). Reinhardt's Ptarmigan. Ad. cf 
summer. — Similar to corresponding plumage of L. r. rupestris but less 
heavily and regularly barred above, breast more finely barred. Ads. in fall 
{preliminary winter) plumage. — Similar to corresponding plumage of L. r. 
rupestris but much grayer. Ads. in winter. — Not distinguishable from L. r. 
rupestris in winter. 

Range. — Northern extremity of Ungava, w. Cumberland Sound, and 
Greenland. 

"They prefer more open ground, and rarely straggle even into the 
skirts of the wooded tracts. The hilltops and barrens (hence often 
called the Barren Ground Bird) are their favorite resorts" (Turner). 

303. Lagopus welchi Brewst. Welch's Ptarmigan. Ad. d' in breeding 
plumage. — Upperparts black, the head and neck barred with white and 
ochraceous-buff, the back and wing-coverts finely and irregularly marked 
with wavy lines of buffy and white; tail grayish fuscous, tipped with white; 
throat white, foreneck like hindneck, breast and sides like back; rest of 
underparts white. Ads. in fall {preliminary winter) plumage. — Not seen, 
but back and breast doubtless with finely vermiculated black and white 
feathers. Ad. 9 breeding plumage. — Similar to corresponding plumage of 
rupestris. Ads. in winter. — Similar to winter ads. of rupestris. W., 7*25; B. 
from N., -35; depth of B. at N., -32. 

Remarks. — This is a much blacker and grayer bird than L. r. rupestris, 
and in this respect it appears most nearly to approach Rock Ptarmigan 
from Sitka {L. r. dixonif). (For comparison with rupestris see Stejneger, 
The Auk, 1885, 193.) 

Range. — Newfoundland. 

Nest, a slight hollow in the moss, lined with a few feathers. Eggs, 8, 
similar to those of Lagopus rupestris. Date, N. F., June 3 (Thayer Coll.). 

"According to Mr. Welch, these Ptarmigan are numerous in New- 
foundland, where they are strictly confined to the bleak sides and sum- 
mits of rocky hills and mountains of the interior" (Brewster). 

305. Tympanuchus americanus americanus {Reich.). Prairie 
Chicken. Ad. cf. — Upperparts barred with rufous and black and spotted 
with rufous; sides of neck with tufts generally composed of ten or more 
narrow, stiffened black feathers marked with buffy and rufous, their ends 
rounded, the skin beneath these tufts bare; tail rounded, fuscous, the inner 
feathers somewhat mottled with ochraceous-buff, tip white; throat buffy, 
breast and belly white, evenly barred with black. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but neck 
tufts much smaller and tail barred with ochraceous-buff or rufous. L., IS'OO; 
W., 9-00; T., 4-00; B. from N., -52. 

Range. — SE. Sask. and s. Man. to e. Colo., ne. Tex., Ark., w. Ky., and 
Ind.; probably extinct e. of Ind.; but formerly reached sw. Ont., Mich., and 
nw. Ohio. 

Glen Ellyn, P. R., fairly plentiful locally. SE. Minn., P. R., much de- 
creased in numbers. 

Nest, on the ground. Eggs, 11-14, buffy olive, sometimes finely speckled 
with brownish, I'TO x 1'25. Date, Jasper Co., Iowa., May 2. 



GROUSE 277 

"This familiar game bird inhabits our fertile prairies, seldom fre- 
quenting the timbered lands except during sleety storms or when the 
ground is covered with snow. Its flesh is dark, and it is not very highly 
esteemed as a table bird. 

"During the early breeding season they feed largely upon grass- 
hoppers, crickets, and other forms of insect life, but afterward chiefly 
upon our cultivated grains, gleaned from the stubble in autumn and 
the cornfields in winter; they are also fond of tender buds, berries, and 
fruits. They run about much like our domestic fowls; but with a more 
stately carriage. When flushed they rise from the ground with a less 
whirring sound than the Ruffed Grouse or Bob-white, and their flight 
is not so swift, but more protracted and with less apparent effort, flap- 
ping and sailing along, often to the distance of a mile or more. In the 
fall the birds collect together and remain in flocks until the warmth 
of spring quickens their blood and awakes the passions of love; then, 
as with a view to fairness and the survival of the fittest, they select a 
smooth open courtship ground (usually called a 'scratching ground'), 
where the males assemble at the early dawn to vie with each other in 
courage and pompous display, uttering at the same time their love 
call, a loud booming noise; as soon as this is heard by the hen birds 
desirous of mating they quietly put in an appearance, squat upon the 
ground, apparently indifferent observers, until claimed by victorious 
rivals, which they gladly accept, and receive their caresses" (Goss). 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 231-235 (display). 

306. Tympanuchus cupido {Linn.). " Heath Hen. Similar to the 
preceding, but the scapulars broadly tippod with buffy; the neck tufts of 
less than ten feathers; these feathers -pointed, not rounded, at the ends. 

Range. — Is. of Martha's Vineyard, Mass. Formerly s. New England 
and parts of the Middle States. 

Nest, "in oak woods, among sprouts at the base of a large stump" (Brew- 
ster). Eggs, "creamy buff in color, with a slight greenish tinge," r73 x r29. 
Date, Martha's Vineyard, June 10. 

In the early part of this century the Heath Hen was found locally 
throughout the Middle States, where, unlike its western representative, 
the Prairie Hen, it lived in wooded districts. In New Jersey the last Heath 
Hen was killed on the Barnegat Plains about 1870 {Bird-Lore, 1903, p. 50). 
It is now restricted to the island of Martha's Vineyard, an excellent 
illustration of the protection afforded by an insular habitat. 

Mr. William Brewster, writing in 1890 {Forest and Stream, 188, p. 207), 
estimated that there were from one hundred and twenty to two hundred 
Heath Hens then on the island. In 1907 this number according to 
Field (Bird-Lore, IX, pp. 249-255, and 42nd. Ann. Rep. Mass. Comm.) 
was reduced to seventy-seven. Proper protective measures were now 
introduced, the birds began at once to increase, and in 1910 they were 
estimated to number "upwards of three hundred" (Field in epist.). 
Field describes the Heath Hen's call as a toot which can be "imitated by 
blowing gently into the neck of a two-drachm homoeopathic vial. 



278 WILD TURKEYS 

Each call extends over a period of two seconds and is repeated at fre- 
quent intervals." This is evidently very unlike the emphatic boom-ah- 
hoom of the true Prairie Hen, and this pronounced difference in notes 
suggests that possibly the eastern and western birds are not so closely 
allied as their resemblance in plumage would lead one to believe. 

308. Pedioecetes phasianellus phasianellus (Linn.). Sharp- 
tailed Grouse. Similar to P. p. campestris but much darker and the black 
areas larger and more prominent than the ochraceous ones, the latter deeper, 
more rusty. 

Range. — Cen. Alaska and nw. B. C. e. through cen. Keewatin to cen. 
w. Ungava, and s. to Lake Superior and the Parry Sound district, Ont.; 
casual e. to Saguenay River, Que. 

SE. Minn., formerly present, now wanting. 

308b. Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris Ridgw. Prairie Sharp- 
tailed Grouse. Ad. cf. — Prevailing color of the upperparts ochraceous- 
buff, barred and irregularly marked with black; no neck tufts; outer web of 
the primaries spotted with white; middle tail-feathers projecting about an 
inch beyond the others, ochraceous-buff and black; throat buffy; breast 
with V-shaped marks of black ; sides irregularly barred or spotted with black 
or buffy; middle of the belly white. Ad. 9. — Similar, but smaller; the middle 
tail-feathers shorter. L., 17-50; W., 8*50; T., 4*50; B. from N., '50. 

Range. — S. Alberta and s. Man. to Wyo., Kans., and n. 111. 

Nest, on the ground. Eggs, 11-14, creamy buff or pale olive-brown, 
generally slightly spotted with fine, reddish brown markings, 1*65 x 1'22 
(Bendire). Date, Carberry, Man., June 3. 

There is more or less confusion in regard to the names Prairie Hen 
and Prairie Chicken, but where the two species are found together I 
have found that the former is applied to Pedioecetes and the latter to 
Tympanuchus. In central Nebraska, I found this species inhabiting 
the sand-hills while the Prairie Chicken (Tympanuchus) was nesting 
in immediately adjoining bushy bottom-lands. In Saskatchewan it 
lived among the rose-bushes near the borders of streams. When 
'dancing' the male inflates a pink sac, utters a bubbling crow, rattles 
its tail-quills, etc. The whole performance is well described by Seton, 
as quoted by Bendire, and by Cameron (Auk, 1907, p. 256). 

32. Family Meleagrid^. Turkeys 

This distinctively American family contains only two species, the 
Yucatan Turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) and our Wild Turkey. The 
former is confined to Yucatan and the adjoining portions of Guatemala 
and Honduras, and, except in isolated instances, has defied all attempts 
at domestication. The latter ranges from southern Mexico northward, 
and is represented by five subspecies as follows: (1) Meleagris gallopavo 
gallopavo of southern Mexico; (2) M. g. merriami of northern Mexico, 
southwestern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and southern Colorado; 
(3) M. g. intermedia of northeastern Mexico north to middle northern 
Texas; (4) M. g. osceola of southern Florida, and (5) M. g. silvestris, 
our Wild Turkey, which, formerly, extended as far north as southern 



WILD TURKEYS 279 

Maine, southern Ontario and South Dakota. It is the southern Mexico 
form, with white-tipped upper tail-coverts, which is the ancestor of 
our domesticated Turkey. It was introduced from Mexico into Europe 
where it had become estabhshed as early as 1530, and was later brought 
by colonists to Eastern North America. It breeds freely with our Wild 
Turkey (silvestris) and where the birds of the woods come in contact 
with the inhabitants of the poultry yard, e\adences of such alliances 
are not infrequent. 

310a. Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieill. Wild Turkey. The Wild 
Turkey may be distinguished from the common domestic race chiefly 
by the chestnut instead of white tips to the upper tail-coverts and tail, "cf 
ad. L., about 48-00-50-00; W., 2r00; T., IS'SO; weight 16-40 lbs." (Ridgw.) 

Range. — E. U. S. from Neb., Kans., w. Okla., and e. Tex. e. to cen. Pa., 
and s. to the Gulf coast; formerly n. to S. D., s. Ont. and s. Maine. 

Washington, rare P. R. 

A^est, on the ground, at the base of a bush or tree. Eggs, 10-14, pale 
cream-buff, finely and evenly speckled with grayish brown, 2*45 x 1'95. 
Date, Pipemaker Swamp, Ga., Apl. 25; Ft. Smith, Ark., Apl. 3. 

This noblest of American birds is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and 
in comparatively few years will doubtless be found only in the parts of 
its range which are unfit for the habitation of man. 

Except during the breeding season, Wild Turkeys are found in 
small flocks of six to twelve or fifteen individuals of both sexes. They 
roost preferably in the trees in wooded bottom-lands, returning each 
night to the same locahty. 

At the opening of the breeding season in March the male begins to 
gobble. As a rule, he calls only early in the morning, before leaving 
his roost. Later he sails to the ground and at once begins his search 
for breakfast, or, attracted by the plaintive piping of some female, he 
struts and displays his charms before her. It is at this time that bat- 
tles between the males occur. They are polygamists, and the victor 
becomes sultan of the harem. During the period of incubation, and 
while the young require their mother's care, the females do not associate 
with the males, who then flock together. 

The calls of both sexes so closely resemble those of the domestic 
birds that it requires a practiced car to distinguish them. In locali- 
ties where both birds might be expected to occur, I could never be 
sure whether I was listening to the challenge of some defiant gobbler 
perched in a cypress in the valley below, or to the vainglorious effort 
of the lord of the poultry j^ard. 

1909. Grinnell, G. B., Forest and Stream, 852, 891, 892 (biography). 

310b. M. g. osceola Scott. Florida Turkey. Re.sembles M. g. 
silvestris, but is smaller, and the primaries, instead of being regularly and 
widely barred with white, as in that bird, have much smaller, broken white 
markings. Weight, cf 12-22 lbs.; 9 475-9 lbs. (Scott, Auk, IX, 1892, 115.) 

Range. — Southern Florida. 

Nesting date, St. John's River, Fla., Apl. 23. 

The Florida Wild Turkey is locally common in Southern Florida. 



280 PHEASANTS 



Pheasants. Family Phasianid^ 

The true Pheasants, numbering about one hundred species, are 
found from the eastern borders of the Mediterranean through central 
and southern Asia to the Malayan Region. 

The Ring-neck and Enghsh Ring-neck have been introduced and 
become naturahzed in various parts of the United States. 

Phasianus colchicus (Linn.). English Pheasant. Ad. cf. — Head 

and neck green; no white neck-ring; rump rich bronzy red; breast bronze- 
red ; the ends of the feathers with broad greenish black bands ; flanks reddish 
brown tipped with blue-black. Ad. 9. — Above mixed, black brownish, and 
rusty; below brownish yellow; breast and sides with rusty and black. 

The English Pheasant has been so hybridized with the Ring-necked 
Pheasant that it is now rare to find pure-blooded birds. Consequently 
either name is often equally applicable to these aviary-raised, artificially 
bred birds. 

Nest, on the ground beneath cover. Eggs, 12-20, unmarked oHve-buff, 
1-75 X 1-35. Date, Gardiner's Is., L. I., May. 

The so-called English Pheasant is a native of Asia Minor whence 
it was introduced into Europe by the Greeks, and, it is beHeved, by the 
Romans into England. The English stock remained pure until about 
the end of the eighteenth century when it was crossed with the Chinese 
Ring-necked Pheasant (Phasianus torquatus). The progenj' proved 
fertile and continued hybridization, in which the Japanese Pheasant 
(Phasianus versicolor) has also been used, has left but few pure-blooded 
birds of the true colchicus type in England. The Pheasant introduced 
into this country from England is of the P. colchicus X P. torquatus strain, 
in which the white neck ring is always more or less developed. It has 
been released and become locally estabhshed in Massachusetts, Ohio, 
Indiana, Ilhnois, New Jersey, Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Kansas. 

(See Oldys, Pheasant Raising in the United States, Farmers' Bull. 
No. 390, U. S. Dept. of Agric, 1910, 40.) 

Phasianus torquatus (Gmel.). Ring-necked Pheasant. Ad. cf. — 
Head and neck green with strong purpHsh reflections; a more or less com- 
plete white neck-ring; rump gray or yellowish gray; breast bronze-red, the 
feathers very narrowly margined with purple-black; the end of the feathers 
notched and with a narrow purple black wedge; flanks bufi^y, tipped with 
blue-black. Ad. 9 . — Resembles adult female of P. colchicus. 

This species has been successfully introduced in Oregon, Washing- 
ton, and British Columbia; and limited numbers have been released 
in the Eastern United States, where, however, its hybrid with P. 
colchicus has been more frequently used for stocking purposes (see 
Oldys, as above). 

The Gray or Hungarian Partridge (Perdix -perdix) of Europe has 
been brought to this country in large numbers during recent years for 
stocking purposes, nearly 50,000 having been imported between July 
1. 1900, and Deccmher 31. 1909. Thus far it does not appear to have 
become naturalized (See Oldys, Yearbook of Dept. of Agric. 1909, pp. 
249-258). 



PIGEONS AND DOVES 281 

XI. ORDER COLUMBiE. PIGEONS AND DOVES 

33. Family Columbid^. Pigeons and Doves. (Fig. 45.) 

The 650 odd species contained in the Order Columhoe are placed by 
Salvadori in five families as follows: (1) Treronidce or Fruit Pigeons, 
restricted largely to the Malayan region, 212 species; (2) Columbidce, 
the true Pigeons, distributed throughout the world, 120 species, of 
which no less than 70 are contained in the genus Columba; (3) Peris- 
teridce or Doves, distributed throughout the world, but more numerous 
in the tropics, 312 species; (4) Gouridce or Crowned Pigeons of New 
Guinea, 8 species, and (5) Didunculidce, containing only the Toothed 
Pigeon of Samoa. 

The Family Columbidce of the A. O. U. Check-List contains repre- 
sentatives of both the Columbidce and Peristeridoe as grouped by Sal- 
vadori, which, in North America, number twelve species. The birds 
of this order differ widely in their choice of haunts. Some are strictly 
arboreal, others as strictly terrestrial. Some seek the forests and others 
prefer fields and clearings. Some nest in colonies, others in isolated 
pairs, but most species are found in flocks of greater or less size after 
the breeding season. When drinking, they do not raise the head as 
most birds do to swallow, but keep the bill immersed until the draught 
is finished. The eggs number two, rarely one, and are white or creamy 
in color. Both sexes incubate, the male's daily period, so far as known, 
being from about 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. The young are born naked, and are 
fed by regurgitation on predigested food, or 'Pigeons' milk' from the 
crop of the parent. 

1898. Whitman, C. O., Animal Behavior, Biol. Lecture M. B, L, 314 et 
seq. (Ginn & Co.). — 1908. Craig, W., The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a 
Means of Social Control, Am. Journ. Soc, XIV, 86-100. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Tail widely tipped with white or grayish white. 

a. Tail pointed. 

a'. Back or rump bluish slate-color . . 315. Passenger Pigeon. 

a2. Back olive grayish brown . . . . 316. Mourning Dove. 
h. Tail slightly rounded 317. Zenaida Dove. 

B. Tail not tipped with white. 

a. Upperparts dark slato-color . . . 314. White-crowned Pigeon 
6. Upperparts not slate color. 

6'. Upperparts rufous with purplish reflections. 

62. Line below the eye and belly white or whitish . 322. Quail Dove 
6'. Line under the eye and belly buffy ochraceous. 

322.1. Ruddy Quail Dove 
c^ Upperparts grayish olive-brown. 

c^. Crown blue, a white line below the eye. 

323. Blue-headed Quail Dove 
c3. Crown pinkish or like the back . . . 320. Ground Dove 

314. Columba leucocephala TAnn. White-crowned Pigeon. Ad. 
&. — Rich slato-folor; crown white; back of head purpli.'^h chestnut; back 
of neck with greenish reflections, each feather with a black border. Ad. 9. — 



282 PIGEONS AND DOVES 

Similar, but paler; crown ashy, less purplish chestnut; back and sides of 
neck brownish ash with metallic reflections and black margins. L., 13'50; 
W., 7-50; T., 5-10; B., '70. 

Range. — Florida Keys, the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, some of the 
Lesser Antilles, Yucatan, and coast of Honduras. 

Nest, in low trees and bushes. Eggs, 2, glossy white, 1'41 x 1*02. Date. — ■ 
Andros Is., Bahamas, June 15. 

This Pigeon is locally common in some of the keys o£P southern 
Florida, and has been known to occur on the mainland. According 
to Mr. J. W. Atkins {Auk, VI, 1889, p. 246), it arrives at Key West early 
in May and remains until November. 

A specimen of the West Indian Scaled Pigeon {314-1 Columha 
squamosa) was taken at Key West, Fla., Oct. 24, 1898 (Atkins, Auk, 1899, 
272). 

315. Ectopistes migratorius {Linn.). Passenger Pigeon. (Fig. 45.) 
Ad. cf. — Upperparts rich bluish slate-color; back and sides of neck with 
metallic reflections ; middle of back and scapulars more or less washed with 
olive-brown; middle tail-feathers fuscous, outer ones black at the base, 
then slaty blue, fading into a broad, white tip; underparts deep, rich vina- 
ceous; lower belly white; throat bluish slate-color. Ad. 9. — Similar, but 
upperparts with less iridescence and more olive-brown; breast pale grayish 
brown; belly whitish. Im. — Generally similar to the 9, but the feathers of 
the upperparts and breast tipped with whitish, the primaries edged and 
tipped with rufous. L., 16-29; W., 7-82; T., 7-53; B., -71. 

Range. — Bred formerly from middle w. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, can. 
Que., and N. S. s. to Kans., Miss., Pa. and N. Y. ; wintered principally from 
Ark. and N. C. s. to cen. Tex., La., and Fla.; casual in Cuba, e. Mex. and 
Nev. 

Washington, formerly T. V. or W. V. Ossining, formerly rare S. R., 
and common T. V., Apl. 15 to May 17; Aug. 21-Oct. 11; last seen Oct. 11, 
1888. Cambridge, formerly abundant, now perhaps extinct. Glen Ellyn, 
last seen Sept. 4, 1892. SE. Minn., formerly abundant, no recent record. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, in a tree. Eggs, 1, very rarely 2, white, 
1-45 X 1-09. Date, Upton, Maine, June 15, 1872; Wise, first week in Apl.; 
se. Minn., May 9, 1879. 

Wilson, writing about 1808, estimated that a flock of Wild Pigeons 
observed by him near Frankfort, Kentucky, contained at least 2,230,- 
272,000 individuals. Captain Bendire, writing in 1892, says: ". . . It 
looks now as if their total extermination might be accomplished within 
the present century. The only thing which retards their complete 
extinction is that it no longer pays to net these birds, they being too 
scarce for this now, at least in the more settled portions of the country, 
and also, perhaps, that from constant and unremitting persecution on 
their breeding-grounds they have changed their habits somewhat, 
the majority no longer breeding in colonies, but scattering over the 
country and breeding in isolated pairs" (''Life Histories of North Amer- 
ican Birds," p. L33). 

An article by William Brewster on "The Present Status of the Wild 
Pigeon as a Bird of the United States, with some Notes on its Habits" 
{Auk, VI, 1889, pp. 285-291), gives much information concerning the 
recent history of the bird in Michigan, one of its last strongholds. 
According to an informant of Mr. Brewster's, the last nesting in Michi- 



Plate XVI 




ASSEXGER PlUEON 



PIGEONS AND DOVES 283 

gan of any importance was in 1881. "It was of only moderate size^ 
perhaps eight miles long." The largest known Michigan nesting occurred 
in 1876 or 1877. It was twenty-eight miles long and averaged three or 
four miles in width. 

The Passenger Pigeon is now so nearly extinct that although it 
has been reported as "seen" on numerous occasions, there appears to 
be no unquestionable record of its actual capture since 1898. Singu- 
larly enough two specimens were taken on September 14 of that year, 
an immature bird at Detroit, Mich. (Fleming, Auk, 1903, p. 66), and an 
adult male at Canandaigua, N. Y. (Eaton, "Birds of New York," 
which see also for many other records) . 

Through Mr. E. H. Forbush I learn that a female Passenger Pigeon 
is said to have been shot at Bar Harbor, Me., in the summer of 1904. 
It was mounted in July of that year by J. Bert Baxter, a taxidermist of 
Bangor, who received it in the flesh. The present whereabouts of this 
specimen are unkno"WTi. 

1907. Meeshon, "W. B., The Passenger Pigeon, 225. A Monograph 
(Outing Co.).— 1910. Wright, A. H., Auk, XXVII, 428, 443; see also 
XXVIII, 53, 66; 111; 346-366.— 1910. Dillen, Cassinia, 33-36 (early 
records).— 1911. Hodge, C. F., Auk, XXVIII, 49 (present status). 

316. Zenaidura macroura carolinensis (Linn.). Mourning Dove. 
Ad. cf. — Upperparts olive grayish brown; forehead ^anaceous; crown bluish 
slate-color; sides of neck with metallic reflections, a small black mark below 
the ear; middle tail-feathers like back, the others, seen from above, slaty 
gray for the basal half, then banded with black and broadly tipped with 
ashy and white; breast vinaceous; belly cream-buff. Ad. 9. — Similar, but 
with less iridescence; breast and forehead washed with grajash brown. Im. — 
Much like 9, but the feathers tipped with whitish. L., 11*85; W., 5"72; 
T., 5-50; B., -53. 

Remarks. — The Dove is sometimes mistaken for the Wild Pigeon, but, 
aside from the differences in size, may always be distinguished by its olive 
grayish brown instead of bluish slate-color rump, the black mark below the 
ear, and other characters. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds chiefly in Sonoran and L. Transition zones from 
B. C, Sask., Man., Ont., and s. N. S. s. throughout the U. S. and Mex., and 
locally in L. Calif, and Guatemala; winters from s. Ore., s. Colo., the Ohio 
Valley, and N. C. to Panama; casual in winter in the Middle States. 

Washington, P. R., common, except in midwinter. Ossining, common 
S. R., Mch. .3-Nov. 27; a few winter. Cambridge, rather rare T. V., Apl. 
8- June 18; Sept. 18-Nov. 15. N. Ohio, common, S. R., Mch. 20-Oct. 25; 
rare W. V. Glen Ellyn, tolerably common S. R., formerly common, Mch., 12- 
Oct. 21. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 15-Dec. 25. 

Nest, a flat structure of small twigs rather loosely put together, on the 
lower branches of a tree, generally within ten feet of the ground; rarely on 
the ground in the Eastern States. Eggs, 2, white, 1*07 x '83. Date, D. C, 
Apl. 18; Nazareth, Pa., Apl. 15; Ossining, N. Y., Apl. 17; Cambridge, May 
8; se. Minn.. May 12. 

Doves resemble Wild Pigeons, but are much smaller, and their rapid 
flight is accompanied by the whistling sound of wings, while the flight 
of the Wild Pigeon is said to be noiseless. 

During the nesting season they may be found in pairs, generally 
in open woodlands or tree-bordered fields. They also visit roads and 



284 PIGEONS AND DOVES 

lanes to dust themselves. The sweet, sad call of the male has won for 
this species its common name; it consists of several soft coos, which 
may be written: Coo-o-o, ah-coo-o-o — coo-o-o — coo-o-o. Under favor- 
able circumstances these notes ma}' be heard at a distance of at least 
two hundred and fifty yards; they are uttered slowly and tenderly, 
and mth such apparent depth of feehng that one might easily imagine 
the bird was mourning the loss of his mate, instead of singing a love- 
song to her. 

At this season one or both birds may be seen performing a pecuUar 
aerial evolution. Ascending to a height of about thirty feet, they fly 
for some distance in an unnatural manner, and then, after a short sail, 
return to their perch. ^^Tien engaged in this performance they very 
closely resemble a Sharp-shinned Hawk. 

After the nesting season Doves gather in flocks of varying size and 
frequent grain and cornfields. During the day they \'isit the near- 
est supply of fine gravel, which they eat in large quantities as an aid 
to digestion. In some localities, soon after sunset, they regularly repair 
in numbers to some favorite place to drink, and then retire to their 
roosts. 

317. Zenaida zenaida (Bonap.). Zenaida Dove. Ad. — Bears a 
general resemblance to Zenaidura macroura, but the tail is square and tipped 
with ashv, and the underparts are deep, rich vinaceous. L., lO'OO; W., 6'10; 
T., 3-50; B., '66. 

Range. — Florida Keys, West Indies, and coast of Yucatan. 

Xest, on or near the ground. Eggs, 2, glossy white, 1*22 x "92. Date, 
Bahamas, May 27. 

This is a common West Indian species. Audubon found it in num- 
bers in the keys off southern Florida, where he records it as a sum- 
mer resident, arriving in April and departing in October. The few 
naturalists who have visited these keys since Audubon's time have 
not been there in the summer, and we do not therefore know whether 
this species still occurs there at that season. It is more terrestrial in 
habits than the Mourning Dove, and its notes are deeper, louder, and 
more solemn than the notes of that species. 

The White-winged Dove {319. Melopelia asiatica asiatica) is of gen- 
eral distribution from the Mexican border of the United States south to Costa 
Rica, and it has been recorded from Cuba, Jamaica, and San Domingo. It is 
of accidental occurrence at Key West and Kissimmee, Florida (Ridgway, 
Auk, 1897, 88). It may be known by the broad white margins to the wing- 
coverts, giving the appearance of a white wing-patch, which is conspicuous 
in life. 

320. Chsemepelia passerina terrestris (Chapm.). Ground Dove. 
Ad.d'. — Forrhoad and underparts vinaceous, centers of breast-feathers 
blackish; top and back of lioad l)luish slate-color; back brownish gray; tail 
blackish, the outer feathers with small white tips; base of bill coral-red, tip 
black. Ad.9. — Similar, but forehead and underparts pale brownish gray. 
Im. — Resembles 9, but the feathers are tipped with whitish. L., 6*75; W., 
3-60; T., 2-50; B., SO. 



PIGEONS AND DOVES 285 

Range. — Austroriparian and Floridian faunas from e. Tex. to N. C; 
accidental in n. N. Y., Pa., N. J., Md., and Va. 

Washington, accidental; two records, Sept.; Oct. 

Nest, on the ground or in low trees or bushes. Eggs, 2, white, '85 x '67. 
Date, San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 12. 

This diminutive Pigeon frequents both pines and "hummocks," 
lake-shores, and old fields, and in some southern towTis is a familiar 
bird of the quieter streets. It is by no means shy, and runs before one 
with quick, short steps and a graceful movement of the head. Occa- 
sionally it holds its tail upright, giving it a peculiar bantamhke appear- 
ance. Its flight is short, and when on the wing it bears an odd resem- 
blance to a short-tailed Japanese kite. 

Its favorite roosting-places are densely foliaged orange trees, and 
frequently when the bird is hidden in their depths one may hear its 
mellow, crooning coos uttered so softly that they float on the air as 
though bom of the wind. 

320b. C. p. bermudiana Bangs and Bradlee. Bermuda Ground 
Dove. "Size very small, smaller than C. hahamensis; bill wholly black, 
exceedingly small and slender (more so than in any other form of the C. 
passerina series) ; colors pale and ashy as in C. hahamensis and C. passerina 
pallescens (Baird), but even paler and grayer throughout than in either; 
back of c? smoke-gray, of 9 between smoke-gray and broccoli-brown; fore- 
head and color of breast, in d', vinaceous pink." (Bangs and Bradlee, Auk, 
XIII, 1901, 25.) 

Range. — Resident in the Bermudas. 

322. Geotrygon chrysia (Sakad.). Key West Quail-Dove. Upper- 
parts rufous, wath brilliant metallic reflections; wings rufous; a white line 
beneath the eye; breast vinaceous; belly white. L., ll'OO; W., 6'20; T., 5'00; 
B., '50. 

Nest, in trees. Eggs, 2, ochraceous-white, 1'22 x '94 (Bendire). Date, 
Cuba, Feb. 

A West-Indian species which occurs during the summer regularly, 
but, so far as known, only in small numbers in the Florida Keys. 

The Quail Doves inhabit wooded districts where they live on the 
ground. Their flight is low and noiseless, and, according to my expe- 
rience with them in Cuba, they are difficult birds to observe unless 
one can find some tree on the fallen fruits of which they are feeding. 

The Ruddy Quail-Dove (322.1. Geotrygon montana) is a West Indian 
and Central American species, which has been once recorded from Key West 
(Atkins, Auk, 1889, 160). It bears a general resemblance to G. chrysia, but 
the back is more rufous and the belly is deep cream-buff. 

The Blue-headed Quail-Dove {323. Stamaenas cyanocephala) , a 
Cuban species, was recorded by Audubon from the Florida Keys, but there 
do not appear to be any later records. The back is olive-brown, the crown 
and sides of the throat are deep grayish blue, throat black, line beneath the 
eye white. 



286 VULTURES 

XII. ORDER RAPTORES. BIRDS OF PREY 

1893. Fisher, A. K., The Hawks and Owls of the United States in 
Their Relation to Agriculture, Bull. No. 3, Div. Orn. and Mam. (Biol. Surv.), 
Washington. 8vo. pp. 210, col. plls. 26. 

34. Family Cathartid^. American Vultures. (Fig. 49.) 

A New World family of nine species, of which three are North 
American. Within their range Vultures are found wherever there is 
food. Far above the earth on firm wing they sail in broad circles, and 
from this outlook in the sky descend to feast upon the stricken deer 
in the forest or the cur lying in the gutters of a thoroughfare. It is 
now the generally accepted behef that Vultures find their food by the 
aid of their eyes alone. Except during the nesting season, they are 
generally found in flocks, which each night return to a regularly fre- 
quented roost. When alarmed or excited, they utter low, grunting 
sounds, but at other times are silent. They build no nest, but lay their 
one to three eggs under logs or stumps, on the ground, in caves, or 
similar places. The young are born naked, but are soon thickly covered 
with white or buff down. 

325. Cathartes aura septentrionalis Wied. Turkey Vulture. 
(Fig. 49.) Ads. — Head and neck naked, the skin and base of the bill bright 
red; plumage glossy black, edged with grayish brown. Im. — Similar, but 
the head covered with grayish-brown, furlike feathers. L., about 30'00; W., 
22-00; T., 11-00; B., 2-30. 

Range. — Austral and Transition zones from s. B. C, Sask., w. Man., n. 
Minn., sw. Ont., w. and s. N. Y., and n. N. J. s. to s. L. Calif, and n. Mex.; 
winters throughout most of its regular range on the Atlantic slope but w. 
retires to Calif., Nebr., and the Ohio Valley; casual n. to Wise, Mich., n. 
Ont., and N. B. 

Washington, abundant P. R. Ossining, A. V. -Cambridge, casual, two 
records. N. Ohio, tolerably common, S. R., Mch. 5-Oct. 30. SE. Minn., 
common S. R., Apl. 27. 

Nest, in hollow stumps or logs, or on the ground beneath rocks, bushes or 
palmettos. Eggs, 1-3, dull white, generally spotted and blotched with 
distinct and obscure chocolate markings, but sometimes plain or but slightly 
spotted, 2-80 x 2*00. Date, Florida Keys, Mch. 1 ; Buckingham Co., Va. Apl. 
3; Deer Creek, Md., Apl. 16; se. Minn., May 2, July. 

One of the first birds to attract the attention of the bird student 
in our Southern States is the Turkey "Buzzard." Indeed, there are 
few moments between sunrise and sunset when these birds are not 
in sight. On outstretched, immovable wings they soar overhead in 
graceful circles, perfect pictures of "repose in motion." Without 
once flapping their broad pinions, they sail in spirals up the sky until 
they are hidden by the storm-clouds they have purposely avoided. 
Again, one sees them winging their way low over fields or through the 
streets of a town in search of food which they find chiefly, perhaps wholly, 
by means of sight. At times they may be seen high in the air hurry- 
ing to a distant repast, to which they are guided by the food-flight 
of other Buzzards. 



Plate XVII 





Flying Hawks 



Red-tailed Hawk. 
Cooper's Hawk. 



Marsh Hawk. 



Broad-winged Hawk. 
Sparrow Hawk. 
Sharp-shinned Hawk. 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 287 

Their services as scavengers are invaluable. The thought of bury- 
ing a dead horse or cow never occurs to the southern planter. He 
simply drags the animal to a more or less retired place and leaves it 
for the Buzzards, who never fail to do justice to the repast. In some 
southern towns they make a self-constituted street-cleaning depart- 
ment, and if their efforts were seconded by a corps of goats, to dispose 
of the more indigestible materials, they would form an admirable 
branch of pubhc service. 

After a rain it is a common sight to see Buzzards perching with 
wings held in spread-eagle fashion as they dry their water-soaked 
plumage. Frequently they stand on the top of a chimney to take advan- 
tage of the heat arising with the smoke. Their only note is a low, grunting 
sound uttered when they are disturbed. Just after sunset Buzzards may 
be seen sailing to their roosting-place, generally in the upper branches 
of a dead tree. 

326. Catharista urubu urubu (Vieill.).^ Black Vulture. Ads.— 
Head and neck bare, the skin and base of the bill blackish; plumage glossy 
black; under surface of the wings silvery. L., about 24'00; W., 17"00; T., 
8-00; B., 2-20. 

Range. — Tropical and Lower Austral zones from w. Tex., Kans., 111., 
Ind., and se. Va. s. through the s. States, Mex., and Cen. Am. to s. S. A.; 
casual in Ohio, Maine, Que., N. B., and N. S.; rare in the West Indies. 

Washington, casual, Mch., July, Dec. 

Nest, on the ground, under logs, bushes, palmettos, etc. Eggs, 1-3, pale 
bluish white, generally more or less spotted with distinct and obscure choco- 
late markings, 2"95 x 2*00. Date, Warrior River Swamp, Ala., Apl. 1; 
St. Simon's, Ga., Mch. 26. 

This species is more abundant near the seacoast and less common 
in the interior than the preceding. It is also more often found living 
in towns or cities. Any one who has visited the vicinity of the market 
in Charleston, S. C, will testify to its abundance and semi-domestica- 
tion there. Indeed, the birds have become so tame that when engaged 
in devouring some savory morsel they are in frequent danger of being 
trodden under foot. 

Black Vultures are heavier birds than Turkey Buzzards, and when- 
ever the ownership of food is in question the dispute is invariably settled 
in the Vulture's favor. Their stretch of wing, however, is not so great, 
and for this reason their flight is far less easy and graceful than that 
of the Buzzard. They flap their wings oftener, and this habit, in con- 
nection with their black heads, grayish primaries, and comparatively 
short tails, serves to identify them in the field. The only note I have ever 
heard from them is a low grunt uttered when they are disturbed. 

35. Family BuTEONiDiE. Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Etc. (Figs. 46, 50.) 

Omitting the Secretary Bird, Vultures, Ospreys, and Owls, the Order, 
Raptores has left some four hundred and sixty species of world-wide' 
distribution, which Ridgway places in the two families ButeonidcB and 



288 HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 

FalconidcB. Of the former, twenty-two species are North American. 
These present much diversity of form and habit, but our eastern species 
of the genera Buteo and Accipiter may, in the Northern States, at least, 
be seen during the migratory seasons, travehng in scattered flocks, which 
may take hours to pass a given point. At other times of the year, with 
few exceptions, they are sohtary birds, having no intercourse with their 
kind. During the breeding season many species have definitely bound- 
ed haunts, upon which intrusion by individuals of the same species 
is not permitted. With much regularity they return to the same locaHty 
and even the same nest year after year, and some species are known to 
mate for life. Their days are an unceasing vigil. At all times they are 
on the alert for food. With the Buteos this consists to a large extent of 
small mammals and insects, birds and poultry forming a compara- 
tively insignificant part of the diet of most species. Most Hawks are 
thus of great value to the agriculturist as the natural check upon the 
increase of the myriads of small rodents so destructive to crops. 

The cries of Hawks are generally loud, startling, and characteristic 
of their fierce natures. They strike their prey with their feet, and use 
the bill to tear it into fragments. 

Hawks' nests are generally bulky affairs, composed of coarse twigs 
and sticks. The presence of downy feathers gives evidence that they 
are or have been recently occupied. The young are hatched with a 
scanty growth of white down which soon covers the body. 

To facilitate identification in the field, the Hawks of this and the 
following families {Falconidce, Pandionidce) have been placed in one 
key as below. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing over IQ'OO. 

A. Upper half of tarsus feathered. 

a. Whole head and neck white 352. Bald Eagle (Ad.). 

6. Head or neck brown or brownish. 

61. Bill mostly yellow (Greenland). . 351. Gray Sea Eagle (Ad.). 

62. Bill black or blackish 352. Bald Eagle (Im.). 

B. Whole tarsus feathered 349. Golden Eagle. 

II. Wing under 19*00. Placed in three sections as follows: 

1. Underparts more or less streaked and spotted, without cross-bars. 

2. Underparts with more or less numerous cross-bars. 

3. Underparts without streaks or bars. 

1. Underparts more or less streaked and spotted, without crossbars. 

A. Outer primary with numerous black or blackish bars. 
a. Wing under 10"00. 

a>. Back bright rufous, with or without black bars. 

360. Sparrow Hawk. 
a2. Back bluish slate-color .... 357. Pigeon Hawk (Ad.). 
a^. Back fuscous, second primary longest. 

357. Pigeon Hawk (Im.). 

a*. Back fuscous, fourth primary longest, tail-feathers of nearly equal 

length; wing under 9'00 . 332. Sharp-shinned Hawk. . (Im.) 

d>. Back fuscous, fourth primary longest, outer tail-feathers half 

an inch or more shorter than the middle ones; wing over 9'00. 

333. Cooper's Hawk (Im.). 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 289 

b. Wing over 10-00. 

61. Second primary longest. 
&2. Tail generally over 9 '00. 

6'. Lower tail-coverts immaculate white. 

353. White Gyrfalcon. 
b*. Lower tail-coverts always more or less marked with dusky. 

354. Gray Gyrfalcon and Races. 
c2. Tail imder 9-00. 

c^. Tarsus shorter than middle-toe without nail, upperparts 

blackish 356. Duck Haw^k. 

C*. Tarsus longer than middle-toe without nail, upperparts 

brownish 355. Prairie Falcon. 

c^ Third or fourth primary longest. 

c^. Upper tail-coverts white 331. Marsh Hawk. 

c^. Upper tail-coverts brownish .... 334. Goshawk (Im.). 
B. Outer primary generally one color, base sometimes whitish or with 
a few imperfect bars, 
a. Tarsus entirely bare, scales on its front large, rounded. 

362. Audubon's Caracara. 
6. Tarsus not entirely bare. 

¥. Tarsus entirely feathered . . 348. Ferruginous Rough-leg. 
c^ Tarsus partly feathered. 

C-. Scales on front of tarsus, small, rounded . . . 364. Ospret. 
d^. Scales on tarsus not rounded, square. 

d^. Three outer primaries emarginate or "notched."* 

d^. Wing under 12"00, . 343. Broad-winged Hawk (Im.). 
d^. Wing over 12'00. . . . 342. Swainson's Hawk (Im.). 
e^. Four outer primaries emarginate or "notched. "f 

e^. Upper tail-coverts pure white . . 331. Marsh Hawk. 
e^. Upper tail-coverts not pure white; wing under 13"50; lesser 
wng-coverts conspicuously margined with rufous. 

339. Red-shouldered Hawk (Im.). 
e®. Upper tail-coverts not pure white ; wing over 13'50; lesser 
wing-coverts not conspicuously margined with rufous. 

337. Red-tailed Hawk and races. 

Underparts with more or less numerous cross-bars. 

.4. Front of tarsus with sharply defined scales. 

a. Scales on front of the tarsus numerous, rounded. 

aK Wing under lo'OO 356. Duck Hawk. 

a^. Wing over 15'00 362. Audubon's Caracara 

b. Scales on front of the tarsus sharply defined, transverse, more or less 

square. 
6'. Four or five outer primaries emarginate or "notched." t 
fe2. Tail white at the base and tipped with whitish. 

330. Ever(jlade Kite. 
b^. Tail rufous, with sometimes a black band near the end. 

337. Red-tailed Hawk (Ad.) and Races. 
b*. Tail black or blackish, with four to six white or grayish cross- 
bars. 339. Red-shouldkkk.d Hawk (Ad.). 

339a. Florida Red-shouldkued Hawk (Ad.). 
b^. Tail 10*00 long, gray, with several indistinct blackish bands. 

334. Goshawk. 
c^ Three outer primaries emarginate or "notched."* 

c2. Tail with two or three broad whitish bars. * 

343. Broad-winged Hawk (Ad.), 
c'. Tail with numerous narrow, indistinct blackish bars. 

342. Swainson's Hawk (Ad.). 

* See Fig. 88. t See Fig. 87. 



290 HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 

B. Front of the tarsus smooth, or with the scales not sharply defined 
a. Tarsus not entirely feathered. 

ai. Wing under 9'00, tail-feathers of nearly equal length. 

332. Sharp-shinned Hawk (Ad.). 
a2. Wing over 9"00, outer tail-feathers half an inch shorter than the 
middle ones; upper tail-coverts not white. 

333. Cooper's Hawk (Ad.). 
a^. Wing over 9'00; upper tail-coverts white. 

331. Marsh Hawk (Ad.). 
h. Tarsus entirely feathered. 

61. Legs rich rufous, heavily barred . 348. Ferruginous Rough-leg. 
b"^. Legs ochraceous-buff, more or less barred. 

347a. Rough-legged Hawk. 
3. Underparts without streaks or bars. 

A. Underparts white. 

a. Scales on front of tarsus transverse, more or less square. 

334. Short-tailed Hawk. 

b. Scales on front of tarsus numerous, rounded. 
b\ TaH barred. 

b^. Upperparts not barred 364. Osprey. 

b^. Upperparts barred 353. White Gyrfalcon. 

d. Tail not barred. 

c2. Tail square, white 328. White-tailed Kite. 

c3. Tail forked, bluish black . . . 327. Swallows-tailed Kite. 

B. Underparts dark brown, slate, gray, or black. 

a. Tarsus entirely feathered . . . 347a. Rough-legged Hawk. 
6. Tarsus partly feathered, scales transverse, more or less square. 
b\ Wing over 13-00. 

b^. Upper tail-coverts, base and tip of the tail white; two outer 

primaries slightly "notched" . . . 330. Everglade Kite. 

b^. Three outer primaries "notched"* . 342. Swainson's Hawk. 

b*. Four outer primaries "notched" . . 338. Harlan's Hawk. 

ci. Wing under 13-00. 

c2. Primaries more or less distinctly barred ; general plumage sooty 

black 344. Short-tailed Hawk. 

c3. Primaries not barred; general plumage slaty blue. 

329. Mississippi Kite. 

327. Elanoides forficatus (Linn.). Swallow-tailed Kite. Ads. — 
— Head, neck, linings of wings, rump, part of tertials, and underparts 
white; rest of plumage glossy bluish black; tail deeply forked, outer feathers 
about 8-00 longer than middle ones. L., 24-00; W., IG'SO; T., 13-50; B. from 
N., -80. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds locally from se. Sask., n. Minn., s. Wise, 
s. Ind., and S. C, s. through e. Mex. and Cen. Am. to Peru, Bolivia, and 
Paraguay; accidental w. to N. M. and Colo, and n. to n. Wise, Ont., N. Y., 
Maine, Mass., and in England; casual in the Greater Antilles; winters s. of 
the U. S. 

Washington, three records, Aug.; Apl. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., 
May 4. 

Nest, in the upper branches of tall trees. Eggs, 2-3, white or buffy 
white, boldly spotted or blotched, chiefly round the larger end, with hazel- 
brown, chestnut, or rich madder-brown, 1-87 x r49 (Ridgw.). Date, San 
Mateo, Fla., Apl. 11; Black Hawk Co., Iowa, June 2, 1878. 

The Swallow-tailed Kite winters in Central and South America, 
and appears in the United States in March. Its home is the air, and 
it is far more frequently seen on the wing than at rest. It captures 

*Fig. 88. 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 291 

its prey, devours it, and drinks while under way. Its flight possesses 
all the marvelous ease and grace of a Swallow's, made more evident, 
and consequently more impressive, by the bird's much greater size. 

328. Elanus leucurus (VieilL). White-tailed Kite. Ads. — Upper- 
parts ashy gray, whiter on the head; wing-coverts black; tail and under- 
parts white. Im. — Very different, head streaked black and whitish; back 
black narrowly tipped with rusty, many of the feathers with more or less 
concealed white bars; tail black, central feathers barred with gray, others 
with white; underparts rufous ^\-ith buff margins; throat white, region around 
eye velvety black. A later plumage has the back grajash brown edged with 
whitish, tail gray tipped with white; wings much as in the adult, underparts 
white, breast streaked with rufous. L., 15-50; W., 12-50; T., T'OO; B. from 
N., -70. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds in Lower Austral zone in Calif., Tex., 
Okla., S. C, and Fla.; casual in s. Ills., La., Miss., and Ala.; winters in Calif, 
and Fla. and s. rarely to Guatemala; resident in S. A. and Argentina and 
Chile to Venezuela. Accidental in Mass. 

Nest, in trees. Eggs, .3-5, "handsomely marbled or clouded with various 
shades of rich madder-brown on a paler (sometimes whitish) ground, I'Tl x 
1-31" (Ridgw.). Date, Brownsville, Tex., May 11. 

This species is not often found east of the ]\Iississippi. It frequents 
open, marshy situations. A pair which I observed in Texas hunted 
by hovering over the reeds, sustaining a position facing the wind, and 
about forty feet from the ground, by a gentle movement of the wings. 

329. Ictinia mississippiensis (Wils.). Mississippi Kite. Ads. — ■ 
Head, neck, exposed margins of the secondaries, and underparts gray; back 
bluish slate-color; primaries streaked or spotted with rufous-chostnut; tail 
black, without bars. Im. — Head streaked with black and white; hack black- 
ish, tipped with rufous or white, the concealed parts of the feathers white and 
with generally one blackish bar; primaries without rufous; tail with three 
or four broken white bars; below buffv, streaked with rufous and grayish 
brown. L., 14-00; W., ir25; T., 6-50; B. from N., '60. 

Range. — Lower Austral zone from s. Kans., Iowa, Ills., s. Ind., and S. C, 
s. to Tex., and Fla.; winters in Fla. and s. Tex., and s. rarely to Guatemala; 
accidental in Colo., S. D., Wise, and Pa. 

Nest, in tall trees. Eggs, 1-3, dull white, sometimes with a bhiish tinge, 
1-63 X 1-32. Z)aie, Lee Co., Tex., May 22; coast S.C, May 27, large embryo. 

This bird, like the preceding, is only a summer resident in the 
United States, arriving from the south in April. It is not common 
east of Louisiana. It migrates in flocks, sometimes flying within gun- 
shot, and at others so far above the earth as to be almost beyond the 
bounds of vision. 

330. Rostrhamus sociabilis (VieilL). Everglade Kite. Ad.d". — • 
Dark slate-color; unchT, and longer upper tail-coverts, and base of the tail 
white, tip of the tail whitish; up[)er mandible much lengthened and hooked. 
9 and Im. — Upperparts hhick, tipped with rufous; \inderparts barred and 
mottled with rufous, black and buffy; tail as in the Ad.j\ L., IS-OO; W., 
14-00; T., 7-75; B., 1-20. 

/?an^e.— Tropical Fla., Cuba, e. Mex., Cen. Am., and e. S. A. to Argentina; 
migratory in n. Fla. 

Nest, in bushes, among reeds or tall grasses. Eggs, 2-3, pale l)luish white, 
heavily spotted, blotched, or washed with cinnamon or chocolate, I'Hd x 
1-47. Date, near Ft. Myers, Fla., Mch. 1. 

21 



292 HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 

This species is a summer resident in southern Florida. It arrives 
from the south in February. Mr. W. E. D. Scott writes of it as observed 
at Lake Panasofkee, Florida: "Their food at this point apparently 
consists of a kind of large, fresh-water snail, which is very abundant, 
and the local name of 'Snail-Hawk' is particularly applicable to this 
bird as I have met with it. They fish over the shallow water, remind- 
ing one of Gulls in their motions; and having secured a snail by diving, 
they immediately carry it to the nearest available perch, where the 
animal is dexterously taken from the shell without injury to the latter." 
{Bull Nutt. Orn. Club, VI, 1881, p. 16.) 

331. Circus hudsonius (Linn.). Marsh Hawk. Ad. d^. — Upperparts 
gray or ashy; upper tail-coverts white; tail silvery gray, irregularly barred 
or marked with blackish; upper breast pearl-gray; the lower breast and 
belly white, spotted or barred with rufous. Ad. 9. — Upperparts fuscous, 
the head and neck streaked, and the wing-coverts spotted or margined 
with rufous; longer upper tail-coverts white; midd'e tail-feathers barred with 
ashy and black, others barred with ochraceous-buff and black; underparts 
ochraceous-buff , widely streaked on the breast and narrowly streaked on the 
belly with fuscous or light umber. Im. — Similar to the 9, but somewhat 
darker above; the underparts darker, almost rufous; the belly without 
streaks, d' L., 19-00; W., 13-75; T., 9*00; B. from N., '60. 9 L., 22-00; W., 
15-00; T., 10-00. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from ne. Siberia, nw. Alaska^ nw. Mackenzie, 
cen. Keewatin, n. Que., and Prince Edward Is. s. to the s. border of the U. 
S.; winters from s. B. C, Colo., Iowa, the Ohio Valley, and N. Y. (occasion- 
ally Mass.) s. to the Bahamas, Cuba, and Colombia. 

Washington, common W. V., July-Apl. Ossining, tolerably common 
S. R., Mch. 6-Oct. 30; a few winter. Cambridge, common T. V., 
Mch. 20-Nov. 10, one breeding record. N. Ohio, not common S. R,., Mch. 
5-Nov. 30. Glen Ellyn, S. R., several pairs, Apl. 4-Nov. 6. SE. Minn., 
common S. R., Mch. 6-Nov. 1. 

Nest, on the ground, in marshes. Eggs, 4-6, dull white or pale bluish 
white, 1-75 X 1-40. Date, New London Conn., May 18; Cambridge, June 5; 
Meridian, N. Y., May 12; Baxter, Iowa, May 8. 

This Hawk is essentially a bird of the un wooded country, and we 
might as well look for a Ruffed Grouse in the open marsh as for a Harrier 
in the thick woods. It flies low, and may be easily identified by the 
large white patch on its rump. Quartering the country with slow, vacil- 
lating flight, it usually captures its living prey by surprising it away 
from its retreats. 

The Harrier is a low-perching Hawk, and most frequently will 
be seen alighting on a slight elevation or in the grass. During the 
nesting season the male may be seen performing a number of extraor- 
dinary aerial evolutions. Sometimes he soars to a great height, then 
falls straight downward nearly to the ground, turning several somer- 
saults during the descent, and uttering at the same time a reiterated 
screeching. At other times he flies across the marsh in a course which 
would outline a gigantic saw, each of the descending parts being done 
in a somersault and accompanied by the screeching notes, which form 
the only love song within the range of his limited vocal powers. 

Ernest T. Seton. 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 



293 




Fig. 85. Square tail of Sharp- 
shinned Hawk. 



"Of 124 stomachs examined, 7 contained poultry, or game birds; 
34, other birds; 57, mice; 22, other mammals; 7, reptiles; 2 frogs; 
14, insects; 1, indeterminate matter, and 8 were empty" (Fisher). 

332. Aceipiter velox (Wils.). Sharp-shinned Hawk. Ads. — Upper- 
parts slaty gray; primaries barred with blackish; tail nearly square, ashy 
gray, with blackish cross-bars and a whitish tip ; throat white, streaked with 
blackish; rest of underparts barred with white and ochraceous-buff or pale 
rufous. Im. — Upperparts fuscous, margined 
with rufous; primaries and tail much as in 
the ad.; underparts white or buffy white, 
streaked or spotted with blackish or pale 
rufous-brown. d^L., 11-25; W., 6-60; T.,5-o0; 
B. from N., '40. ? L., 13-50; W., 8-00; T., 
7-00. 

Remarks. — This species very closely 
resembles Cooper's Hawk. In adult plum- 
age the black cap characterizes that species, 
but immature birds may be distinguished 
only by size, and the difference in the shape 
of the tail, which in velox is nearly square, 
and in cooperi decidedly rounded. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds nearly through- 
out the U. S. and Canada from nw. Alaska, 
nw. Mackenzie, s. Keew-atin, cen. Que., and 
N. F. southward, winters from B. C, Colo., 
Iowa, n. Ohio, and Mass. s. to Panama. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, 
common T. V., Apl. .3-May 11; Sept. 5-Oct. 25; rare S. R., uncommon W. 
V. N. Ohio, not common P. R., a few winter. Glen Ellyn, not conmion S. 
R., Mch. 19-Dec. 9. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 28-Dec. 28. 

Nest, in trees, 15-40 feet up. Eggs, 3-6, bluish white to pale cream-buff, 
distinctly spotted, heavily blotched, or even washed with chocolate or cin- 
namon-rufous, 1*55 X 1*20. Date, Weaverville, N. C, May 1; Northampton 
Co., Pa., May 14; Cambridge, May 20; Knox Co., Ohio, May 11; se. 
Minn., May 8. 

The generally misapplied names "Hen Hawk" and "Chicken 
Hawk" should be restricted to the birds of the genera Aceipiter and 
Astur for they deserve the reputation commonly attributed to the 
large Hawks of the genus Buteo. 

The Sharp-shinned Hawk differs decidedly in habits from the mousc- 
or insect-eating species, which watch for their prey from a lookout 
and capture it on the ground. It is a fearless, daring, aggressive bird, 
and flying swiftly, rather low, either in the open or through woods, 
it makes sudden dashes at the frightened birds, which hurry to cover 
to escape its talons. One hears a commotion among the birds; calls of 
alarm, and a dark form darts through the foliage in close pursuit, or, 
missing its aim, alights in the center of some thickly knived tree, there 
to await in silence a fresh opportunity. I have seen it follow its prey on 
foot through the undergrowth. Sometimes it may be seen soaring in 
narrow circles, when its disproportionately long tail forms a good field 
character. 

It is usually a voiceless bird except during the nesting season, when 
a too close approach to its nest causes it to utter its peculiar notes. 



294 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 




Fig. 86. Rounded tail of Cooper's Hawk. 



"Of 159 stomachs examined, 6 contained poultry or game birds; 
99, other birds; 6, mice; 5, insects; and 52 were empty" (Fisher). 

333. Aecipiter cooperi (Bonap.). Cooper's Hawk. Ads. — Similar 
to adults of the preceding, but larger and with the crown blackish. Im. — 
Similar in color to young of A. velox, but larger, d" L., IS'SO; W., 9*50; T., 

7-75; B. from N., -55. 9 L., IQ'OO; 
W., 10-50; T., 9-00. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from s. B. 
C, s. Alberta, s. Keewatin, cen. Que., 
and Prince Edward Is. s. to s. border 
of the U. S.; winters from s. B. C, 
Colo., Nebr., Ohio, and Mass., s. to 
Costa Rica, and occasionally further n. 

Washington, common S. R., less 
common W. V. Ossining, tolerably 
common P. R. Cambridge, common 
T. v.; not uncommon S. R., rare W. 
v., Apl. 10-Oct. 20. N. Ohio, not 
common, Mch. 20-Nov. 1; a few 
winter. Glen Ellyn, local S. R., a few 
winter. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
Mch 3. 

Nest, in trees, 25-50 feet up. Eggs, 
3-6, pale bluish white, sometimes 
lightly spotted with brownish, 1"90 x 
1*55. Date, Montgomery Co., Pa., 
Apl. 30; New London, Conn., Apl. 27; 
Cambridge, May 5; Herkimer Co., N. 
Y., May 6. 

This species resembles the preceding in habits, but because of its 
larger size is more destructive to poultry. 

"Of 133 stomachs examined, 34 contained poultry or game birds; 
52, other birds; 11, mammals; 1, frog; 3, lizards; 2, insects; and 39 
were empty" (Fisher). 

334. Astur atricapillus atricapillus (Wils.). Goshawk. Ads. — 
Upporparts bluish slate-color; head blackish, a white line over and behind the 
eye; inner tail-feathers like the back, outer ones more fuscous, and slightly 
marked with blackish; tip whitish; entire underparts evenly marked with 
irregular, wavy bars of gray and white, the feathers of the throat and breast 
with darker shaft streaks. Im. — Upperparts fuscous, margined with rufous; 
primaries barred with black; tail brownish gray, barred with black; under- 
parts white or buffy, streaked with black, d^ L., 22-00; W., 13-00; T., 10-00; 
B. from N., -65. 9 L., 24-00; W., 13-40; T., 11-50. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Boreal zones from nw. Alaska, nw. Mackenzie, 
con. Keewatin, and n. Ungava s. to Mich., and N. H., and in the mountains 
s. to Pa. and N. M.; winters from Alaska and the s. Canadian Provinces s. 
to n. Mox., Tox., Okla., Mo., Ind., and Va.; accidental in England. 

Washington, casual in winter. Ossining, rare W. V., Oct. 10-Jan. 14. 
Cambridge, irregular and uncommon W. V. SE. Minn., W. R., Nov. 5-Apl. 4. 

Nest, in trees. Eggs, 2-5, "white, or glaucous- white, sometimes very 
faintly marked with pale brownish, 2-31 x 1-74" (Ridgw.). Date, Moore- 
houseville, N. Y., Apl. 20; Kentville, N. S., Apl. 8; St. Croix Co., Wis., 
Apl. 17. 

With the general habits of the two preceding species, this larger 
bird is much bolder than either. Dr. Fisher remarks: ''This species 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 295 

is one of the most daring of all the Hawks, and while in pursuit of 
its prey is apparently less concerned by the presence of man than any 
other. It will dart do-^n unexpectedly at the very feet of the farmer 
and carry off a fowl." 

"Of 28 stomachs examined, 9 contained poultr}- or game birds; 2, 
other birds; 10, mammals; 3, insects; 1, centiped; and 8 were empty" 
(Fisher) . 

335. Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi (And.). Harris's Hawk. Larger 
upper tail-coverts, and base of tail white; lesser and under wing-coverts 
rufous. Ads. — Above and below fuscous-brown more or less washed with 
rufous, especially on the rump; tail black, its base and tip white; thighs 
rufous, under tail-coverts white. Im. — Similar, but tail wdthout white tip 
and, seen from below, with broken bars; underparts streaked or barred 
with white; thighs barred with white. 9L., 22-00; W., 14*50; T., 10*00. rf" 
L., 19-00; W., 13-25; T., 9-50. 

Range. — Lower Sonoran zone in se. Calif., s. Ariz., s. N. M., s. Tex., La., 
and Miss., s. to Cape San Lucas and Panama; accidental in Towa and Ills. 

Xest, of sticks, etc., often in 'chaparral' growth or small trees. Eggs, 
2-4, white, sometimes with small cinnamon spots, 2*08 x I'TO. Date, Corpus 
Christi, Tex., Mch. 19. 

I found this Hawk a common inhabitant of the chaparral about 
Corpus Christi, Texas, where it nested in the low mesquites and hui- 
saches. Dresser observed it feeding on carrion with Caracaras and 
Vultures, but specimens dissected by Sennett contained mice, lizards, 
birds, and spermophiles. The white upper tail-coverts, as in the ]\Iarsh 
Hawk, make a good field mark, but Harris's Hawk lacks the light, 
graceful, bounding flight of that species. 

337. Buteo borealis borealis (Gmel.). Red-tailed Hawk. Ads. — 
Uppcrparts dark grayish brown or fuscous-brown, more or less edged with 
rufous, ochraceous-buff, and whitish; four outer primaries "notched," the 
outer one not regularly barred; wing-coverts not cdg(>d with rufous; tail 
rich rufous, with a narrow black band near its end and a white tip; upper 
breast heavily streaked with grayish brown and ochracoous-buff, lower 
breast lightly streaked and sometimes without streaks; upper belly streaked, 
spotted, or barred with black or blackish, forming a kind of broken band 
across the belly; lower belly generally white without streaks. Im. — Similar, 
but the tail of about the same color as the back, cros.scd by numerous more 
or less distinct blackish bands; no rufous in the markings of the underparts. 
cfL., 20-00; W., 15-50; T., 9-25; B. from N., '95. 9 L., 23-00; W., 1050; T., 
9-75. 

Range. — E. N. Am., from Sask., Wise., and Ills., e. to con. Keewatin and 
N. F., and s. to e. Tex., ne. Mex., the Gulf coast, Fla., and the Greater 
Antilles. 

Washington, common W. V., rare S. R. Ossining, common P. R. ; loss 
common in winter. Cambridge, rare T. V., locally W. V., Oct. 10-Apl. 20. 
N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen EUyn, P. R., not common, chiefly T. V. SE. 
Minn., common S. R., Mch. 2. 

Nest, in trees, 30-70 feet up. Eggs, 2-4, dull white, generally scantily 
and irregularly marked with .shades of cinnamon-brown, 2" 10 x I'Ho. Date, 
San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 4; Litchfield Co., Conn., Apl. 8; Richland Co., 111., 
Mch. 6; se. Minn., Apl. 23. 

The Red-tailed Hawk rosombles its near relative, the Red-shoul- 
dered Hawk, in the selection of its haunts, and, to a large extent, in 



296 HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 

habits. It is to be distinguished in Ufe from that species by its larger 
size, which, even in the field, is noticeable, and by its call. The usual 
note of the Red-tail is a long-drawn ''squeahng" whistle, which to 
my ear suggests the sound produced by escaping steam. 

"Of 562 stomachs examined, 54 contained poultry or game birds; 
51, other birds; 278, mice; 131, other mammals; 37, batrachians or 
reptiles; 47, insects; 8, crawfish; 1, centiped; 13, offal; and 89 were 
empty" (Fisher). 

337a. B. b. krideri Hoopes. Krider's Hawk. Similar to Buteo b. 
horealis, but with much more white in the plumage; the head sometimes 
almost entirely white; the underparts only lightly streaked, and with the 
band on the belly sometimes obsolete; the tail in the ad. pale rufous, gen- 
erally without a terminal black band; in the im., pale rufous, or white, washed 
with rufous, and with numerous blackish bars, cf W., 15'00; T., 9'50. 

Range. — Great Plains from Wyo., N. D., and Minn., s. to Nebr. and Mo , 
and in winter to Wise, Ills., Tex., La., and Miss. 

SE. Minn., uncommon S. R. 

Nesting date, se. Minn., Apl. 22. 

337d. B. b. harlani (Aud.). Harlan's Hawk. Ads. — Upperparts 
dark sooty fuscous, bases of the feathers more or less barred with grayish 
or whitish and at times with some rusty; tail closely mottled with black, 
fuscous, rufous, and whitish; underparts varying from white more or less 
spotted across the belly to sooty fuscous. Im. — Similar, but the tail barred 
with blackish, grayish, rufous, or whitish, tipped with white, c? L., about 
19-00; W., 15-50; T., 8-25. 9L., about 21-00; W., 17-00; T., 9*25. 

Remarks. — The status of this form has not been satisfactorily established. 

Range. — Lower Miss. Valley and Gulf States, from La. to Ga. and Fla. ; 
casual in Colo., Tex., Kans., Nebr., Iowa, Ills, and Pa. 

Dr. William L. Ralph, in Bendire's "Life Histories of North Ameri- 
can Birds" (p. 218), reports this species as not uncommon during the 
winter in St. John's and Putnam Counties, Florida. He writes: "They 
are exactly like the Red-tailed Hawks except in color, and their call- 
note is the same, only being longer drawn out. The call of the latter 
bird, as already stated, sounds like the squealing of a pig, or 'kee-ee-e,' 
and that of Harlan's Hawk hke 'kee-ee-ee-e-e-ee' ." 

The Western Redtail {337h. B. h. calurus) has been recorded from 
Illinois. 

Outram Bangs has described the breeding Red-tailed Hawk of southern 
Florida, and probably of Cuba, as Buteo horealis umhrinus. It is "darker above 
than Buteo horealis, the throat and middle of the belly marked with broad, 
conspicuous striping and banding of deep chocolate-brown; tail-feathers with 
dark brown markings (the remains of bands) near the shafts." Owing to the 
lack of material the A. O. U. Committee on Classification and Nomenclature 
has deferred action on this proposed new race. 

339. Buteo lineatus lineatus (Gmcl.). (Fig. 50.) Red-shouldered 
Hawk. Ads. — Upperparts dark grayish fuscous-brown, more or less edged 
with rufous, ochraceous-buff, and whitish; four outer primaries "notched," 
all barred with black and white; lesser wing-coverts rufous, forming a con- 
spicuous "shoulder" patch; tail black or fuscous, with four or five white 
cross-bars and a white tip; throat streaked with blackish; rest of underparts 
rufous or ochraceous-buff, everywhere barred with white or whitish. Im. — 
Upperparts much as in the adult; basal part of the primaries mostly ochra- 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 297 

ceous-huff, fading to whitish on the inner web, with broken bars of fuscous; 
lesser wing-coverts conspicuously margined with rufous or rufous-chestnut; 
tail dark grajdsh brown, indistinctly barred mth fuscous, and on the basal 
half with more or less rufous, the inner webs of the feathers -n-ith sometimes 
white bars; underparts white or whitish, streaked or spotted -wdth black or 
blackish, the legs sometimes barred with rufous. cfL., 18"30; W., 12"50; 
T., 8-00; B. from N., -75. 5 L., 20-35; W., 13-50; T., 9-00. 

Remarks. — Adults of this species may always be known by the rich rufous 
lesser wing-coverts. Immature birds are sometimes confused with the young 
of the Red-tailed or Broad-winged Hawks. From the former they may be 
distinguished by their small size, rufous margins of the lesser wing-coverts 



Fig. 87. Four-notched primaries of Red-shouldered Hawk. (Reduced.) 

ochraceous-bufT markings on the primaries, and the continuously streaked 
underparts ; from the latter they differ in having four instead of three outer 
primaries "notched," in being larger, and in having ochraceous-buff on the 
primaries.' 

Range. — E. N. A, Breeds from Man., s. Keewatin, s. Que., N. S., and 
Prince Edward Is. s. nearly to the Gulf States and w. to edge of the Great 
Plains; winters s. to the Gulf coast. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, 
common, Apl.-Nov., less common in winter. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen 
EUyn, P. R., more common than the Red-tail; chiefly T. V. 

Nest, in trees, 30-60 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, dull white, generally more or 
less sprinkled, spotted, or blotched with cinnamon-brown or chocolate, 
2-15 X 1-65. Date, Iredell Co., N. C, Mch. 26; New London, Conn., Apl. 3; 
Cambridge, Apl. 10. 

The present species and the Red-tailed Hawk are the birds to which 
the names Chicken Hawk and Hen Hawk are most frequently misap- 
pUed. Being both common species whose habits render them easily- 
observed, they are often unjustly made to suffer for the sins of their 
bird-killing relatives of the genera Accipiler and Astur. 

The farmer sees a Hawk sailing in wide circles above him, uttering 
its fierce, screaming cry of kee-you, keh-you. While he is watching it 
a sly, low-flying Accipiter slips by him and makes a sudden dash into 
the poultry yard. The farmer does not discriminate; a Hawk is a 
Hawk, and shaking his fist at the bird in the air, he vows vengeance 
at the first opportunity. 

The Red-shouldered Hawk is at most times of the year a bird of 
the woods. Particularly does it like low woods watered with small 
streams from which it can obtain its favorite food of frogs. Its note 
is one of the common sounds of summer, and can be heard wh(m the 
bird is almost lost to sight far up in the sky. It is frequently imitated 
by the Blue Jay. 



298 HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 

"Of 220 stomachs examined, 3 contained poultry; 12, other birds; 
102, mice; 40, other mammals; 20, reptiles; 39, batrachians; 92, insects; 
16, spiders; 7, crawfish; 1, earthworms; 2, offal; 3, fish; and 14 were 
empty" (Fisher). 

1894. Kennard, F. H., Auk, XI, 197-210, 270. (Biog.) 

339a. B. 1. alleni Ridgw. Florida Red-shouldered Hawk. Adults 
of this species may easily be distinguished from those of B.l. lineatus by their 
smaller size, grayish white head, with black shaft streaks and no rufous, the 
smaller fuscous tips on the scapiilars and interscapulars, which do not con- 
ceal the ashy gray bases of the feathers, by the whitish or grajdsh cheeks 
and throat, and the ochraceous-buff, indistinctly barred underparts. Im- 
mature birds are very similar to those of B. I. lineatus, and can be distin- 
guished only by their smaller size and darker color. cfW., 11*00; T., 7"50; 
B., 1-20. 

Range. — S. part of Lower Austral zone and S. Atlantic and Gulf States 
from S. C. through Tex. into Tamaulipas, Mex. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Feb. 22. 

342. Buteo swainsoni Bonap. Swainson's Hawk. Ad. d". — Upper- 
parts fuscous-brown, more or less margined with rufous or buffy; primaries 
unbarred, three outer ones "notched;" tail slightly grayer than the back, 
with numerous indistinct, blackish bars showing more plainly on the under 
surface; breast covered by a large, cinnamon-rufous patch; belly white or 
ochraceous-buff, streaked, spotted, or barred with blackish, rufous, or buff. 
Ad.9. — Similar, but larger, the breast patch of the same color as the back. 
cT and in dark or melanistic plumage. — Entire plumage fuscous, the under 
tail- and under wdng-coverts and the tail sometimes spotted or barred. Im. — 
Upperparts fuscous-brown, widely margined with buffy and rufous; base of 
the primaries grayish, and sometimes -wdth a few broken bars; tail much as in 
the ad.; underparts ochraceous-buff, spotted and streaked with blackish. 
cf L., 20-00; W., 15-00; T., 8-50; B. from N., -75. 

Remarks. — Between the light and dark phases of coloration there is every 
degree of intergradation, but in any plumage this Hawk may be distinguished 
from our other species by having only three outer primaries notched. In this 
respect it agrees with B. platypterus, from which, however, it differs decidedly 
both in size and color. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from s. B. C, Fort Yukon, Alaska, nw. 
Mackenzie, and Man., s. to Chile; casual in Que,, Ont., Maine, and Mass.; 
winters from S. D. southward. SE. Minn., S. R., Apl. 26. 

Nest, in trees, 30-80 feet up. Eggs, 2-3, varying from dull bluish white 
to creamy white, sometimes unmarked, but generally more or less spotted 
or blotched with shades of cinnamon-brown, 2-30 x 1'72. Date, Tom Green 
Co., Tex., Apl. 7; Dry Lake, N. D., May 12. 

Swainson's Hawk is of rare occurrence east of the Mississippi. Dr. 
Fisher writes: "By preference it frequents the timber in the vicinity 
of streams, though often it is found far out on the prairie, where its 
only perch is the earth mound of some mammal, or some other slightly 
elevated knoll." 

343. Buteo platypterus platypterus (Vieill.). Broad-winged Hawk. 
ArJs. — Upperparts dark grayish brown or fuscous, more or less margined 
with huffy and rufous; //?ree out(>r i:»rimnries "notched" and without ochraceous- 
buff markings; tail fusfous, witli two bars and the tip grayish white; under- 
parts heavily barred with brownish ochraceous-buff. Im. — Upperparts like 
the preceding; tail grayish brown, with three to five indistinct black bars and 




HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 299 

a narrow whitish tip; underparts white or buffy white, streaked and spotted 
with fuscous. c^L., 15-89; W., lO'dS; T., 6-75; B. from N., '70. 9 L., 16-76; 
W., 11-41; T., 7-09. 

Remarks. — Compared with the other members of this genus, the three 
"notched" primaries and small size are the principal characters of this 
Hawk. 

Range. — E. N. Am, 
Breeds from cen. Alberta, 
se. Sask., n. Ont., N. B., 
and Cape Breton Is., s. 
to the Gulf coast and 
cen. Tex., mainly e. of 
the Miss.; winters from 
the Ohio and Delaware ^j^ gg Three-notched primaries of Broad-winged 
valleys s. to Venezuela Hawk. (Reduced.) 

and Peru. 

Washington, uncommon P. R. Ossining, tolerably common S. R., Mch. 
15-Oct. 23. Cambridge, uncommon T. V. in early fall, rare in spring and 
summer; Apl. 25-Sept. .30. N. Ohio, not common P. R. Glen Ellyn, not 
common S. R., Apl. 10-Oct. 4. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 11. 

Nest, in trees, 25-50 feet up. Eggs, 2-4, dull white or buffy white, spotted, 
blotched, or washed with ochraceous-buff or cinnamon-brown, 2-10 x 1-60. 
Date, D. C, Apl. 23; Monroe Co., Pa., May 10; Lancaster, N. H., May 11; 
ee. Minn., May 29. 

"Of all our Hawks, this species seems to be the most unsuspicious, 
often allowing a person to approach within a few yards of it, and, when 
startled, flies but a short distance before it alights again. During the 
early summer the Broad-winged Hawk often may be seen sitting for 
hours on the dead top of some high tree. At other times it is found 
on the smaller trees in the deep woods, along streams, or on the ground, 
where its food is more often procured. Although sluggish and unusually 
heavy in its flight, it is capable of rapid motion, and sometimes soars 
high in the air. One of its notes resembles quite closely that of the 
Wood Pewee. ... 

"Of 65 stomachs examined, 2 contained small birds; 15, mice; 13, 
other mammals; 11, reptiles; 13, batrachians; 30, insects; 2, earth- 
worms; 4, crawfish; and 7 were empty" (Fisher). 

344. Buteo brachyiirus Vieill. Short-tailed Hawk. Ads. — 
Upperparts slaty gray or fuscous grayi.sh brown; forehead wliitish; tail 
barred with black and narrowly tipped with white;, its under surface grayish; 
sides of the breast or neck with some rufous-brown niurkings; rest of the 
underparts pure white. Im. — Similar, but upperi>arts browner and margined 
with cream-buff; underparts washed with cream-l^uff; no rufous-brown on 
the breast. Dark phase. — Fuscous-black with a slight metallic luster with, 
in some specimens, more or less concealed white spots or l);irs more evident 
below; forehead whitish; tail lighter than back, barred with black, its under 
surface and the under surface of the primaries grayish. L., 17-00; W., 12-50; 
T., 7-00; Tar., 2-35; B. from N., -70. 

Range. — Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, n. to e. Mex., and rarely Fla. 

Nest, in trees. Eggs, dull white, spotted at the larger end with small 
spots and blotches of reddish brown over about one-fourth the surface, 
2-16 X 1-61 (Pennock). Date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 4. (Ralph). 

A rare resident in Florida. According to Mr. C. J. Pennock, who 
found its nest at St. Marks on April 3, its call somewhat resembles 



300 HAWKS, EAGLES AND KITES 

the scream of the Red-shouldered Hawk, but is finer and more, pro- 
longed (Auk, 1890, p. 56; see also Scott, Ibid., 1889, p. 243), 

The Mexican Goshawk (346. Asturina plagiata) is a tropical species 
which reaches the southwestern border of the United States. An individual 
seen by Mr. Robert Ridgway in southern Illinois, August 19, 1871, is the only 
known instance of its occurrence east of the Mississippi. 

347a. Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis {Gmel.). Rough-legged 
Hawk. Ad., light phase. — Upperparts fuscous-brown, margined with 
whitish and ochraceous-buff; inner vanes of the primaries white at the 
base; basal half of the tail white or huffy, end with two or three grayish 
or whitish bars ; underparts varying from white to ochraceous-buff, streaked 
and spotted with black, these marks uniting to form a broken band across 
the belly; front of tarsi entirely feathered. Int., normal phase. — Similar to 
the ad., but the end half of the tail without bars except for the white tip, 
the underparts more heavily marked with black, the belly band being broad 
and continuous. Black phase. — Plumage more or less entirely black, the 
primaries and tail barred with whitish and grayish. L., 22'00; W., 16'00; 
T., 9-50. 

Remarks. — Its feathered tarsi and heavily marked underparts character- 
ize this species. 

Range. — N. A, n. of Mex. Breeds in Hudsonian zone from the Aleutian 
Islands, nw. Alaska, Arctic coast, and n. Ungava s. to cen. B. C, s. Mack- 
enzie, s. Ungava, and N. F. ; winters from Ore., Colo., Minn., and n. bound- 
ary of w. U. S. s. to cen. CaHf., s. N. M.. Tex., La., and N. C. 

Washington, rare and irregular W. V. Ossining, casual. Cambridge, 
T. v., not uncommon, Nov.-Dec; Mch.-Apl. N. Ohio, not common W. V., 
Nov. 20-Apl. 3. Glen Ellyn, quite common W. V., Oct. 12-Apl. 30. SE. 
Minn., W. V., Oct. 15-Mch. 

Nest, on rocky ledges or in trees. Eggs, 2-5, dull white, sometimes 
unmarked, but generally more or less spotted, blotched, or scrawled with 
cinnamon-brown or chocolate, 2*20 x 175. Date, Ft. Chimo. Lab., May 24. 

"The Rough-leg is one of the most nocturnal of our Hawks, and 
may be seen in the fading twilight watching from some low perch or 
beating with measured, noiseless flight over its hunting-ground. It 
follows two very different methods in securing its food — one by sitting 
on some stub or low tree and watching the ground for the appearance 
of its prey, as the Red-tail does; the other by beating back and forth 
just above the tops of the grass or bushes and dropping upon its vic- 
tim, after the manner of the Marsh Hawk. . . . 

"The flight of the Rough-leg is seldom rapid and often appears 
labored, and when on the wing this Hawk resembles the Osprey more 
than any other bird of prey. . . . 

"Of 49 stomachs examined, 40 contained mice; 5, other mammals; 
1, lizards; 1, insects; and 4 were empty" (Fisher). 

348. Archibuteo ferruginous (Licht.). Ferruginous Rough-leg. 
Ad., light phase. — ^Upporparts mostly rufous, the centers of the feathers fus- 
cous; tail grayish white, margined with rufous; legs rufous, barred with 
l)lack; rest of underparts white, more or less barred with rufous on the sides 
and belly; tarsi fully feathered in front. Im. — Upperparts dark grayish 
brown, slightly varied with ochraceous-buff; tail silvery grayish brown, with- 
out bars, the base white; underparts white, lightly spotted and streaked with 
fuscous. Dark phase. — Dark fuscous-brown, more or less varied with rufous; 
primaries and tail us in the ad. L., 23'00; W., 17*00; T., lO'SO. 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 



301 



Remarks. — This species is to be distinguished from the preceding prin- 
cipally by its much larger bill and differently colored tail and underparts. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds from s. Wash., sw. Sask., and s. Man., to 
s. Calif., Utah, Colo., and Kans.; winters from Mont., to L. Calif, and n. 
Mex., and casually e. to Wise, and Ills. 

Nest, in trees or on the ground in rocky places. Eggs, 2-A, "white, or 
buffy white, usually more or less spotted, blotched, or clouded wdth brown 
or gra^-ish purple (or both), 2-42 x I'SS" (Ridgw.). Date, Ft. Totten, N. D., 
Apl. 12. 

This bird is rarely found east of the Mississippi. Dr. Fisher remarks: 
'The Squirrel Hawk is preeminently a bird of the prairie, and, unlike 
the common Rough-leg, shows little partiality to the vicinity of water, 
though in other respects it closely resembles the latter bird in habits. '^ 

34ft. Aquila chrysaetos {Linn.). Golden Eagle. Ads. — Back of the 
head and nape pale, buffy ochraceous; basal two-thirds of the tail with 
broken grayish bars; tarsus white, entirely feathered; rest of the plumage 
fuscous-brown; quills fuscous. Im. — Similar, but base of the tail white; tarsus 
and under tail-coverts ochraceous-buff. </ L., 30-00-35-00; Ex., 78-00-84-00; 
W., 23-00-24-70; T., 14-00-15-00; Tar., 3-65-3-80. 9 L., 35-00-40-00; Ex., 
84-00-90-00; W., 25-00-27-00; T., 15-00-16-00; Tar., 4-lo-4-25 (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N. part of X. Hemisphere. In 
N. A. s. to middle L. Calif., cen. Mex., w. 
Tex., S. D., Man., s. Keewatin, cen. Ont., 
N. H., Maine, and N. S., and in the Alle- 
ghanies to sw. N. C; less common e. of 
the Miss. 

Washington, rare W. V. Ossining, A. V. 
Cambridge, 1 record. N, Ohio, rare W. V. 
SE. Minn., P. R. 

Nest, on cliffs, rocky ledges, or in trees. 
Eggs, dull white, obscurely or distinctly 
blotched or speckled with shades of cinna- 
mon-brown, 2-93 X 2-34. Date, San Benito 
Co., Cahf., Feb. 19; Gold Hill, Colo., Apl. 3. , ' ;, .- 

"It seems to be nowhere a common , ''/{*!'> 
species in the East, but it is much more \.C; ' 
numerous in the mountainous parts of '" ' 
the far West. It is confined chiefly to 
the mountains and more northern lati- 
tudes, where it breeds. It is able to 
endure intense cold, and sometimes re- 
mains far north in winter. In fact, its movements at that season 
are more in the form of wandering for food than regular migration to 
the south. 

"The food consists mainly of mammals and birds, of which sper- 
mophiles, rabbits, fawns, lambs, turkeys, grouse, waterfowl, and other 
large birds form the principal part, though offal and carrion are some- 
times taken. ... Of 6 stomachs examined, 1 contained feathers; 2, 
mammals; 2, carrion; and 1 was empty" (Fisher). 

In view of the ever-recurring story of Golden Eagles bearing away 
children, it is well to say that Cameron shows that six pounds is about 
the greatest weight a Golden Eagle can carry while on the wing. 




FiQ. 89. Foot of Golden IvikIc 



302 



HAWKS, EAGLES, AND KITES 



1905. Cameron, E. S., Auk, XXII, 158-167; XXV, 251-268 (biog.).— 
1909. MacPherson, H. B., 8vo, 1-45; plls. 1-32 (Witherby, London). 

351. Haliseetus albicilla {Linn.). Gray Sea Eagle. Ads. — Tail 
white, rest of plumage varying from grayish brown to fuscous. Im. — "With 
plumage largely light cinnamon-brown or isabella-color. cf L., 31 '00-34*00; 
W., 23-00-26-00; T., 11-50-12-00" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — N. part of E. Hemisphere, breeding from Scotland, n. Europe, 
and n. Asia to Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla; in migration s. to Japan, China, 
n. India, s. Europe, and n. Africa; resident in Iceland and Greenland; re- 
corded also from Cumberland Sd. ; casual on the Aleutian Islands. 

Nest, on cliffs or in trees. Eggs, 2-3, dull white, "occasionally with small, 
faint spots of light brown" (Davie), 3*00 x 2*35. Date, Crimea, S. Russia, 
Apl. 12. (Thayer Coll.) 

This species breeds in southern Greenland. 



352. Haliseetus leucocephalus leucocephalus {Linn.). Bald 
Eagle. Ads. — Head, neck, and tail white, rest of the plumage fuscous; bill 
yellow; tarsus not fully feathered. Im. — Fuscous, more or less varied with 
white; tail fuscous, more or less mottled with white, particularly on the 
inner vanes of the feathers; bill black, c? L., 32*85; Ex., 84*10; W., 22*00; 

T., 11*90; B., 2*48. 9 L., 35*50; Ex., 
89*00; W., 24*00; T., 12*25; Weight, 
12 lbs. 

Remarks: — At any age the Bald Eagle 
may be distinguished from the Golden 
Eagle by its partly feathered tarsi. 

Range. — U. S. to s. L. Calif, and n. 
Mex., breeding in suitable locations 
throughout its range; rare and local in 
Calif, and in the arid interior. 

Washington, not common P. R. 
Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, of 
irregular occiirrence at all seasons. N. 
Ohio, tolerably common P. R. SE. Minn., 
P. R., becoming rare. 

Nest, generally in tall trees, somietimes 
on chffs. Eggs, 2-3, dull white, 2*85 x 
2*20. Date, Brevard Co., Fla., Nov. 25; 
Tampa, Fla., Dec. 3; coast S. C, Nov. 27, 
large embryos; Lancaster Co., Pa., Feb. 
11; Stone Is., Maine, Apl. 21. 

Bald Eagles are seldom found far 
from the water. Here they may be 
seen soaring overhead, winging their 
way to and from their feeding-ground, 
or occupying some favorite perch, gen- 
erally in an exposed position. They subsist principally upon fish. As 
a last resort they sometimes capture these themselves, but dead fish 
cast up on the shore are eagerly taken, and their habit of robbing 
the Fish Hawk of his well-earned booty is too well known to be com- 
mented upon. In some localities, particularly in the South during the 
winter, they live largely upon waterfowl which they capture themselves. 
The voice of the Bald Eagle has a weird, human quality. Dr. 
Fisher says: "At a distance the note of the Bald Eagle is not alto- 




FiG. 90. Foot of Bald Eagle. 



FALCONS, CARACARAS, ETC. 303 

gether unpleasant, resembling somewhat that of Sea Gulls, but near- 
by it is grating and suggests a maniacal laugh." Dr. William L. Ralph 
writes in Bendire's Xife Histories': "The cry of the male is a loud and 
clear cac-cac-cac, quite different from that of the female — so much so 
that I could always recognize the sex of the bird by it; the call of the 
latter is more harsh and often broken." 

The conspicuous white head and tail of adults of this species render 
it easy of identification even at a considerable distance. Young birds 
too closely resemble Golden Eagles to be distinguished with certainty, 
but the rarity of that species in the east makes it probable that any 
Eagle observed is a Bald Eagle. 

36. Family Falconid^. The Falcons, Caracaras, Etc. 

It is resemblance in structure rather than in habit which places the 
members of the genera Falco and Polyborus in the same family. In the 
former, predatory bird-life reaches its highest development; in the latter, 
we have birds not distantly removed from Vultures in the character of 
their food. From the great Arctic Gyrfalcons, nearly two feet in length, 
to the Indian Pygmy Falcon, no longer than a Song Sparrow, the Falcons 
are keen winged, dashing, fearless hunters among birds. They have not 
the soaring habits of the Buteos, from which they may be distinguished 
by their more pointed wings and more rapid wing-stroke. Their nests 
are less bulky than those of our buteonine Hawks, the eggs in some 
species being laid on the bare rock or in a hollow tree. (For Key see 
antea under Buteonidce.) 

353. Falco islandus Brunn. White Gyrfalcon. Legs, and usually 
under tail-coverts, always white, unmarked. Ads. — Head white, finely 
streaked with black; scapulars, interscapulars, and wing-coverts white 
with broad bars or semi-lunes, rarely guttate spots of slaty fuscous; tail 
sometimes wholly white, usually broadly or narrowly barred with slaty 
fuscous; underparts white, with sometimes a few small grayish spots or 
streaks. Im. — Similar, but uppcrparts brownish gray with white margins 
and broken bars; tail barred with brownish gray; underparts more heavily, 
sometimes uniformly streaked. L., 22-00; W., IG'OO; Tw, lO'OO; B. from N., 
•95. 

Remarks. — The white, unmarked under tail-coverts and prevailing white 
color will distinguish this bird from any form or phase of Falco rusticolus. 

Range. — Arctic regions. Resident in Greeriland; in winter casual s. 
to Or.'t., N. S., and Maine. 

Nest, on rocky cliffs. Eggs, 3-4, varying from creamy white, spotted or 
blotched with cinnamon-brown, to uniform pale reddish Ijrown, spotted 
or blotched with shades of the same color, 2'30 x 1*85. Date, Umanak, 
Greenland, May 26 (Thayer Coll.). 

"The food consists of waterfowl and other birds — largely of vari- 
ous arctic species of Grouse which are captured on th(^ wing. All these 
northern Falcons were formerly esteemed for hawking, as they still 
are by the Mongol races; their style of flight is magnificent — much 
swifter than that of the Peregrine — and both are deadly 'footers' 
(i. e., tenacious of grip), but they lack spirit and dash" (Saunders). 



304 FALCONS, CARACARAS, ETC. 

354. Faleo rusticolus rustieplus {Linn.), Gray Gyrfalcon. Ads. — 
Head streaked with buffy or whitish and fuscous, in about equal amounts; 
upperparts grayish, slaty or brownish gray barred with white or whitish; 
tail barred with brownish gray and white in about equal amounts; below 
white with elongate spots from chin to vent; flank plumes barred, under 
tail-coverts barred or with shaft-streaks. Im. — Head more narrowly strea^d 
with fuscous; upperparts browner margined with whitish and with more: 
less concealed spots or broken bars of whitish or buffy; underparts more 
heavily streaked. L., 20*00; W., 15-50; T., 9*50; B. from N., '90. 

Remarks. — In any plumage the various races of rusticolus are to be 
distinguished from islandus by their barred, streaked, or shaft-streaked 
under tail-coverts. The distinctive characters of our three races of rusticolus 
are the broadly-streaked head of F. r. rusticolus, the barred or margined 
back and solid or comparatively unstreaked head of gyrfalco, and the black 
back and almost black underparts of obsoletus. 

Range. — Arctic regions. Breeds in Arctic Am. from Alaska, e. to s. 
Greenland; in winter casual s. to B. C, Kans., Wise, Ont., and Maine. 

Nest, on cliffs or in trees. Eggs, 3-4, not distinguishable from those 
of the preceding, 2-37 x 1'72. Date, Iceland, ApL 15 (Thayer Coll.). 

354a. F. r. gyrfalco (Linn.). Gyrfalcon. Similar to F. r. rusticolus 
but darker; ad. less distinctly barred above and with the head fuscous, 
unstreaked. Im. — Head grayish brown, little if at aU streaked or margined 
with buffy; back grayish brown, almost uniform, or but slightly margined 
or spotted with buffy. 

Range. — Arctic regions. Breeds in EUesmere Land, n. Greenland, and 
6. to Franz Josef Land; in winter casual s. to Minn., N. Y., R. L, Mass., 
and Maine. 

Nesting date, Ft. Anderson, Mack., May 9. 

354b. F. r. obsoletus (Gmel.). Black Gyrfalcon. Head fuscous, 
narrowly margined with buffy, rest of upperparts uniform slaty fuscous, 
without bars; tail the same, without or with only broken bars; underparts 
of the same color as the back; the feathers with partly concealed buffy spots 
or margined with buffy. 

Range. — Breeds in Ungava; s. in winter to N. S., Que., Ont., and Maine, 
and casually to N. Y., N. H., Mass., and R. I. 

Nesting date. Ft. Chimo, Lab., May 22. 

355. Faleo mexicanus Schleg. Prairie Falcon. Ads. — Above, 
grayish brown; primaries and inner webs of all but the middle tail-feathers 
with numerous buffy bars or spots; below, white, streaked and spotted with 
dark grayish brown. Im. — Similar, but with the upperparts margined with 
ochraceous-buff or buffy. cT L., IT'OO; W., 12-20; T., 7-00. 

Range. — Transition and Sonoran zones from e. border of the Great 
Plains and from s. B. C. and se. Sask. to s. L. Calif., and s. Mex.; casual e. 
to Minn, and Ills. 

Nest, on cliffs, sometimes in hollow trees. Eggs, 2-5, "creamy white, vin- 
aceous-white, or pale vinaceous-buffy, sprinkled, speckled, or irregularly 
spotted with madder-brown, 2-06 x I'GO" (Ridgw.). Date, Gilmer, Wyo., 
Mch. 25. 

"The Prairie Falcon, as the names implies, is a typical plains bird, 
and inhabits the dry interior. . . . 

"The flight of this Hawk is swift and graceful, though in most 
cases it is carried on at no great distance from the ground. It is not 
a shy bird, except in sections where it has been persecuted and has 
learned that man is its worst enemy" (Fisher). 



FALCONS, CARACARAS, ETC. 305 

356. Falco peregrinus ana turn (Bonap.). Duck Hawk. Ads. — • 
Upperparts dark bluish slate-color; primaries barred with ochraceous; tail 
indistinctly barred Tvdth blackish and tipped with white; underparts cream- 
buff, barred and spotted with black, except on the breast. Im. — Upperparts 
fuscous, more or less margined with ochraceous or rufous ; region below the 
eye black; ear-coverts buffy; wings as in the ad.; upper surface of the tail 
barred with grajdsh, under surface barred with ochraceous-buff ; underparts 
cream-buff or ochraceous-buff, streaked, spotted or barred with black, d' L., 
16-00; W., 12-25; T., 6-50; B. from N., -68. 9 L., IQ-OO; W., 14-00; T., 7-50. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds locally (except in nw. Coast Region) 
from Norton Sound, Alaska, n. Mackenzie, Boothia Peninsula, and w.- cen. 
Greenland s. to cen. L. Calif., Ariz., sw. Tex., Kans., Mo., Ind., Pa., and 
Conn, (in mountains to S. C); winters from s. B. C, Colo., and N. J. (occas- 
ionally further n.) to the West Indies and Panama; occurs also in s. S. A. 

Washington, rare and irregular W. V. Ossining, casual. Cambridge, 
rare T. V., casual in winter. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., Apl. 4. 

Nest, on rocky cliffs and in the hollow limbs of tall trees. Eggs, 3-4, 
creamy white, heavily marked with cinnamon-brown, to pale reddish brown, 
more or less marked with shades of the same color, 2-05 x r68. Date, 
Wyoming Co., Pa., Apl. 18, inc. adv.; Mt. Tom, Mass., Apl. 23. 

This species is the "Noble Peregrine" of falconry. It would be 
difficult to imagine a bird more highly endowed with qualities which 
make the ideal bird of prey. Its strength of wing and talon is equaled 
by its courage. Few birds fly more swiftly than the Duck Hawk. Even 
Teal — those winged bullets — can not escape it. No bird is more daring. 
I have had Duck Hawks dart down to rob me of wounded Snipe lying 
almost at my feet, nor did my ineffective shots prevent them from 
returning. Duck Hawks are generally found near water, where they 
prey largely on water birds. 

"Of 20 stomachs examined, 7 contained poultry or game birds; 9, 
other birds; 1, mice; 2, insects; and 4 were empty" (Fisher). 

The Peregrine Falcon, or Old World Duck Hawk (356. Falco 
peregrinus peregrinus) is of casual occurrence in Greenland. 

357. Falco columbarius columbarius (Linn.). Pigeon Hawk. Ads. 
— Upperparts slaty bku;, a broken buffy or rusty collar on th(! neck; pri- 
maries barred with white; tail with three or four distinct grayish white bars 
and a white tip; underparts varying from cream-})uff to deep ochraceous, 
streaked with blackish, except on the throat. Jm. — Upperparts fuscous 
or brownish fuscous, a broken buffy collar on the nape; primaries l)arred 
with ochraceous; tail with three or four incomplete buffy Imrs and a whitish 
tip; underparts much as in the ad. L., 10-00-13-00; W., 8-00; T., 5*50; B. 
from N., -45. 

Remarks. — This little Falcon bears some resemblance to a Duck Hawk, 
but is much smaller. 

Range. — N. A. to n. S. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska and nw. Mackenzie s. 
in the mountains to Calif, and s. Ore., and from cen. Keewatin, 11. Ungava, 
and N. F. s. to n. Mich., cen. Ont., and Maine; winters from Calif, and the 
Gulf States (casually further n. ) s. to Venezuela. 

Washington, not uncommon T. V. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., 
Apl. 1-May 11; Aug. 10-Oct. 15. Cambridge, common T. V., Apl. 25-May 
5; Sept. 25-Oct. 20; occasional in winter. N. Ohio, rare P. R. Glen Ellyn, 
regular but rare T. V., Apl. 26-May 5; Sept. 10-Oct. 16. SE. Minn., Apl. 
13. 

Nest, in trees, in hollow limbs, or on cl'ffs. Eggs, 4-5 creamy white, 
more or less heavily marked with reddish brown or chocolate, to reddish 



306 FALCONS, CARACARAS, ETC. 

brown marked with shades of the same color, 1*65 x 1"20. Date, Bingham 
Co., Idaho, May 13; Lab., June 2. 

"This Falcon, with the exception possibly of the Broad-winged 
Hawk, is the least shy of all our diurnal birds of prey, and often may l3e~ 
approached within a few rods. It frequents the more open country 
and edges of woods, and is common along the shores of large bodies of 
water. . . . The flight is very rapid and resembles that of the Wild 
Pigeon quite closely; nor does the similarity end here, for while sitting 
on a tree the general poise is that of a Pigeon in repose, and specimens 
have been mistaken and shot for the latter bird. . . , 

"Of 56 stomachs examined, 2 contained poultry; 41, small birds; 
2, mice; 16, insects; and 5 were empty" (Fisher). 

The Merlin {358.1. Falco cesalon) and the Kestrel {359.1. Falco 
tinnunculus) , both Old World species, have each been recorded once from 
Greenland. 

360. Falco sparverius sparverius Linn. Sparrow Hawtk. Ad. cf. — 

Back rufous, more or less barred with black; tail rufous, a black band near 
its end, the tip white; head slaty blue, viith generally a rufous spot on the 
crown; wing-coverts slaty blue, primaries barred with white; a black mark 
before and behind the w^hite ear-coverts ; underparts varying from cream-buff 
to ochraceous-buff ; belly and sides spotted with black. Ad. 9. — Back, 
tail, and wing-coverts rufous, barred with black; head as in the male; under- 
parts more or less heavily streaked with dark ochraceous-buff. Im. — Closely 
resemble the adults. L., 10-00; W., 7-30; T., 4-80; B. from N., '45. 

Range. — N. A. e. of the Rocky Mts. Breeds from the Upper Yukon, nw. 
Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, and N. F. s. to Tex. and the e. Giilf States (except 
Fla.); wdnters from Kans., Ind., Ohio, and Mass. s. through e. Mex. to 
Costa Rica. 

Washington, common W. V., rare S. R. Ossining, rather rare P. R. 
Cambridge, P. R., common in summer, rare in \sdnter. N. Ohio, common 
P. R. Glen Ellyn, rather rare S. R., Mch. 10-Oct. 26. 

Nest, in a hole in a tree, frequently in a Woodpecker's deserted nest. 
Eggs, 3-7, creamy white to rufous, generally finely and evenly marked with 
shades of the ground color, 1*40 x 1"12. Date, Nazareth, Pa., Apl. 9; Cam- 
bridge, May 6. 

An old stub or branchless trunk of a dead tree standing well out 
in a field is the kind of perch the Sparrow Hawk most frequently 
chooses. From this lookout, Hke a Loggerhead Shrike, he awaits the 
appearance of game below\ Generall}^ it is a grasshopper w^hich falls 
his victim. When he detects one, he flies directly over it, and poises 
on hovering wings until the right opportunity offers, when he drops 
lightly downward, clutches his prey in his talons, and then returns to 
his perch to devour it at leisure. 

The Sparrow Hawk's call is a rather high, quickly repeated killy- 
killy-killy-killy , which in some sections gives it the name of ''Killy 
Hawk." 

"Of 320 stomachs examined, 1 contained a game bird; 53, other 
birds; 89, mice; 12, other mammals; 12, reptiles or batrachians; 215 
insects; 29, spiders; and 29 were empty" (Fisher). 



OSPREYS 307 

360c. F. s. panlus {Howe). Florida Sparrow Hawk. Similar to 
F. s. sparverius but "rufous of upperparts very dark, particularly on the 
rectrices. Tail and wings short. Bill large and heavy." (Howe, Cont. to N. 
A. Orn., I, 1902, 28.) 

Range. — Florida Peninsula. 

Nesting date, Ft. Thompson, Fla., Apl. 1. 

The Cuban Sparrow Hawk {361. Falco sparveroides) is of accidental 
occurrence in the Florida Keys. It has two color phases; in one, the under- 
parts, including the under wing-coverts, are white; in the other, these parts 
are rufous. 

362. Polyborus cheriway {J acq.). Audubon's Caracara. Ads. — 
Face bare; crown, lower back, wings, and belly black; throat buffy; nape, 
interscapulars, and breast barred with black and buffy; tail white, barred 
and tipped with black. Im. — Similar, but browner, and with few or no bars 
on the interscapulars and breast. L., 22-00; W., 16-00; B. from N., 1-25. 

Range. — N. L. Calif., Ariz., Tex., and s. cen. Fla. s. to Guiana and 
Ecuador; accidental in Ont. 

Nest, in a cabbage palmetto or on the tops of dense bushes. Eggs, 2-3, 
varying from cream-buff to rufous, heavily marked with shades of reddish 
brown and chocolate, 2-35 x 1-85. Date, Lake Kissimmee, Fla., Mch. 19. 

Caracaras frequently associate with Vultures and feed on carrion, 
but they also capture their own food. This consists largely of frogs, 
lizards, and small snakes, which the birds find while walking about 
on the ground in search of them. Their flight is strong, rapid, and 
direct, and bears no resemblance to that of a Vulture. 



37. Family Pandionid^. Ospreys. (Fig. 20.) 

The Fish Hawk or Osprey has occasioned systematists no little 
difficulty, and it is variously placed in its own subfamily, family, or 
even suborder. There is virtually but a single species which ranges 
throughout the world, presenting in this wide area only sufficient varia- 
tion on which to base the three or four currently recognized forms. 
Unlike most Raptorial birds, Ospreys sometimes nest in close proximity 
to one another, drawn together not by sociability of temperament, 
but by community of interests. On Gardiner's Island, L. I., there are 
about two hundred Osprey nests, the protection of an insular home and 
an abundant food supply being the principal factors in the development 
of this "colony." 

The firm, dense plumage, large claws, the spicules which thickly 
beset the grasping surface of the toes, and the reversible outer toe 
are all distinctive characters and the evident outcome of the Osprey's 
specialized feeding habits. 

364. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis {Gmel.). Osprey. (Fig. 20.) 
Ad. cf. — Upperparts fuscous, the head and nape varied with white;; tail with 
six to eight obscure bands, more distinct on the inner web; undcrparts 
white, breast sometimes slightly spotted with grayish brown. Ad. 9 . — Simi- 
lar, but the breast always spotted with grayish brown. L., 23-10; W., 18"25; 
T., 8-40. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska, nw. Mackenzie, cen. 
22 



308 OSPREYS: OWLS 

Keewatin, s. Ungava, and N. F. s. to L. Calif., w. Mex., and the Gulfctmst; 
winters from the s. U. S. through L. Calif, and Mex. to the West Indies and 
Cen. Am.; occurs also in S. A. s. to Peru and Paraguay. 

Washington, uncommon S. R., Mch. 19-Nov. 30. Ossining, common 
T. v., rare S. R., Apl. 3-May 26; Sept. 29-Oct. 20. Cambridge, rather 
common T. V., Apl.-May; Sept.-Oct. N. Ohio, rare S. R., Apl. 20-Oct. 
Glen EUyn, two records, May and Sept. 

Nest, generally in a tree, 20-50 feet up, sometimes on rocks, rarely on 
the ground. Eggs, 2-4, extremely variable, sometimes dull white, unmarked, 
sometimes almost solid chocolate, but generally buffy white, heavily marked 
with chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 2*45 x 1'80. Date, Bull's Mt., Md., 
Apl. 20; Shelter Is., N. Y., May 3; Carver's Harbor, Maine, May 8. 

This species lives in colonies, and also in pairs, along our coasts, 
returning year after year to the same nesting-ground. Its food consists 
solely of fish, which, as a rule, it captures alive. Winging its way slowly 
over the water, it keeps a keen watch for fish which may appear near 
the surface. When one is observed, it pauses, hovers a moment, and 
then closing its wings descends with a speed and directness of aim that 
generally insure success. It strikes the water with great force, making a 
loud splash, and frequently disappears for a moment before rising with 
its prey grasped in its powerful talons. As a rule, it carries its food to 
some favorite perch, there to devour it. 

The alarm-note of the Fish Hawk is a high, rapidly repeated, com- 
plaining whistle, which is sometimes varied and prolonged to the sem- 
blance of a song. 

1892. Allen, C. S., Auk, IX, 313-321 (on Plum Is.).— 1908. Chap- 
man, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 47-59 (Gardiner's Is.). 



38. Family Aluconid^. Barn Owls. (Fig. 47.) 

The Barn Owls, numbering some twenty-five species and subspecies, 
are found nearly throughout the temperate and tropical regions. They 
differ from other Owls in structure, but share with them the character- 
istic habits of the Strigidce, the other of the two Owl famihes. 

365. Aluco pratincola (Bonap.). Barn Owl. (Fig. 47.) Ads. — 
Upperparts mixed with gray and ochraceous-buff, finely speckled with black 
and white; tail varying from white to ochraceous-buff, generally mottled 
with black, and sometimes with three or four narrow black bars ; underparts 
and facial disk varying from pure white to deep ochraceous-buff, the former 
generally with numerous small, black, round spots, the facial disk narrowly 
margined by ochraceous-buff or rufous; eyes black. L., IS'OO; W., 13*25; 
T., 5-50; B., 1-30. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Upper and Lower Austral zones from n. 
Sacramento Valley, Calif., Colo., Nebr., Ills., Ind., Ohio, w. N. Y., s. to 
the Gulf States and s. Mex., and casually to Ore., Minn., Mich., Ont., Vt., 
and Mass. 

Washington, not rare P. R. Ossining, A. V. 

Nest, in a tower or steeple, a hole in a tree or bank. Eggs, white, 5-9, 
1-72 X 1-30. Date, D. C, Apl. 16; Delaware Co., Pa., Apl. 24. 

The Bam Owl conceals itself so well during the day that, in my 
experience, it is a difficult bird to observe, even in localities where it is 



Plate XVIII 




Long-eared Owl. 
Barn Owl. 
Saw-whet Owl. 



Heads of Owls 

Hawk Owl. 
Great Horned Owl. 
Snowy Owl. 
Screech Owl. 



Short -eared Owl. 
Barred Owl. 
Richardson's Owl 



OWLS 309 

common. For this reason the captm-e of one of these odd-visaged birds 
is frequently the cause of much excitement over the supposed discovery 
of an animal entirely new to science, and which, by the local press, is 
generally considered half bird, half monkey! 

The only notes I have ever heard from the Barn Owl are a sudden 
^ild, startling scream, a high, rapidly repeated cr-r-ree, cr-r-ree, cr-r-ree, 
and, in captive birds, a hissing sound; but Bendire mentions "a feeble, 
querulous note Hke qudek-qudek, or dek-dek, sounding somewhat like 
the call of the Night Hawk (Chordeiles virqinianus) , frequently repeated, 
only not so loud." 

"Of 29 stomachs examined, 1 contained poultry; 3, other birds; 
17, mice; 17, other mammals; 4, insects; and 7 were empty" (Fisher). 

39. Family Strigid.e. Horned Owls, Hoot Owls, Etc. (Fig. 48.) 

Owls are found in all parts of the world. About two hundred and 
fifty species are known, of which nineteen inhabit North America. 
Many species respond readily to the influences of their environment 
and hence appear in a number of racial or subspecific forms. Of the 
Screech Owl, for example, there are nine North American races, and of 
the Homed Owls, eight. With few exceptions. Owls are woodland birds, 
but some species live in grassy marshes or dry plains, while others make 
their home in towers, steeples, or outbuildings. Owls are nocturnal 
birds of prey, and for this reason feed more largely on small mammals — 
most of which are nocturnal — than do the diurnal birds of prey. They 
are therefore of even greater value to the agriculturist than Hawks. 
Their prey is captured with their talons, and, unless too large, is swal- 
lowed entire. The bones and hair are afterward ejected at the mouth 
in matted pellets. 

Owls' eyes are so fixed in their sockets that they can not look from 
one point to another by simply "rolhng" the eyeball, but are obliged 
to turn their head. The weird, almost human, voices of Owls add not 
a little to the superstitious fear with which they are frequently regarded. 
The eggs of Owls al-e uniformly white, unmarked. The young are thickly 
covered with white down. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing over lO'OO. 

A. Belly without bars, striped longitudinally. 
a. Upporparts with cross-bars. 

ai. Toes feathered 368. Barred Owl. 

a2. Toes nearly bare 368a. Florida Barred Owl. 

h. Upperparts striped longitudinally . . . 367. Short-earkd Owl. 

B. Belly with cross-bars. 

a. With conspicuous 'horns' or 'ears.' 

ai. Wing over 13 00 . . , 375. Great Horned Owl and races. 

a2. Wing under IS'OO 366. Long-eared Owl. 

h. Without 'horns' or 'ears.' 

U. Plumage white, more or less barred with black 376. Snowy Owl. 

62. Plumage fuscous, mottled and barred with whitish. 

370. Great Gray Owl. 



310 OWLS 

II. Wing under 10*00. 

A. Toes heavily feathered. 
a. Wing more than 6*00. 

a)-. Tail more than 6-00 377a. Hawk Owl. 

a?-. Tail less than 6'00 371. Richardson's Owl. 

h. Wing less than 6-00 372. Saw-whet Owl. 

B. Toes thinly, if at all feathered. 

a. Tarsi heavily feathered; with conspicuous 'horns.' 

373. Screech Owl. 373a. Florida Screech Owl. 
6. Tarsi partly bare; no 'horns' . . 378a. Florida Burrowing Owl. 

366. Asio wilsonianus {Less.). Long -eared Owl. Ads. — Ear- 
tufts conspicuous, an inch or more in length, black bordered by white and 
buffy; upperparts fuscous-brown mottled with white, the bases of the 
feathers ochraceous-buff; tail with six to eight fuscous cross-bars; facial disk 
buffy bordered by black; imderparts mixed white and ochraceous-buff, the 
breast broadly streaked, the sides and belly irregularly barred with fuscous; 
eyes yellow. L., U'SO; W., 11-90; T., 6-00; B., 1-06. 

Range. — Temperate N. A. Breeds from cen. B. C, s. Mackenzie, s. 
Keewatin, s. Que., and N. F. s. to s. Calif., n. Tex., Ark., and Va.; winters 
from s. Canada to Ga., La., and cen. Mex. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, rare 
P. R., but sometimes common in fall and winter. N. Ohio, uncommon P. R. 
Glen EUyn, rare, fall records only, Nov. 7-Dec. 14. 

Nest, generally in an old Crow's, Hawk's, or Squirrel's nest. Eggs, white, 
3-6, 1-65 X 1-30. Date, Ossining, N. Y., Mch. 31; Cambridge, Apl. 1; 
se. Minn., Apl. 16. 

"This species, like the Screech Owl, is nocturnal in its habits, and 
differs from the Short-eared Owl in never hunting during the day- 
time. It usually spends the day in some evergreen woods, thick wil- 
low copse, or alder swamp, although rarely it may be found in open 
places. . . . 

"The bird is not wild, and will allow itself to be closely approached. 
When conscious that its presence is recognized, it sits upright, draws 
the feathers close to the body, and erects the ear-tufts, resembling in 
appearance a piece of weather-beaten bark more than a bird. . . . 

"Like the other Owls,, its flight is slow and wavering, but in com- 
mon with them it is buoyant and devoid of any appearance of heavi- 
ness. The note of this Owl is said by some to resemble the noise made 
by kittens, while others state it is like the barking of small dogs. 

"Of 107 stomachs examined, 1 contained a game bird; 15, other 
birds; 84, mice; 5, other mammals; 1, insects; and 15 were empty" 
(Fisher). 

367. Asio flammeus (Pont.). Short-eared Owl. Ad. cT — Ear-tufts 
very short, difficult to distinguish in a dried skin; upperparts fuscous, the 
feathers margined with cream-buff or ochraceous-buff, not mottled with 
white; tail with ochraceous-buff and fuscous bands of about equal width; 
undcrparts whitish, the breast broadly and the belly more finelj' streaked 
with fuscous; eyes yellow. Ad. 9. — Similar, but underparts rich ochraceous- 
buff. L., 15-50; W., 12-75; T., 6-05; B., r20. 

Range. — Nearly cosmopolitan. In. N. A. breeds irregularly and locally 
from Arctic zones s. to Calif., Colo., s. Kans., Mo., n. Ind., and Mass.; 
winters from Calif., Wyo., Minn., Ind., Ohio, and Mass., s. to La., Cuba, 
and Guatemala; common in Hawaii. 



OWLS 311 

Washington, common W. V. Ossining, casual. Cambridge, T. V., Mch. 
15-Apl. 15, rare; Oct. -Nov., uncommon. N. Ohio, uncommon P. R. Glen 
EUyn, rare, Dec. 11-May 15. SE. Minn., common S. R. 

JVest, on the ground, in grassy marshes. Eggs, white, 4-7, 1*60 x 1'25. 
Date, St. Clair Flats, Mich., Apl. 20. 

This species might well be named Marsh Owl, for, unlike most of 
our Owls, it does not frequent the woods, but lives in grassy marshes. 
It is not shy and does not take wing until almost stepped upon, when 
it arises noiselessly and flies low over the marsh. Sometimes it alights 
on a knoll or slight elevation, and watches the intruder in the intent, 
half-human manner of Owls. 

During the migrations and in the wdnter this bird is occasionally 
found in flocks or colonies containing one or two hundred indi\'iduals, 

''Of 101 stomachs examined, 11 contained small birds; 77, mice; 
7, other mammals; 7, insects; and 14 were empty" (Fisher). 

368. Strix vaxia varia Barton. Barred Owl. (Fig. 48.) Ads. — No 
ear-tufts; upperparts grayish brown, each feather with two or three white 
or buffy white bars; tail with six to eight similar bars; facial disk graj', finely 
barred or mottled wdth fuscous; underparts white, more or less tinged with 
buffy, the breast barred, the sides and belly broadly streaked with fuscous; 
bill yellow; legs and feet feathered to or near the bases of the nails; eyes 
brownish black. L., 20*00; W., 1.3-50; T., Q'oO; B., 1-50. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from s. Keewatin, s. Que., and N. F. s. to 
e. Kans. and Ga.. and w. to e. Wyo., and e. Colo. 

Washington, not common, rare P. R. Ossining, rare P. R. Cambridge, 
P. R., sometimes common in Nov. and Dec. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen 
EUyn, rare and local P. R. SE. Minn., common P. R. 

Nest, in a hollow tree; sometimes in an old Crow's or Hawk's nest. Eggs, 
white, 2-4, 2*00 x r65. Date, New London, Conn., Mch. 22; Black Hawk 
Co., Iowa, Mch. 1; se. Minn., Mch. 7. 

The deep-toned, questioning voice, the absence of "horns," and the 
dark brown, nearly black eyes, combine to make Barred Owls apijoar 
among the most human of these strangely human birds. They inhabit 
large tracts of woodland, and are generally resident in certain localities. 
Their notes are uttered more or less throughout the year, but are more 
frequently heard during the nesting season. As a ruU^ they call only 
during the first part of the night and again before sunrise, but on 
moonlight nights they call throughout the night, and occasionally 
they may be heard during the day. They readil}' respond to an imi- 
tation of their cries, and even at midday I have drawn them from 
their nesting-place to meet a supposed intruder on their domain. Un- 
der favorable circumstances they may be heard at a distance of at 
least half a mile. 

Their usual call is a sonorous whn6-xvh66-whoo wh6-wh<)o, ld-who6~ 
ah. This is varied, both :is to relative position and length of the syl- 
lables, by the same individuals, and is apparently the cry of ques- 
tion and response. A\'hen two birds, perhaps rival nial(>s, come tog(>thor, 
there ensues a striking medley of wha-whni^ mingled with rolling irhdo- 
ahs, the whole reminding one of deep-voiced, mirthless laughter. Some- 
times two birds give a concerted performance. One uttera about ten 



312 OWLS 

rapid hoots, while the other, in a shghtly higher tone, hoots half as fast, 
both performers ending together with a whoo-dh. At times they utter a 
single, prolonged whoo-dh, and more rarely a weird, gasping shriek, 
emphasized at its conclusion like a cry of distress. 

"Of 109 stomachs examined, 5 contained poultry or game; 13, 
other birds; 46, mice; 18, other mammals; 4, frogs; 1, a Hzard; 2, fish; 
14, insects; 2, spiders; 9, crawfish; and 20 were empty" (Fisher). 

368a. S. V. alleni Ridgw. Florida Barred Owl. Similar to the pre- 
ceding, but averaging somewhat darker, and with the toes nearly naked. 
W., 12-50; T., 8-50. 

Range. — Coast strip of S. Atlantic and Gulf States from e. Tex. to Fla. 
and S. C. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Jan. 5. 

370. Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa (Forst.). Great Gray Owl. 
Ads. — No ear-tufts, size very large; upperparts fuscous, everywhere mot- 
tled with white, and with little or no buffy; facial disk gray, barred with 
black; underparts white, the breast broadly streaked, the belly and sides 
irregularly barred and streaked with fuscous ; legs and feet heavily feathered ; 
bill and eyes yellow. L., 27-00; W., 17-50; T., 12-00. 

Range. — Boreal N. A. Breeds in Hudsonian and upper Canadian zones 
from tree limit in cen. Alaska and nw. Mackenzie s. to cen. Alberta and cen. 
Keewatin; winters in the s. Canadian Provinces, straggling to n. Calif., 
Wyo., Nebr., Minn., Ind., Ohio, n. N. J., N. Y., and New England. 

Cambridge, very rare and irregular W. V. SE. Minn., rare W. V. 

Nest, in trees. Eggs, white, 2-4, 2-16 x 1-71. Date, Buffalo Lake, 
Alberta, Apl. 10 (Norris). 

"Dr. Dall considers it a stupid bird, and states that sometimes it 
may be caught in the hands. Its great predilection for thick woods, 
in which it dwells doubtless to the very limit of trees, prevents it from 
being an inhabitant of the barren grounds or other open country in 
the north. . . . The note of this Owl is said to be a tremulous, vibrat- 
ing sound, somewhat resembling that of the Screech Owl. . . . 

"Of 9 stomachs examined, 1 contained a small bird; 7, mice; and 
4, other mammals" (Fisher). 

371. Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni (Bonap.). Richardson's 
Owl. Ads. — Upperparts grayish brown, both the head and back spotted with 
white; tail with four or five imperfect white bars; underparts white, heavily 
streaked with grayish brown; legs and feet heavily feathered, whitish, barred 
with grayish brown; eyes yellow. Im. — Upperparts dark cinnamon-brown, 
with a few more or loss concealed white spots; tail as in the ad.; breast 
like the back; belly ochraceous-buff. L., 10-00; W., 6-75; T., 4*40. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds in Hudsonian and upper Canadian zones 
from 'limit of trees in cen. Alaska and n. cen Mackenzie s. to n. B. C, 
n. Alberta, and Magdalen Islands; s. in winter to s. Canada but rare east- 
ward; casual s. to Ore., Colo., Nebr., Ills., Pa., and New England. 

Cambridge, very rare W. V. 

Nest, in holes in trees (and in old nests of other birds?). Eggs, white, 
3-7, 1-35 X 1-14. Date, Ft. Simpson, Mack., May 7. 

"Richardson's Owl is nocturnal in its habits, remaining quiet dur- 
ing the day in the thick foliage of the trees or bushes. In fact, its 
vision is apparently so affected by bright light that many specimens 



OWLS 313 

have been captured alive by persons walking up and taking them in 
thdr hands. On this account the Eskimo in Alaska have given it the 
name of 'bhnd one.' "The song of this Owl, according to Dr. Merriam 
{Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club., VII, 1882, p. 237), is a low hquid note that resem- 
bles the sound produced by water slowly dropping from a height" 
(Fisher). 

372. Cryptoglaux acadica acadica (Gmel.). Saw- whet Owl. Ads. — 
Upperparts dark cinnamon-brown, the head finely streaked, the back spotted 
with white; tail with three or four imperfect white bars; underparts white, 
hea\'ily streaked with cinnamon-brown or dark rufous; legs and feet feath- 
ered, buffy white, unbarred; eyes yellow. Im. — Upperparts as in the ad., 
but head and back wath little or no white; breast like the back; belly ochra- 
ceous-bufp. L., S'OO; W., 5-40; T., 2-80; B., "60. 

Remarks. — Its small size and absence of 'ears' at once distinguish this 
species from any Owl of eastern North America except C.f. richardsoni, from 
which it may be known by its lighter color, streaked instead of spotted head, 
and unbarred legs and feet. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from cen. and e. B. C, Alberta, Man., Que., N. B., 
and X. S. s. to cen. Ariz., s. Xebr., n. Ind., Pa., and Md. (in mts.); winters 
s. to s. Cahf., La., Va. (casually to the Carolinas), and Maine; casual or 
accidental in Mex. and Guatemala. 

Washington, rare W. V., Oct.-Mch. Ossining, rather rare W. V., Oct. 
28-Jan. 13. Cambridge, not uncommon, W. V., Nov.-Mch. N. Ohio, 
rare P. R. SE. Minn., uncommon, P. R. 

Nest, in a hole in a tree; frequently a Woodpecker's, sometimes a Squir- 
rel's deserted nest. Eggs, white, 3-5, 1'19 x I'OO. Date, Trenton Falls, 
N. Y., Mch. 31; Farmington, Maine, May 21; se. Minn., May 9 (hatching). 

"This species is not migratory, but is more or less of an irregular 
wanderer in its search for food during the fall and ranter. It may 
be quite common in a locality and then not be seen again for several 
years. It is nocturnal, seldom moving about in the dajlime, but pass- 
ing the time in sleeping in some dark retreat. So soundly does it sleep 
that oftentimes it may be captured alive. . . . 

"During the day it frequents the thick evergreen woods, though 
sometimes it is found in comparatively open groves, but always in 
dense trees. . . . The note of this species is peculiar and has a 
rasping character, resembling the sound made when a large-toot lied 
saw is being filed; hence the name. It is more often heard during March 
and early April, though occasionally it is heard at other times of the 
year. 

"The flight resembles that of the Woodcock very clo.sely — so much 
so, in fact, that the writer once killed a specimen as it wa.s flying over 
the alders, and not until the dog pointed the dead bird was he aware 
of his mistake. . . . 

"Of 22 stomachs examined, 17 contained mice; 1, a bird; 1, an insect; 
and 3 were empty" (Fisher). 

1911. Taverner, p. A., and Swales, B. H., Auk, XXVIII, 329-334 
(migration). 

373. Otus asio asio {Linn.). Screech Owl. Size small; ear-tufts con- 
spicuous, about an inch in length. Ads. rufous phase. — Upperparts bright 



314 OWLS 

rufous, finely streaked with black; underparts white, the feathers centrally- 
streaked with black and irregularly barred with rufous; toes rather scantily 
feathered; eyes yellow. Gray -phase. — Upperparts generally brownish gray, 
streaked with black and finely mottled with ochraceous-buff ; underparts 
white, finely streaked and more finely and irregularly barred with black, 
more or less bordered by rufous. Nestling. — Entire plumage regularly 
barred with grayish or rufous and white. L., 9-40; W., 6-40; T., 3-09; 
B., -63. 

Remarks.— This bird may be known by its small size and ear-tufts. Its 
color phases are not dependent upon age, sex, or season, and both phases are 
sometimes represented in the same brood. Between the two there is a com- 
plete intergradation. (See frontispiece.) 

Range.- — E. N. Am. from Minn., Ont., and N. B. s. to ne. Tex., and Ga., 
and w. to about the 100th meridian; accidental in England. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, 
common P. R. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen Ellyn, common P. R. SE. 
Minn., common P. R. 

Nest, generally in a hollow tree. Eggs, white, 4-6, 1*55 x 1*22. Date, 
Chevy Chase, Md., Apl. 6; Ossining, N. Y., Apl. 6; Cambridge, Apl. 15; 
MUton, Mass., Apl. 9; Poweshiek Co., Iowa, Apl. 9. 

The Screech Owl frequently makes its home near our dwellings, 
and sometimes selects a convenient nook in them in which to lay its 
eggs. But its favorite retreat is an old apple orchard, where the hollow 
limbs offer it a secure refuge from the mobs of small birds which are 
ever ready to attack it. A search in the trees of an orchard of this kind 
rarely fails to result in the discovery of one or more of these feathered 
inhabitants who may have resided there for years. They attempt to 
escape capture by a show of resistance and a castanetlike cracking of 
the bill, but when brought from their hiding-place sit quietly, dazzled 
for a moment by the sudden hght. They then elongate themselves 
and almost close their eyes, thus rendering themselves as inconspicuous 
as possible. How differently they appear when the western sky fades 
and their day begins! Is any bird more thoroughly awake than a hungry 
Screech Owl? With ear-tufts erected, and his great, round eyes opened 
to the utmost, he is the picture of alertness. 

When night comes, one may hear the Screech Owl's tremulous, 
wailing whistle. It is a weird, melancholy call, welcomed only by 
those who love Nature's voice whatever be the medium through which 
she speaks. 

"Of 255 stomachs examined, 1 contained poultry; 38, other birds; 
91, mice; 11, other mammals; 2, lizards; 4, batrachians; 1, fish; 100, 
insects; 5, spiders; 9, crawfish; 7, miscellaneous; 2, scorpions; 2, earth- 
worms; and 43 were empty" (Fisher). 

1893. Hasbrouck, E. M., Am. Nat., 521-533, 638-649; Allen, J. A., 
Auk, 347-351.— 1896. Chadbourne, A. P., Auk, XIII, 321-325; XIV, 33- 
39. (dichromatism).— 1911. Sherman, A., Auk, XXVIII, 155-168 (home- 
life). 

373a. O. a. floridanus (Ridgw.). Florida Screech Owl. Much like 
the i)roc(;diiig, l)ut smaller, with the colors deeper and markings of the 
underparts heavier. W., 5'95; T., 2*80. The rufous phase is rare in this sub- 
species. 



OWLS 315 

Range. — Gulf and S. Atlantic States from se. Tex. to S. C, chiefly near 
the coast. 

Nesting date, Archer, Fla., Mch. 31. 

375. Bubo virginianus virginianus {Gmel.). Great Horned Owl. 
Ads. — Size large; car-tui'ts conspicuous, nearly two inches in length; upper- 
parts mottled with varying shades of oclu-aceous-buff and black; facial 
disk ochraceous-buff ; ear-tufts black and ochraceous-buff ; a white patch 
on the throat, rest of the undcrparts ochraceous-buff, barred with black; 
legs and feet feathered ; eyes yeUow. cf L., 22-00; W., 15-00; T., 8-50; B., 1-60. 

Range.~E. N. Am. from Ont., Que., N. B., and N. F. s. to the Gulf 
coast and Fla.; w. to Wise, e. Minn., Iowa, and e. Tex. 

Washington, rare P. R. Ossining, tolerably common P. R. Cambridge, 
uncommon, autumn or winter. N. Ohio, rare P. R. SE. Minn., common P. R. 

Nest, generally in an old Crow's, Hawk's or squirrel's nest. Eggs, white, 
2-3, 2-20 X 1-80. Date, Merritt's Is., Fla., Dec. 17; Chester Co., Pa., Feb. 
15; Cambridge, Feb. 22; Black Hawk Co., Iowa, Feb. 14; se. Minn., Feb. 21. 

This "tiger among birds" is an inhabitant of heavily forested regions, 
and is common therefore only in the wilder, less settled portions of 
our countr>^ It is the only one of our resident Owls which destroys 
poultry and birds in any numbers, but, in spite of its frequent visits 
to the farmyard, Dr. Fisher considers that in many localities it is a 
"beneficial species" because of its great fondness for rabbits. 

Its usual call is a loud, deep-toned whoo, hoo-hoo-hoo, whood, ivhooo. 
The syllables are all on the same note, and bear some resemblance to 
a bass-voiced dog barking in the distance. 

A much rarer call is a loud, piercing scream, one of the most blood- 
curdUng sounds I have ever heard in the woods. 

"Of 127 stomachs examined, 31 contained poultry or game birds; 
8, other birds; 13, mice; 65, other mammals; 1, a scorpion; 1, fish; 
10, insects, and 17 were empty" (Fisher). 

375b. B. V. subarcticus {Hoy). Arctic Horned Owl. Similar 
to the preceding, but nuich lighter in color, the ochraceous-buff markings 
largely replaced by gray or white. 

Range. — Breeds from nw. Mackenzie and cen. Keewatin to valley of 
the Sask., and probably in the glacier region of Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fair- 
weather; s. in winter to n. U. S. from Idaho to Wise. 

Cambridge, one record. SE. Minn., uncommon W. V. 

375f. B. V. heterocnemis (Ohcr.). Labrador PIorned Owl. Similar 
to B. V. virginianus, but much darker, the prevailing color fuscous or dusky. 
Range. — Northern Ungava and Labrador. 

376. Nyctea nyctea (Linn.). Snowy Owl. Ad. cf. — Size large; 
no ear-tufts; white, more or loss barred with dark grayish brown or fuscovis; 
legs and feet heavily feathered; eves yellow. Ad. 9. — Similar, but more 
heavily barred. L., 25-00; W., 17-0(); T., •)-50; B., 1-.50. 

Range. — N. parts of N. H(>iiiis[)h('re. In N. A. breeds from Arctic 
regions s. to cen. Mackenzie, ecu. Ke(>watin, and n. ITngava; winters from 
the Arctic coast s. to the s. Canadian Provinces und Mont., and irregularly 
to the Middle States and Ohio Valley, straggling to Calif., Tex., La., N. ('., 
and Bermiida. 

Washington, casual W. V. Ossining, A. V. Cambridge, rare and irregu- 
lar W. V. N. Ohio, rare W. V. Glen EUyn, very rare W. V. SE. Minn., 
common W. V., Oct.-Apl. 



316 OWLS 

Nest, on the ground. Eggs, white, 3-10, 2-24 x 1-76. Date, Pt. Barrow, 
Alaska, June 7. 

"The Snowy Owl is diurnal in its habits, but Hke most birds is 
more active in search of prey during the early morning and again 
tow^ard dusk. Like many of the Hawks, it occupies a commanding 
perch for hours, watching what is going on about it, occasionally vary- 
ing the monotony by dropping on a mouse or launching out over the 
broad country, soon to return to its perch. During its southern wan- 
derings it is very partial to localities in the vicinity of water, especiallj' 
the barren sand wastes along the seashore or extensive marshy flats 
bordering the bays and rivers. . . . 

"The flight is firm, smooth, and noiseless, and may be long pro- 
tracted. It is capable of rapid flight, and, according to Audubon, is 
able to captiu-e Ducks, Pigeons, and even Grouse on the wing, striking 
them down after the manner of the Duck Hawk. 

"Of 38 stomachs examined, 2 contained game birds; 9, other birds; 
18, mice; 2, other mammals; and 12 were empty" (Fisher). 

1906. Deane, R., Auk, XXIII, 283-298 (flight of). 

377a. Surnia ulula caparoch {MiXll.). Hawk Owl. Ads. — Size 
medium; no ear-tufts; upperparts dark grajdsh brown or fuscous; head and 
hindneck spotted with white; back, and especially tertials, barred with 
white; tail with broken whitish bars, long and rounded, the outer feathers 
more than an inch shorter than the middle ones; middle of the throat with 
a fuscous spot, and below it a white one; sides of the neck and upper breast 
streaked with fuscous, rest of the underparts barred vAih. fuscous and 
white; legs and feet fully feathered. L., IS'OO; W., 8-75;T., 7-25. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds from nw. Alaska, nw. Mackenzie, and 
Hudson Strait to s. B. C, cen. Alberta (casually Mont.), and Ungava; 
winters s. to the s. Canadian Provinces, casually to Wash., Nebr., Ind., 
Ohio, N. Y., R. I., Mass., and Maine, occasional in England. 

Cambridge, very rare in late fall. N. Ohio, rare W. V. SE. Minn., 
uncommon W. V., Oct.-Mch. 

Nest, in coniferous trees or in the holes of dead trees or stubs. Eggs, 
white, 3-7, I'SO x 1'23. Date, Red Deer, Alberta, Apl. 16. 

"The Hawk Owl is strictly diurnal, as much so as any of the Hawks, 
and like some of them often selects a tall stub or dead-topped tree in 
a comparatively open place for a perch, where it sits in the bright 
sunlight watching for its pre3^ 

"Although the flight is s^\^ft and hawklike, it has nevertheless the 
soft, noiseless character common to the other Owls; when starting 
from any high place, such as the top of a tree, it usually pitches 
down nearly to the ground, and flies off rapidly above the tops of 
the bushes or high grass, abruptly arising again as it seeks another 
porch. 

"The note is a shrill cry, which is uttered generally while the bird 
is on the wing" (Fisher). 

378a. Speotyto cunicularia floridana Ridgw. Florida Bur- 
rowing Owl. Ads. — Size small; no ear-tufts; legs and feet nearly naked; 
upperparts grayish brown, spotted and barred with white; throat white, rest 



I 



PAROQUETS 317 

of the underparts barred with grayish brown and white in about equal 
amounts. L., 9-00; W., 6-50; T., 3-00; Tar., 1-75. 

Range. — Southern Fla., chiefly in the Kissimmee 'prairie' region of 
Osceola, Polk, and DeSoto Counties, and also Manatee County. 

Nest, in a hole in the ground excavated bv the bird. Eggs, white, 5-7, 
1-23 X 1-03. Date, Ft. Thompson, Fla., Mch. 26. 

This diurnal Owl is locally abundant in its restricted range. Excel- 
lent accounts of its habits will be found under the following references: 
Rhoads, Auk, IX, 1892, 1-8; Scott, Ihid., 216-218; Palmer, /6i(^, 1896, 
100-108. 

The Burrowing Owt. {378. Speotyto cunicularia hypogcea), is well known 
in the western United States from the Pacific coast to Minnesota, and 
Louisiana, and from British Columbia, and Manitoba s. to Panama; it is 
migratory north of Oregon and northern Kansas; and accidental in New 
York and Massachusetts. 



Xni. ORDER PSITTACI. PARROTS, MACAWS, PAROQUETS, 
COCKATOOS 

40. Fa^iily Psittacid-e. Parrots and Paroquets. (Fig. 51.) 

The order Psittaci is divided into six families containing, in all, 
about five hundred and sixty species. The American species, some one 
hundred and ninety in number, are included in the present family 
which has also about two hundred and forty members in the Old World. 
With the exception of the Thick-billed Parrot (Rhynchopsilta parhy- 
rhyncha), which rarely enters Arizona from Mexico, the Carolina 
Paroquet is the only species inhabiting the United States, and it is not 
found south of our boundaries. Parrots and Paroquets — the dividing 
line between the two can not be sharply drawn — are forest-inhabiting, 
fruit- and seed-eating birds. They are poor walkers, good climbers, 
and strong fliers, making extended flights in search of food. Their 
voices in Nature are harsh and discordant; nevertheless, almost all the 
species possess the power of speech. Some, however, rarely learn to 
talk, while others invariably do. The red-tailed, gray African Parrot 
(Psiltacus erylhacus) takes first rank for ability in this direction, while 
the Mexican Double Yellow-head {Amazona oralrix) is usually accorded 
second place. Parrots are believed to mate for life. They nest in h()I(>s, 
usually in trees, and lay white eggs. The young are hatched with a 
covering of white down and are reared in the nest. 

382. Conuropsis carolinensis (Linn.). Carolina Paroqukt. (Fig, 
51.) Ads.— llvdd and neck all around y(>llow; forehead and rlieeks deej) 
orange; bend of tli(> wing and tihiie orange; rest of the plumage bright green; 
the inner vanes of the wing-feathers fuscous; the under surfa«'e of llie tail 
yellowish. Lm. — Similar, hut the head and neck green likf^ the hack; fore- 
head and region in front of the eye orange; tibia? and bend of the wing 
without orange. L., 12-50; W., 7-46; T., G'oO. 

Range. — S. Fla., ne. and c. of Lake Okeechobee; formerly from the 
Atlantic coast of se. U. S. w. to Tex., Okla., and e, Colo, and n. to Nebr,, 



318 CUCKOOS 

Iowa, Wise, and s. border of the Great Lakes, and casually to N. Y. 
and Pa. 

Washington, extinct, known only from specimens shot in Sept., 1865. 

Nest, said to be in a hollow cypress or sycamore tree, but no authentic 
account of the nidification of this species has been published. Eggs (laid 
in captivity), white, 1"44 x 1*12. Date, probably lay in June. 

The complete extermination of the Paroquet throughout the greater 
part of its range is due chiefly to four causes : first, it was destructive to 
fruit orchards, and for this reason was killed by agriculturists; second, 
it has been trapped and bagged in enormous numbers by professional 
bird-catchers; third, it has been killed in myriads for its plumage; and, 
fourth, it has been wantonly slaughtered by so-called sportsmen. In 
short, in the present century the Paroquet has always disappeared soon 
after its haunts were invaded by civilized man. At present it it appar- 
ently restricted to southern Florida, and there mainly if not wholly to 
the 'hammocks' northeast and east of Lake Okeechobee, where in 
April, 1904, near Taylor Creek, I saw thirteen birds. 

1891. Hasbrouck, E. M., Auk, VIII, 369-379; Butler, A., Ihid., 
1892, IX 49-56 (range). 



XIV. ORDER COCCYGES. CUCKOOS, KINGFISHERS, ETC. 

41. Family Cuculid^. Cuckoos, Anis, Etc. (Fig. 53.) 

Only thirty-five of the some one hundred and ninety known species 
of Cuckoos are found in the New World, and they are largely confined 
to the tropics. 

Cuckoos, as a rule, are rather solitary birds, inhabiting wooded 
areas. The Anis, however, are always gregarious and live in open places. 
Their flight is weak, generally from tree to tree, and their feet are largely 
used as a means of progression. Some species hop, others walk, and one 
is celebrated for his speed as a runner. They are possessed of peculiar 
vocal powers, and their strange calls are frequently the origin of their 
popular names. Many species are remarkable for the irregularity of 
their breeding habits. The Old World Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), like 
our Cowbird, places its eggs in the nests of other birds, and leaves to 
them the duties of incubation and rearing of the young. The Anis are 
communistic, and build but one nest, in which several females lay and 
share the task of incubation. The smaller species are insectivorous, 
but the larger ones add small reptiles and batrachians to their fare. 
The eggs of all North American species are white or bluish white, and 
are sometimes laid at such widely separated intervals that the same 
nest may contain fresh eggs and young birds. The young are hatched 
naked and the feathers of the juvenal plumage, which is the first to be 
acquired, remain in their sheaths until they are well-grown. 

388. Crotophaga ani Linn. Ani. Ads. — Bill much compressed 
vertically, nearly as high as long. Black, feathers of foreparts of the body 



CUCKOOS 319 

with irridescent margins; wings and tail with bluish reflections; tail much 
rounded. L., 12-50; T., 7-75; W., 5-75; B., -95; depth, -85. 

Range. — West Indies, Yucatan, and e. S. A.; rare or casual in La. and 
S. Fla., accidental near Phila., and Edenton, N. C. 

The Groove-billed Ani {384- Crotophaga sulcirostris) of our Mexican 
border and southward, has been reported from Florida (Lake Worth, Jan. 
1891), but it seems not improbable that the bird in question was Crotophaga 
ani. {Auk, 1891, 313.) 

386 Coceyzus minor minor {Gmel.). Mangrove Cuckoo. Ads. — 
Upperparts brownish gray, graj'er on head, with glossy reflections; wings 
and middle pair of tail-feathers like back; outer tail-feathers black, broadly 
tipped with white; ear-coverts black; underparts ochraceous-buff, bill black, 
lower mandible yellow except at tip; L., 12*50; W., 5*40; T., 50; B. from N. 
•80. 

Range. — Key West, Fla., West Indies (except Bahamas), and coast 
of Mex., and Cen. Am. to ne. S. A. 

Nest, a platform of sticks, in low trees and bushes. Eggs, 3-4, greenish 
blue. Date, Manatee Co., Fla., May 28. 

This bird is apparently a rare summer resident on the Gulf coast 
of Florida, but its relationships in this region to the following race 
appear to be unknown. 

386a. C. m. maynardi Ridgw. Maynard's Cuckoo. Similar to 
the preceding, but with a slightly smaller bill and much paler underparts, 
the throat and breast Ijeing grayish white, very faintly washed with ochra- 
ceous, which becomes stronger on the belly. B. from N., '75. 

Range. — Florida Keys and the Bahamas. 

This bird is a regular summer resident in the Florida Keys and 
probably adjoining Atlantic mainland (Scott, Auk, 1889, p. 250). 

387. Coceyzus americanus americanus {Linn.). Yellow-billed 
Cuckoo. (Fig. 53. ) Ads. — Upperparts brownish gray with slight greenish 
gloss; most of the wing-feathers rufous, except at the tip; outer tail-feathers 
black, conspicuously tipped with white, which extends down the outer vane 
of the outer feather; underparts dull whitish; bill black, the lower mandible 
yellow except at the tip. 
L., 12-20; W., 5-70; T., 
6-20; B. from N., '76. 

Remarks. — This spf- 
cies bears a general re- 
semblance to the Black- 
billed Cuckoo, but may 
always be known from Pio. 91. Tail-feathers of Yellow-billed Cuckoo, 

that species by its yel- 
low lower mandible, rufous wing-fcathcrs, and black, white-tipped tail- 
feathers. 

Range. — Breeds mainly in Austral zones but reaching into Transition, 
from N. D., Minn., s. Ont., Que, and N. B. s. to Mex., La., and n. Fla., 
and w. to S. D., Nebr., and Okla. ; migrates through the West Indies and 
Cen. Am.; winters s. to Argentina. 

Washington, common S. R., May 3-Oct. 13. O-ssining, common S. R., 
May4-0ct. 31. Cambridge, common S. R., May 12-Sept. 15. N. Ohio, 
common S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 25. Glen Ellvn, quite common S. R., May 15- 
Sept, 29. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 21 Aug. 20. 

Nest, a platform of small sticks, with a few grasses or catkins, generally 
in low trees or vine-covered bushes, 4-10 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, pale greenish 




320 KINGFISHERS 

blue, 1'22 X "92. Date, Gainesville, Fla., Apl. 9, laying; Buckingham Co., 
Va., May 13; Cambridge, May 25; Mt. Carmel, Ills., May 20. 

A long, slim, dovelike bird slips noiselessly by and disappears in 
the depths of a neighboring tree. If you can mark his position you 
will find him perched motionless, and apparently slightly dazed. After 
a moment he recovers and begins to hop about the tree in an active 
search of his favorite fare of caterpillars. He is especially fond of the 
kind which make nests in trees, commonly known as ''tent cater- 
pillars," and if you examine the conspicuous homes of these pests you 
will frequently find them punctured with many holes made by the 
Cuckoo's bill. A Cuckoo I shot at six o'clock one September morning 
had the partially digested remains of forty-three of these caterpillars 
in his stomach. 

The notes of the Cuckoo are strikingly characteristic, and while 
subject to much variation may be fairly represented by the syllables 
tut-tut, tut-tut, tut-tut, tut-tut, cl-uck-cl-uck-cl-uck, cl-uck-cl-uck, cl-uck, 
cow, cow, cow, cow, cow, cow. It is not usual, however, to hear the 
whole song given at once. 

388. Coeeyzus erythroplithalinus (Wils.). Black-billed Cuckoo. 
Ads. — Upperparts grayish brown with a slight green gloss; wings and tail 
the same, the latter narrowly tipped with white; underparts dull white; 
bill black. L., ll'SS; W., S'SO; T., 6-26; B. from N., '74. 

Remarks. — This species is to be distinguished from the Yellow-billed 
Cuckoo chiefly by the absence of rufous in the wings, black in the tail, and 

yellow in the lower 
mandible. 

Range. — N. and S. 
A. Breeds mainly in the 
Transition zone from 
^^ se. Alberta, s. Man., s. 
Fig. 92. Tail-feathers of Black-billed Cuckoo. Que., and Prince Ed- 

ward Is. s. to Kans., 
Ark., N. C, and mts. of Ga. ; winters in S. A., to Peru. 

Washington, rather rare S. R., May 5-Oct., 6. Ossining, common S. R., 
May 3-Oct. 7. Cambridge, common S. R., May 12-Sept. 20. N. Ohio, 
tolerably common S. R., May 1-Sept. 25. Glen Ellyn, S. R., May 5-Oct. 21. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., May 8-Sept. 27. 

Nest, similar to that of the preceding, but more compactly built; location 
the same. Eggs, 2-5, greenish l^luo, of a deeper shade than those of the 
preceding species, 1*14 x "85. Date, Ossining, N. Y., May 28; Cambridge, 
May 20; Mt. Carmel, Ills., May 7; se. Minn., May 16. 

This species resembles the preceding in habits. The two birds may 
be distinguished in life by the differences in the color of their bills and 
tails. William Brewster has called my attention to an easily recognizable 
difference in their calls. The present species has a much softer voice, 
and the cow, cow notes are connected. 

42. Family Alcedinid^. Kingfishers. (Fig. 50.) 

Kingfishers are most numerous in the Malay Archipelago, and the 
majority of the some one hundred and ninety known species are found 




KINGFISHERS 321 

there. There are only seven American species, all contained in the 
genus Ceryh, which has also five representatives in Africa and India. 
Our seven species are confined chiefly to the tropics, only one advanc- 
ing north of southern Texas. They are solitary birds of somewhat 
local habit. All the American species are fish-eaters and are rarely 
found far from the water. Some of the Old-World species, how- 
ever, are forest-inhabiting and feed on small insects, mollusks, etc. 
Kingfishers nest in holes, usually made by themselves in a bank, and 
lay white eggs. The young are hatched naked, and the juvenal plumage 
is the first to be acquired. 

390. Ceryle alcyon (Linn.). Belted Kingfisher. (Fig. 52.) Ad. cf. — • 
Upperparts bluish gray; wings with small white spots, most of the feathers 
tipped with white, the inner webs of the primaries white at the base; tail- 
feathers with numerous spots and broken bands of white; a white spot 
before the eye; throat white, this color passing on to the sides of the neck 
and nearly meeting on the back of the neck; a band across the breast, and the 
sides bluish gray — in immature specimens tinged with rufous -lower breast 
and belly white. Ad. 9. — Similar to the male, but the sides and a band on 
the belly rufous. L., 13-02; W., 6-17; T., 3-60; B., 2-00. 

Range. — N. A. and n. S. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska, nw. Mackenzie, 
cen. Keewatin, n. Que., and N. F., s. to the s. border of U. S.; winters from 
B. C, Nebr., Ills., Ind., Ohio and Va. s. to the West Indies, Colombia, 
Guiana, and irregularly as far n. as Mass., N. H., and Ont. 

Washington, common P. R., except in midwinter. Ossining, common 
S. R., Apl. 1-Nov. 23; casual in winter. Cambridge, common S. R., Apl. 
10-Nov. 1; rare W. V. N. Ohio, common S. R., Mch. 20-Nov. 1; rare 
W. V. Glen EUyn, isolated pairs, Apl. 1-Nov. 19. SE. Minn., common S. 
R., Mch. 21-Dec. 12. 

Nest, in a hole in a bank, about six feet from the entrance. Eggs, 5-8, 
white, 1-34 x 1-05. Date, Shelter Is., N. Y., May 4; Cambridge, May 15; 
se. Minn., May 9. 

The shores of wooded streams or ponds are the chosen haunts of 
the Kingfisher. Silently he perches on some limb overhanging the 
water, ever on the alert for food or foe. Paddle toward him as quietly 
as you please, just as you reach his danger line he drops from his perch 
and with loud, rattling call flies on ahead. This may be repeated several 
times, until finally the limits of his wanderings are reached, when he 
makes a wide detour and returns to the starting point. 

The Kingfisher hunts after the manner of the Fish Hawk. In passing 
over the water it needs only the glint of a shining fin or scale just beneath 
the surface to catch his watchful eye. On quickly moving wings he 
hovers over the place, waiting only a fair chance to plunge on the 
unsuspecting fish below. Emerging from the water with his prey in 
his bill, he shakes the spray from his plumage, and, with an exultant 
rattle, flies away to some favorite perch. 

1905. Herrick, F. H.. Home-Life of Wild Birds, 130-145.— 1907. Fin- 
ley, W. L., American Birds, 139-147. 



322 WOODPECKERS 

XV. ORDER PICI. WOODPECKERS, WRYNECKS, ETC. 

43. Family Picid^. Woodpeckers. (Fig. 54.) 

Woodpeckers occur in all wooded parts of the world, except in the 
Australian region and Madagascar. Some three hundred and seventy- 
five species are known, of which about one-half are confined to the New 
World. Twenty-four of this number are found in North America. 
Woodpeckers are rather solitary birds, but are sometimes found asso- 
ciated in scattered companies during their migrations. Above all 
other birds they are especially adapted to creep or climb. The peculiar 
structure of the foot, with its two toes directed forward and two back- 
ward (except, in North America, in one genus), assists them in clinging 
to an upright surface, while the pointed, stiffened tail-feathers serve 
as a prop. The stout, chisel-like bill of the more typical species is used 
to cut away wood and expose the hiding-places of grubs, etc.; then the 
long, distensible tongue, with its horny, spearlike tip, is thrust forward 
the food impaled and drawn out. The vocal powers of Woodpeckers 
are supplemented by the bill which is used to beat the long, rolling call 
forming their love-song. The eggs of Woodpeckers are uniformly white, 
and are placed in a hole, generally in a dead tree or Hmb, hollowed out 
by the bird. 

1901, EcKSTORM, F. H., The Woodpeckers (Houghton, Miffin). 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. No red on the head or nape. 

1. Underparts not streaked or spotted. 

A. Entire underparts black. 

a. Wing about lO'OO, bill ivory-white. 

392. IVORY-BILLED WoODPECKER 9. 

B. Underparts white, without black spots or streaks. 

a. Wing under 4*00; outer tail-feathers barred with black. 

394. Downy Woodpecker and races 9. 
6 Wing over 4'00, outer tail-feathers white, without black bars. 

393. Hairy Woodpecker and races 9. 

2. Underparts with black spots, bars, or streaks. 

a. Back entirely black . . 400. Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker. 
6. Back black and white. 

51. Outer tail-feathers entirely white, crown yellow or spotted with 

white. 401. Am. Three-toed Woodpecker. 

b^. Outer tail-feathers barred with black, no black patch on the 
breast, ear-coverts white 

395. Red-cockaded Woodpecker 9. 
b^. Outer tail-feathers black, with generally a narrow white margin; 

rump white 406. Red-headed Woodpecker 9. 

¥. Outer tail-feathers black and white, a large black patch on the 

breast 402. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 9. 

II. With red on the head or nape. 
1. Whole top of head red. 
A. Throat red. 

a. Primaries spotted with white, belly yellowish. 

402. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker d'. 

b. Primaries black, rump and belly white. 

406. Red-headed Woodpecker d'. 



WOODPECKERS 323 

B. Throat white. 

a. Breast and belly black . . 405, 405a. Pileated Woodpecker cf. 
6. Breast black or blackish, sides streaked, belly yellowish white. 
402. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 9. 
c. Underparts tinged with red, without streaks or spots. 

409. Red-bellied Woodpecker cf. 

2. Crown black, brown or gray, a red band across the nape, a red crest on 

the back of the head, or small patches of red on either side of the nape. 

A. Underparts largely or wholly black, -wdng over 8"00. 

a. Bill ivory-white .... 392. Ivory-billed Woodpecker cf. 

b. Bill blackish 405, 405a. Pileated Woodpecker 9. 

B. Underparts not largely black; v^ang under 8"00. 

a. Underparts more or less spotted or streaked with black, 
ai. A black patch on the breast, throat brown, rump white. 

412, 412a. Flicker. 

a2. Head black, ear-coverts white, a few red feathers on either side 

of the nape . . . 395. Red-cockaded Woodpecker cf. 

b. Underparts white, or whitish, without black streaks or spots. 
b^. Crown gray, a reddish tinge on the belly. 

409. Red-bellied Woodpecker 9. 
ci. Crown black. 

c2. Outer tail-feathers barred wath black. 

394. Downy Woodpecker and races cf. 
c^. Outer tail-feathers white. 393. Hairy Woodpecker and races cT, 

392. Campephilus principalis (Linn.). Ivory -billed Woodpecker. 
Ad. (f. — Upperparts shining black, a large scarlet crest; a white stripe 
begins below the eye and, passing down the side of the neck, meets its 
fellow in the middle of the back; ends of the inner primaries and the end 
half or two-thirds of the secondaries white; outer tail-feathers very short, 
the central ones elongated and much stiffened; bristles over the nostrils 
white; bill ivory-white; underparts shining black. Ad. 9. — Similar, but 
with the crest black. L., 20-00; W., lO'OO; T., 6-50; B., 2-75. 

Range. — Formerly S. Atlantic and Gulf States from Tex., to N. C, n. 
in Miss. Valley to Okla., Mo., s. Ills., and s. Ind. ; now restricted to the lower 
Miss. Valley and Gulf States, and of local distribution. 

Nest, usually in a cypress over 40 feet up; entrance oval. Eggs, white, 
3-5, "1-.37 X -99" (Bendire). Date, Tarpon Springs, Fla., Mch. 17, one- 
third grown; Lafayette Co., Fla., Apl. 19. 

The home of this magnificent Woodpecker is in the almost limit- 
less cypress forests of our southern coasts and river valleys. Even there 
it is common in but few localities. In Florida it is found chiefly in the 
western part of the peninsula, and doubtless occurs in greatest numbers 
in the region between the Suwanee Rivor and the Gulf. 

The Ivory-bill is a wild, shy bird. It does not remain long in one 
place, and during the day ranges over an extended territory. Its call 
is a high, rather nasal, yap, yap-yap, sounding in the distance like the 
note of a penny trumpet. 

1891. Hasbrouck, E. M., Auk, VIII. 174-186 (dist.).— 1900. Beyer, 
G. G., Auk, XVII, 97-99 (nesting). 

393. Dryobates villosus villosus (Linn.). Hairy Woodpecker. (Fig. 
54a.) Ad. d"-. — Up[)orparts black; scarlet band on the nape; middle of 
the back white; wing-fcvithers and their coverts spotted with white; middle 
tail-feathers black, the out(T ones white; a white stripe above and another 
below the eve; underparts white. Ad. 9. — J^imilar, but without scarlet on 
the back of the neck. L., 9-40; W., 4-78; T., 3-30; B., r22. 

23 



324 WOODPECKERS 

Range. — Transition and Upper Austral zones of ne. U. S., from Nebr., 
e. Colo., and Okla., e. to middle and n. parts of E. States. 

Washington, rare P. R. Ossining, rare P. R,. Cambridge, uncommon 
W. v., one summer record. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen Ellyn, fairly 
common P. R. 

Nest, generally in a dead tree. Eggs, 4-6, white, "95 x '75. Date, Naz- 
areth, Pa., Apl. 25; Cambridge, Apl. 22; Wheatland, Ind., Apl. 30. 

This species resembles the Downy Woodpecker in habits, but is less 
frequently observed out of the woods. Its notes are noticeably louder 
than the Downy's, and when one is familiar with both there is no diffi- 
culty in distinguishing the two by their voices. 

In speaking of the difference which exists between the rolHng tattoo 
of some Woodpeckers, Mr. Brewster says: "Thus, D. pubescens has a 
long, unbroken roll; D. villosus a shorter and louder one with a greater 
interval between each stroke; while S. varius, conunencing with a short 
roll, ends very emphatically with five or six distinct disconnected taps. 
In this latter species I am con\dnced it is literally a call of recognition, 
as I have repeatedly seen the bird, after producing it, hsten a moment 
when it would be answered from a distance, and its mate would shortly 
appear and join it" {Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., XI, 1875, p. 144). 

393a. D. V. leucomelas (Bodd.). Northern Hairy Woodpecker. 
Similar to D. v. villosus but larger and whiter. L., lO'OO; W., 5'20. 

Range. — Canadian zone from middle Yukon, cen. Mackenzie, can. 
Keewatin, and n. Que., s. to about the n. boundary of the U. S. 

393b. D. V. auduboni (Swains.). Southern Hairy Woodpecker. 
Similar to D. v. villosus, but smaller, and with somewhat less white in the 
plumage. L., S'lO; W., 4-50; T., 2-80; B., I'lS. 

Range. — Austroriparian fauna from se. Mo., s. Ills., and s. Va. to se. 
Tex. 

This is simply a small southern race of the preceding species. It 
resembles the northern forms in habits, but is much more common, 
being nearly as numerous as the Downy Woodpecker. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 24; Weaverville, N. C, May 3. 

393g. D. V. terrsenovse Batch. Newfoundland Woodpecker. Sim- 
ilar to D. V. villosus, "but slightly larger, the black areas of the upperparts 
increased, the white areas reduced both in number and size, especially in 
the remiges and wing-coverts. W., 4"90" (Batchelder). 

Range. — Newf oundl and . 

394. Dryobates pubescens pubescens (Linn.). Southern Downy 
Woodpecker. Similar to D. p. medianus but smaller, browner below and 
with the white markings more restricted. L., 6'00; W., 3*50. 

Range. — Axistroriparian fauna from N. C. to e. Tex. 

Nesting date, St. Simons, Ga., Apl. 12. 

394c. D. p. medianus (Swains.). Downy Woodpecker. (Fig. 16a.). 
Ad. cf. — Upperparts black, a scarlet band on the nape; middle of the back 
white; wing-feathers and their coverts spotted with white; middle tail- 
feathers black, the outer ones white, barred with block; a white stripe above 
and another below the eye; underparts white. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with- 
out scarlet on the nape. L., G-83; W., 3-70; T., 2*53; B., '68. 



WOODPECKERS 325 

Remarks. — The Downy and Hairj' Woodpeckers differ in coloration only 
in the markings of the outer tail-feathers, which are white, barred with black 
in the former, and white without bars in the latter; the difference in size be- 
tween the two, however, is always diagnostic. 

Range. — Canadian and Transition zones of n. and cen. parts of e. N. A. 
from se. Alberta, Man., and s. Ungava s. to e. Nebr., Kans., and Potomac 
Valley, and in mts. to N. C. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, com- 
mon P. R. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen Ellyn, common P. R. SE. Minn., 
common P. R. 

Nest, generally in a dead tree. Eggs, 4-6, white, *75 x *60. Date, Naz- 
areth, Pa., May 9; Cambridge, May 22; Mt. Carmel, Ills., May 7. 

Woodland, orchards, and the shade trees of lawns are alike fre- 
quented by this, the smallest and most famiUar of om- Woodpeckers. 
Sometimes he tells of his presence by an industrious tap, tap — tapping 
as he patiently digs out the grubs and larviE which form his bill-of- 
fare. Again he hails us with a businesshke peek, peek — a note closely 
resembhng the sound produced by a marble-quarrier's chisel, and which 
sometimes is prolonged into a ratthng call. Like other Woodpeckers, 
in the spring he beats a rolling tattoo on a resonant limb, sounding a 
reveille which is a credit to so small a drummer. 

The Do\\'iiy is a sociable Woodpecker, and when the gay summer 
visitors have returned to their southern homes and the wind whistles 
drearily through the leafless trees, he joins the Chickadees and Nut- 
hatches, and during the winter they are inseparable companions. Per- 
haps they share with him the snug quarters in some old trunk which 
he has hollowed out for a winter home. 

395. Dryobates borealis (VieilL). Red-cockaded Woodpecker. 

Ad. cf. — Crown black, a small tuft of scarlet feathers on each side of the back 
of the head; back barred with black and white; wings spotted with black 
and white; middle tail-feathers black, outer ones with broken })lack bars; ear 
region white, separated from the white throat bj' a black strii)e running from 
the bill to the shoulder; sides and under tail-coverts spotted and streaked 
with black; rest of the underparts white. Ad. 9. — Similar, but without 
scarlet on the head. L., 8*40; W., 4-65; T., 3-10; B., '80. 

Range. — Austroriparian fauna n. to sw. Va., Tenn., and s. Mo., and 
casually to N. J. 

Nest, usually well up in a living pine. Eggs, 2-5, white, "91 x "08. Date, 
San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 29. 

This species is a common inhabitant of the "piny woods." It pre- 
fers the higher branches of the trees, and frequently hangs hcuid down- 
ward while feeding at the extremity of a branch. Its call-note suggests 
the yank, yank, of the White-bellied Nuthatch, but is louder, hoarser, 
and not so distinctly enunciated. 

400. Picoides arcticus {S7vains.). Arctic Three -toed Wood- 
pecker. (Fig. 546.) Ad. cf. — Toes three, two in front; middle of the 
crown with a bright orange-yellow patch; rest of the ui)perparts .shining 
black; wing-feathers spotted with white; middle tail-feathers black, outer 
ones white, except at the base; a white line from the nostril pas.ses below the 
eye; sides barred with black and white; rest of the underparts white. Ad. 



326 WOODPECKERS 

9. — Similar, but without orange-yellow on the crown. L., 9'50; W., 5'10; 
T., 3-40; B. from N., '98. 

Range. — Canadian zone s. to the Sierra Nevada of Calif, and mts. of 
Nev., Idaho, Wyo., S. D. (Black Hills), Minn., Mich., n. N. Y., Vt., N. H., 
and Maine, casual in winter to Nebr., Ills., Ohio, Mass., and Conn. 

Cambridge, one record. N. Ohio, rare W. V. SE. Minn., rare. 

Nest, in a tree usually not over 15 feet up. Eggs, 4-6, white, 1'05 x *78. 
Date, Seventh Lake, Fulton Chain, N. Y., May 27. 

"It is a restless, active bird, spending its time generally on the 
topmost branches of the tallest trees, without, however, confining itself 
to pines. Although it can not be called shy, its habitual restlessness 
renders it difficult of approach. Its movements resemble those of the 
Red-cockaded Woodpecker, but it is still more petulant than that 
bird. ... Its cries also somewhat resemble those of the species above 
mentioned, but are louder and more shrill, Hke those of some small 
quadruped suffering great pain. . . . 

"Its flight is rapid, ghding, and deeply undulating. . . . Now and 
then it will fly from a detached tree of a field to a considerable dis- 
tance before it aUghts, emitting at every ghde a loud, shrill note" 
(Audubon) . 

401. Picoides americanus americanus Brehm. Three-toed Wood- 
pecker. Ad. cf. — Toes three, two in front; head spotted mth white and with 
an orange-yellow patch on the crown; back barred with black and white; 
wing-feathers spotted with black and white; middle tail-feathers black; 
outer ones black and white; region below the eye mixed black and white; 
sides more or less barred with black and white; rest of the underparts 
white. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but crown spotted with black and white, and with- 
out yellow. L., 875; W., 4-55; T., S'lO; B. from N., -95. 

Range. — Boreal forests from cen. Ungava to n. Minn., s. Ont., n. N. Y., 
Maine, and N. H., casual in winter to Mass. 

Nest, in a tree usually not over 12 feet up. Eggs, white, "92 x "70 (Mer- 
riam. Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club., Ill, 1878, 200). Date, Herkimer Co., N. Y., 
June 4. 

"It is said to greatly resemble P. [=Z).] villosus in habits, except that 
it seeks its food principally upon decaying trees of the pine tribe, in 
which it frequently makes holes large enough to bury itself. It is not 
migratory" (B., B., and R.). 

402. Sphyrapicus varius varius {Linn.). Yellow-bellied Sap- 
sucker. Ad. d". — Crown deep scarlet, back irregularly barred with black 
and yellowish white; wing-feathers spotted with white, their coverts mostly 
white; tail black, the middle feathers with broken black bars, the outer ones 
with white margins; a white line from the bill passes below the eye; throat 
cardinal; breast black; sides streaked with black; belly pale yellow. Ad. 9. — 
Similar, but throat white; crown sometimes black; outer tail-feathers with 
broken white bars. Im. — Similar to ads., but with the crown dull blackish, 
the breast brownish gray barred with black, the throat whitish. L., 8*56; 
W., 4-87; T., 3-20; B., '92. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and upper parts of Alleghanian 
faunas, from sw. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, cen. Que., and Cape Breton 
Is. s. to cen. Alberta, n. Mo., n. Ind., n. Ohio, N. C. (mts.), and Mass. (mts. 
of n. Berkshire Co.); winters from Pa. and Ohio Valley (casually further n.) 
to the Gulf coast, Bahamas, Cuba, and Costa Rica; casual in Wyo. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch.-May; Sept. and Oct., occasional 



WOODPECKERS 327 

in winter. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 5-May 13; Sept. 18-Oct. 23; 
casual in w-inter. Cambridge, not uncommon T. V., Apl. and Sept. 15- 
Nov. 1; occasional W. V. 5s". Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 1-May 20; Sept. 
15-Oct. 20. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Mch. 31-AIay 12; Sept. 14-Oct. 
13. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 25-Oct. 19. 

Nest, about 40 feet up. Eggs, 5-7, "87 x '67. Date, Trenton Falls, N. Y., 
May 26; Goodrich, Mich., May 20; se. Minn., May 13. 

As migrants, Sapsuckers are rather inconspicuous. They frequent" 
li\'ing trees, where they are concealed b}' the foliage and their weak 
call-note is not hkely to attract attention. 

On reaching their summer homes in the spring their character 
changes, and Alerriam speaks of them as "noisy, rolHcking fellows; 
they are always chasing one another among the trees, screaming mean- 
while at the tops of their voices" {Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, IV, 1879, p. 2). 
Brewster describes the note of the adults at this season as "a clear, 
ringing cleur, repeated five or six times in succession;" while j'oung and 
old utter "a low, snarling cry that bears no very distant resemblance to 
the mew of the Catbird" {Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1876, p. 69). 

The Sapsucker feeds largely on the juices of trees, which it obtains 
by perforating the bark. (Bolles, AwA:,VIII, 1891, p. 256; IX, 1892, p. 110.) 

405. Phloeotomus pileatus pileatus (Linn.). Pileated Wood- 
pecker. Ad. d". — Upperparts blackish fuscous; whole top of the head scarlet, 
the feathers lengthened to form a crest; a narrow white stripe bordering 
this crest separates it from the fuscous ear-coverts; a stripe beginning at the 
nostril and passing down the sides of the neck to the shoulders is tinged with 




Fig. 93 Tip of tongue of Pileated Woodpecker, showing barbed, 
horny tip. (Much enlarged.) 

yellow before the eye and is white back of the eye; it is separated from the 
white throat by a scarlet stripe at the base of the lower mandible; basal 
half of the wing-feathers white; underparts fuscous, the feathers .som(>tinie3 
lightly margined with white; bill horn-color. Ad. 9, — Similar, but without 
red on the forepart of the crown or at the base of the lower mandible. L., 
17-00; W., 8-90; T., 6-20; B., 1-85. 

Range. — Austroriparian forests from N. C, s. and w. to middle Tex., and 
w. Okla.; casual in the Bahamas. 

^^esting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 14. 

This species is common only in the wilder parts of its range. In 
the hummocks and cypress swamps of Florida it occurs in numbers. 
There, contrary to the experience of Audubon, I found it b}' no moans 
a wild bird. Indeed, Flickers were more difficult to approach. On 
the Suwance River, in March, and in Maine, in June, I have called these 
birds to me by simply clapping my slightly clo.scd palms, making a 
sound in imitation of their tapping on a resonant limb. 

The flight of this species is rather slow, but usually direct, not 
undulating, as in most Woodpeckers. When under way, the white 



328 WOODPECKERS 

markings of the wings show conspicuously. Their usual call-note is a 
sonorous cow-cow-cow, repeated rather slowly many times, suggesting 
a somewhat similar call of the Flicker's. Like the FHcker, they have 
also a wichew note uttered when two birds come together. 

405a. P. p. abieticola (Bangs). Northern " Pileated Woodpecker. 
Larger, bill longer, white markings more extensive. W., 9*10; T., 6*30; B., 
2-00 (of. Bangs, Auk, XV, 1898, 176). 

Range. — Canadian and Transition zone forests of N. A. from ne. B. C, 
s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, cen. Que., and N. F. to the s. Sierra Nevada of 
Calif., n. N. M., and the s. Alleghanies. 

Washington, rare P. R. N. Ohio, rare P. R. SE. Minn., rare P. R. 

Nest, 12 to 80 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, white, 1-30 x '94. Date, Maine, 
May 11. 

1901. MoRRELL, C. H., Journ. Me. Orn. Soc, III, 32-35 (in Maine). 

406. Melanerpes erythroeephalus (Linn.). Red-headed Wood- 
pecker. Ads. — Head, neck, throat, and upper breast deep red; upper back, 
primaries, bases of the secondaries, and wing-coverts bluish black; end half 
of the secondaries, rump, and upper tail-coverts white; tail black, the feath- 
ers more or less tipped or margined with white; lower breast and belly white, 
the middle of the latter generally tinged with reddish. Im. — Red head and 
neck of the adult replaced by mixed grayish brown and fuscous; upper back 
bluish black, barred with ashj^; primaries and mng-co verts black; end half 
of the secondaries irregularly barred with black; tail black, generally tipped 
with white; lower breast and belly white, more or less streaked or spotted 
with fuscous. L., 9-75; W., 5-52; T., 3-30; B., 1-17. 

Range. — Transition and Austral zones from se. B. C, s. Alberta, Man., 
and Ont. s. to the Gulf coast, and from cen. Mont., cen. Colo., and cen. 
Tex., e. to vallej's of the Hudson and Delaware; rare and local in New Eng- 
land; casual in Ariz., N. M., L^tah, N. S., and N. B.; irregularly migratory 
in the n. parts of its range. 

Washington, rather common S. R., rare W. V. Ossining, rare P. R., 
common in fall, Aug. 27-Oct. 12. Cambridge, irregular at all seasons; 
sometimes common in fall. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 25; 
occasionally winters. Glen Ellyn, common S. R., Feb. 19-Nov. 6; a few 
winter. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 4-Sept. 17; rare in winter. 

N'est, generally in a dead tree. Eggs, 4-6, white, 1*00 x "75. Date, San 
Mateo, Fla., May 5; Chester Co., Pa., June 8; Jay Co., Ind., May 21, inc. 
adv.; se. Minn., May 22. 

Give a bird an abundance of its favorite food, and its movements 
no longer seem to be governed by the calendar. Red-headed Wood- 
peckers were supposed to migrate southward in the fall and pass the 
winter south of Maryland, until Dr. Merriam, in his interesting account 
of the habits of this species (Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, III, 1878, pp. 123-128), 
told us that in Lewis County, northern New York, their abundance in 
winter was in no way affected by the severity of the weather, but was 
entirely dependent upon the success of the crop of beechnuts which 
constitute their food. 

Indeed, few birds seem better able to adapt themselves to their 
surroundings. They change their fare and habits with the season, 
and to the accomplishments of Woodpeckers add those of Flycatchers 
and fruit-eaters. We should expect, therefore, to find them' very gen- 
erally distributed, but in the northern States they show an evident 



WOODPECKERS 329 

choice for certain localities, and may be wanting over wide stretches 
of intervening territory. 

They are noisy, active birds, and their loud, rolling, tree-toadhke 
call, ker-r-riick, ker-r-ruck, and bright colors combine to render them 
conspicuous. WTien on the wing the white secondaries of both adult 
and immature birds make a striking field mark. 

409. Centurus carolinus (Linn.). Red-bellied Woodpecker. Ad. 
cf. — Whole top of head and back of the neck bright scarlet; back regularly 
barred with, black and white; primaries black at the end, white, irregularly 
barred "u-ith black, at the base; secondaries black, regularly spotted and 
barred with white; upper tail-coverts white, with streaks or arrowheads of 
black; outer tail-feathers and inner vanes of the middle ones irregularly 
marked with broken black and white bars; cheeks and underparts dull ashy 
white, the region about the base of the bill, the middle of the belly, and some- 
times the breast, more or less tinged with red. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with the 
crown grajish ashy, the scarlet confined to the nape and nostrils. Im. — Simi- 
lar, but with the belly sometimes tinged with buffy instead of red. L., 9"50; 
W., 5-00; T., .3-40; B., TIO. 

Range. — Upper and Low'er Austral zones of e. U. S. from se. S. D., se. 
Minn., sw. Ont., w. X. Y., sw. Pa., and Del., s. to cen. Tex., and the Gulf 
coast; casual n. to Colo., and Mass. 

Washington, locally common P. R. Cambridge, A. V., one record. 
N. Ohio, tolerably common P. R. SE. Minn., uncommon P. R. 

Xest, in dead or living trees, from 20 feet up. Eggs, 4-6, white, r05 x 
'7.5. Date, Charleston, S. C, last of April; Black Hawk Co., Iowa, May 5; 
se. Minn., May 28. 

This is a common bird in our Southern States. It inhabits alike 
coniferous and deciduous growi;hs, but prefers the latter. It ascends 
a tree in a curious, jerky fashion, accompanying each upward move 
by . a hoarse chuh-chuh. It also utters a k-r-r-r-ring roll and, when 
matings a whicker call Hke that of the Fhcker. 

412. Colaptes auratus auratus {Linn.). Flicker. Smaller, darker, 
black dorsal bars wider than in the following form. W., 5*70; T., 3'60; B., 
1-35 (of. Bangs, Auk, XV. 1898, 177). 

Range. — Austroriparian fauna from N. C, and s. Ills, to s. Fla., and 
cen. Tex. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 10. 

412a. C. a. luteus Bangs. Northern Flicker. Ad. d'. — Top of 

the head ashy gray, a bright scarlet band across the back of the neck; 
back, wing-coverts, and exposed part of secondaries brownish gray, barred 
with black; rump white; primaries black externally, the inner surface of 
the wing and the shafts of the feathers yellow; upper tail-coverts barred or 
streaked with black and white; tail l)lack above, yellow tipped with black 
below, the outer edges of the feathers slightly margined or barred with white; 
sides of the head, throat, and upper breast vinaccous; a broad black .stripe 
on each side of the throat from the base of the bill, and a broad black 
crescent across the breast; rest of the underparts white, more or Ics.s tinged 
with vinaceous, and thicklv spotted with black. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with- 
out the black streaks on the side of the throat. L., 12-00; W., 6-00; T., 4-00; 
B., 1-40. 

Remarks. — Exceptional specimens have a few red feathers in the throat 
stripes. A male from Louisiana has this mark entirely red and the head gray- 
ish brown, while another specimen from Toronto has half the tail orange-red. 



330 WOODPECKERS 

These unusual markings are supposed to be due to hybridization of our 
Flicker -R-ith the western or Red-shafted Flicker, which resembles the eastern 
species in pattern of coloration, but has the crown brownish gray or grayish 
brown, the throat stripes scarlet, the throat and breast gray, the under 
surface of wings and tail dull red, and lacks the red nuchal band. (See an 
important paper on the relationships of these birds by Dr. J. A. Allen, in the 
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. IV., 1892, 21-44). 

Range. — N. and e. N. Am. Breeds from tree limits in nw. Alaska, to 
s. Ungava, and N. F., east of the Rocky Mts., to n. edge of Austroriparian 
fauna; occasional on Pacific slope from Calif, northward; accidental in 
Greenland; migratory through most of Canada but more or less regularly 
resident within the U. S., except the extreme n. parts; s. in winter to the 
Gulf coast and s. Tex. 

Washington, common S. R., rare W. V. Ossining, common S. R., Mch. 
25-Oct. 30; a few winter. Cambridge, very common S. R., common W. V. 
N. Ohio, common S. R. Mch. 10-Nov. 15; a few winter. Glen EUyn, 
common S. R., Mch. 7-Dec. 24; a few winter. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
Mch. 21-Oct. 16. _ 

Nest, in trees, at varying heights from the ground, frequently in orch- 
ards. Eggs, 5-9, I'lO x '86. Date, Chester Co., Pa., May 13; D. C, 
May 4; Cambridge, May 10; se. Minn., Apl. 28. 

The habits, notes, and colors of this well-known bird are reflected 
in the popular names which have been applied to it throughout its 
wide range. No less than 124 of these aliases have been recorded, and 
many have doubtless escaped the compiler. 

The FUcker is a bird of character. Although a Woodpecker, he 
is too original to follow in the footsteps of others of his tribe. They 
do not frequent the ground, but that is no reason why he should not 
humor his own terrestrial propensities and a fondness for ants, and we 
may therefore frequently flush him from the earth, when, with a low 
chuckle, he goes bounding off through the air, his white rump showing 
conspicuously as he flies. 

The Flicker, like other Woodpeckers, beats a rolling tattoo in the 
spring, but his vocal song proper is a rapidly-repeated, mellow cuh- 
cuh-cuh-cuh-cuh, etc., as springlike a sound as the peeping of frogs. 
His usual note is a \dgorous, nasal kee-yer. It recalls frosty fall morn- 
ings when the High-holes are gathering to feed on the woodbine and 
pepperidge berries. Approaching their feeding-grounds, one may hear 
the "Flicker" note. It can be closely imitated by the swishing of a 
willow wand: weechew, weechew, weechew. I never remember hearing 
a bird utter this note when alone. It is accompanied by the oddest 
gestures, as with tails stifHy spread the birds bob and bow to each 
other. 

1892. Allen, J. A., Bull. A. M. N. H., 21-44 (hybridism).— 1900. 
Burns, F. L., Wilson Bull., 1-82 (monograph). — 1910. Sherman, A. R., 
Wilson Bull., 135-171 (home-life). 



NIGHTHAWKS AND WHIP-POOR-WILLS 331 



XVI. ORDER MACROCHIRES. GOATSUCKERS, SWIFTS, 
HUMMINGBIRDS, ETC. 

44. Family Caprimulgid^. Nighthawks, Whip-poor-wills, Etc. 

(Fig. 55.) 

Goatsuckers are found in most parts of the world, but are more 
numerously represented in the tropics. Some one hundred species are 
known, of which about one-half are American, though only six reach 
North America. Most of the American species are forest-inhabiting, 
passing the day upon the leaves or perched lengthwise upon the branches 
of trees, where their dull, blended colors harmonize with their surround- 
ings. The Nighthawks, however, are equally at home in treeless coun- 
tries. Nighthawks feed high in the air, like Swifts, while other species 
frequent the borders of forests or clearings, where they feed nearer the 
ground. All the species capture their food of insects on the wing, their 
enormous mouths and the long, stiffened bristles, which in some species 
beset its base, especially adapting them to this mode of feeding. Many 
of the species are possessed of remarkable vocal powers, and their 
cries are among the most striking of bird-notes. They make no nest 
but lay their two mottled or marbled eggs on the ground. The j^ou-ng 
are hatched covered with down. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. A white spot in the wing. 

420. NiGHTHAWK. 420c. Florida Nighthawk. 

B. No white spot in the wing; primaries spotted with rufous. 

a. Wing under 7. 50 417. Whip-poor-will. 

6. Wing over 7"o0 416. Chuck-will's- widow. 

416. Antrostomus carolinensis {Gmel.). Chuck-will's- widow. Ad. 
c?. — Upperparts streaked with black and finely mottled with ochraceous- 
buff and black; primaries black, with broken rufous bars; tail mottled with 
black and ochraceous-buff, the end half of all but the two middle feathers 
white, more or less washed with buffy on the inner vane; underparts mot- 
tled with black, ochraceous, and cream-buff; an imperfect whiti.sh band 
across the upper breast; base of the hill beset with long, stiffened bristles, 
the basal half of these bristles grown with hairlike branches. Ad. 9. — Similar, 
but with no white patches in the tail, the upper breast with an ochraceous- 
buff instead of white band. L., 12-00; W., 8-50; T., G'OO; B., '40. 

Range. — Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from Mo., Ind., 8. Ohio, and 
s. Va. s. to cen. Tex., and Gulf States; casual in Kans. and Md., accidental 
in Mass. and Ont.; winters from s. Fla. to Greater Antilles and Colombia. 

Washington, one record. Cambridge, A. V., one record, Dec. 

Eggs, 2, laid on the ground or leaves, in woods or thickets, dull white, 
with delicate, obscure pale lilac markings, and a few distinct brownish gray 
spots, 1*40 X '98. Date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 14. 

Generally speaking, this species resembles the WTiip-poor-will in 
habits. Its notes are quite similar to those of that species, but are 
louder, less rapidly uttered, and each call has an additional syllable. 
Its gape is enormous, the wide-open mouth of an adult measuring 



332 NIGHTHAWKS AND WHIP-POOR-WILLS 

about two inches from corner to corner. For this reason it can swal- 
low large objects with ease, and both Hummingbirds and Sparrows 
have been found in the Chuck-will's-widow's stomach. Possibly they 
were mistaken for large moths, but Gerald Thayer records a 
Chuck-wilFs-widow which, following a steamer off the Carolina 
coast, was seen to pursue and catch Warblers on the wing. (Auk. 
1899, pp. 273-276.) 

417. Antrostomus voeiferus vociferus (Wils.). Whip-poor-will. 

Ad. cf . — Upperparts streaked with black, the head finely mottled with black 
and white, the back mottled with ochraceous-buff and black; primaries 
black, with broken rufous bars; tail irregularly barred with black and mot- 




FiG. 94. Wliip-poor-v\ill. 

tied with whitish or cream-buff; end half of three outer feathers white; 
black on the outer vane of the outer feather extending farther down than 
on the others; throat and breast blackish, finely mottled with cream-buff 
or ochraceous-buff; a narrow white band across the upper breast; belly 
cream-buff, irregularly barred with blackish; base of the bill beset with 
long, stiffened bristles, which are without hairlike branches. Ad. 9. — Sim- 
ilar, but outer three tail-feathers narrowly tipped with ochraceous-buff; 
band on the throat cream-buff instead of white. L., 9'75; W., 6'08; T., 
4-65; B., -37. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from Man., s. Que., N. B., and N. S., s. 
to n. parts of La., Miss., and Ga., and from e. N. D., Nebr., and Kans. 
eastward; winters from the lowlands of S. C. and the s. parts of the Gulf 
States to British Honduras and Salvador. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 13-Oct. 13. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 19-Oct. 17. Cambridge, formerly S. R., now chiefly T. V., Apl. 30- 
Sept. 20. N. Ohio, locally common S. R., Apl. 29-Sept. 15. Glen Ellyn, 
rare, spring records only, Apl. 19-May 21. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 
17-Sept. 28. 

Eggs, 2, laid on the ground or leaves, in woods or thickets; dull white, 
with delicate, obscure lilac markings and a few distinct brownish gray spots, 



NIGHTHAWKS AND WHIP-POOR-WILLS 333 

1-18 X -84. Date, Raleigh, N. C, May 2; Cambridge, May 26; Lake City, 
Minn., May 20; se. Minn., May 26. 

In walking through rather densely grown woods I have sometimes 
been surprised by having a Whip-poor-will fly up from beneath my 
feet and disappear in the surrounding growth. I say surprised, because 
the bird's flight is as noiseless as a moth's, and this unusual ghostly 
silence is almost as startling as the whir of a Grouse. 

The Whip-poor-will's day begins when the sun goes down. Then 
he passes out into bushy fields near his home, and, fljdng low, catches 
his supper on the wing. Between courses he rests on some low perch, 
and gives utterance to the notes familiar to many who have never 
seen their author. Whi-p' --poor-will' , whip' -poor-will' he calls, rapidly 
and with unexpected snap and vigor. If one is quite near the singer, 
a preliminary chyA:k may be heard before each call. These notes are 
given for about two hours after sunset and for a short time before 
sunrise. 

It is a singular fact that, in spite of the marked difference in their 
habits and notes, the Nighthawk and Whip-poor-will are frequently 
considered to be the same species. It is not the only case, however, 
where the notes of some species difficult of observation have been attrib- 
uted to a species whose habits render it conspicuous. 

420. Chordeiles virginianus virginianus (Gmel). Nighthawk. 
(Fig. 55.) Ad. cT. — Upperparts black, irregularly marked with whitish, 
cream-buff, or ochraceous-buff ; primaries fuscous, crossed in the middle 
by a conspicuous white bar which rarely reaches the outer vane of the first 
primary; tail fuscous or black, with broken bars of cream-buff and a white 
band near the end on all but the middle feathers; throat with a broad white 
band; chin and upper breast black, the feathers tipped with ochraceous-buff, 
cream-buff, or white; the rest of the underparts barred with black and white, 
sometimes tinged with buff. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with no white on the tail, 
throat-patch ochraceous-buff, underparts more or less washed with ochra- 
ceous-buff. L., 10-00; W., 7-85; T., 4-00; B., -25. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from s. Yukon, cen. Mackenzie, cen. 
Keewatin, n. Que., and N. F. s. to n. parts of Gulf States and w. to edge 
of Plains from Minn, to ne. Tex.; winters s. to Argentina. 

Washington, not common S. R. ; abundant T. V., Apl. 19-Oct. 8. Ossin- 
ing, common S. R., May 9-Oct. 11. Cambridg(\ rare S. R., common T. V., 
May 15-Sept. 25. N. Ohio, locally common S. R., May 1-Sept. 20. Glen 
EUyn, not common S. R., common T. V., May 1-Oct. 14. SE. Minn, 
common S. R., May 4-Sept. .30. 

Eyos, 2, laid on the bare gnnmd or a flat rock in open fields, rarely on 
the roof of a house, dull white, evenly marked with small, irregularly shaped 
blotches or fine sp(;cklings of grayish brown or })rowni.sh gray, 1 '20 x "86. 
Date, Beaufort, S. C, May 7; Chester Co., Pa., May 24; New London, Ct., 
June 1; Cambridge, June 5; s(;. Minn., June 7. 

In wooded regions the Nighthawk passes the day perched length- 
wise on a limb, but on the plains he roosts upon the ground, where his 
colors harmonize with his surroundings. Soon after sunset he mounts 
high in the air to course for insects. Batlike he flies erratically about, 
and at more or less regular intervals utters a loud nasal peent, this call 
being followed by two or three unusually quick, flitting wing-beats. 



334 SWIFTS 

Long after the light has faded from the western horizon we may hear 
this voice from the starht heavens, for the Nighthawk is one of our few 
truly nocturnal birds. Occasionally the peents are given more rapidly, 
and after calhng several times in close succession the bird on half-closed 
vvdngs dives earthward with such speed that one fears for his safety; but 
just before the ground is reached he checks his rapid descent by an 
abrupt turn, and on leisurel}^ wing again mounts upward to repeat this 
game of sky-coasting. At the moment the turn is made one may hear a 
rushing, booming sound, which, as writers have remarked, can be imi- 
tated in tone by blowing across the bung-hole of an empty barrel. It 
is made by the passage of the air through the bird's primaries. 

In late summer Nighthawks gather in large flocks and begin their 
southward migrations, ^^^len flying the white mark on their primaries 
is a conspicuous character, and has the appearance of being a hole in 
the bird's wing. 

1905. Hereick, F. H., Home-Life of WUd Birds, 129-135. 

420b. C. V. chapmani Coues. Florida Nightel^wk. Similar to the 
preceding, but smaller, and with the white and cream-buff markings of the 
upperparts more numerous. L., 8*60; W., 7' 10; T., 4" 10. 

Range. — Breeds in the Gulf coast belt from eastern Tex. to Fla. ; winter 
range unknown. 

Nesting date, Volusia Co., Fla., May 8. 

420c. C. V. sennetti Coues. Sennett's Nighthawk. Palest of our 
Nighthawks; whitish prevailing in ^\dng coverts and scapulars; less rufous 
than in C. v. henryi; less heavily barred below than C. v. virginiantis. W., 
7-10. 

Range. — Breeds on treeless plains from Sask. and Man. s. to cen. Nebr. ; 
occasional in Iowa, Wise, and Ills.; winter range unknown, probably in 
S. A. 

45. Family Micropodid^. Swifts. (Fig. 56.) 

The ninety-odd known species of Swifts are distributed throughout 
the greater part of the world but are most abundant in the tropics. 
About one-third this number are American but only four advance north 
of Mexico. Some S^vifts nest in colonies and most species are associated 
in companies, at other times of the year. Hollow trees and caves are the 
natural nesting- and roosting-places of many species, while others fasten 
their nests to the under surface of palm leaves, and the East Indian 
Tree Swifts attach their nest to a hmb. Most Swifts appear to employ 
the glutinous secretion of the salivary glands in nest-construction and 
the edible nests of the Swifts of the genus Collocalia are composed 
entirely of this substance. 

Swifts lay white eggs and the young are naked when hatched. They 
feed entirely while flying, and with their unusually long wings and small, 
compactly feathered bodies possess unrivaled powers of flight." Swifts 
are popularly confused with Swallows, but the resemblance is only 
superficial and exists chiefly in the similarity of flight and feeding 



HUMMINGBIRDS 335 

habits, while the structural differences between the two are numerous 
and important. 

423. Chaetura pelagica {Linn.). Chimney Swift; Chimney "Swal- 
low." (Fig. 56.) Ads. — Entire plumage fuscous, more grayish on the 
throat; a sooty black spot before the eye; shafts of the tail-feathers extend- 
ing beyond the vanes. L., 5-43; W., 4-94; T., I'QO; B. from N., -15. 

Range. — Breeds in e. N. A. from se. Sask., Man., cen. Que., and N. F. 
s. to the Gulf coast, and w. to the Plains from e. Mont., to e. Tex.; winters 
s. of the U. S., at least to Vera Cruz and Cozumel Is. and probably in Cen. 
Am.; casual in s. Alberta; accidental in N. M., and Greenland. 

Washington, abundant S. R., Apl. 6-Oct. 27. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 19-Oct. 23. Cambridge, abundant S. R., Apl. 25-Sept. 20. N. Ohio, 
abundant S. R., Apl. 10-Oct. 20. Glen Ellyn, common S. R., Apl. 16-Sept. 
29. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 18. 

Nest, a bracketlike basket of dead twigs glued together with saliva; 
attached to the wall of a chimney, generally about ten feet from the top, by 
the gummy secretion of the bird's salivary glands. Eggs, 4-6, white, 'SOx "50. 
Date, Chester Co., Pa., June 3; Ossining, N. Y., June 8; Cambridge, June 
10; Petersburg, Mich., June 7. 

It is unnecessary to give any aids to the identification of a bird as 
well known as the Chimney Swift, or, as it is more frequently called, 
"Chimney Swallow." It is not, however, a Swallow, but a Swift, and 
its structural relations are with the Hummingbirds and not with the 
Passerine Swallows. 

Few sights in the bird-world are more familiar than the bow-and- 
arrow-like forms of these rapidly flying birds silhouetted against the sky. 
They are most active early in the morning and late in the afternoon, 
when one may hear their rolling twitter as they course about overhead. 
Sometimes they sail with wings held aloft over their backs, and some- 
times, it is said, they use their wings alternately. It is a common thing 
to see a trio of birds flying together, but it has never been ascertained 
that the Chimney Swift is polygamous. 

In some localities Chimney Swifts congregate in large flocks, mak- 
ing their headquarters in a disused chimney which morning and even- 
ing they leave and return to in a body. In perching thoy cling to the 
side of the chimney, using the spine-pointed tail, as Woodpeckers do, 
for a support. The habit of frequenting chimneys is, of course;, a recent 
one, and the substitution of this modern, artificial home for hollow 
trees, illustrates the readiness with which a bird may take advantage 
of a favoring change in its environment. 

46. Family Trocuilid^. Hummingbirds. (Fig. 57.) 

Hummingbirds are found only in the New World. About five hun- 
dred species are known. They range from Alaska to Patagonia, but are 
most numerous in the Andean regions of Colombia and Ecuador. Eigh- 
teen species have been found in the United States; only (jight of these 
advance beyond our Mexican border States, and but one species occurs 
east of the Mississippi. 



336 HUMMINGBIRDS 

Several species inhabit the depths of dark tropical forests, but, as a 
rule, they are found with the flowers which bloom in the clearings, or 
far overhead in the sunUght. They are not gregarious, but an abundance 
of food sometimes brings large numbers of them together, when the 
air becomes animated with their rapidly moving forms. The smaller 
species fly so swiftly that their wings are lost in hazy circles, and it is 
difficult for the human eye to follow their course. The flight of the 
larger species is less insectlike, and each wing-beat can be detected. 
As a rule their voice is a weak squeak or excited chippering, but some of 
the tropical species have songs of decided character which they sing 
with much energy. 

Hummingbirds feed largely on insects, which they generally capture 
in flowers, but many species catch insects on the wing or pick them 
from beneath leaves. They also feed on the juices of flowers. The nest is 
usually composed of plant down, bound about with spiders' webs and 
covered with lichens skilfully attached to a limb or leaf, and is as 
exquisitely dainty in appearance as its maker. All the species whose 
nesting habits are known lay two white eggs. The period of incubation 
with our Ruby-throat is fourteen days. The young are naked when 
hatched, but a mere breath of down precedes the growth of the 
Juvenal plumage. 

Strangely enough, these beautiful little creatures are possessed of 
a most unfortunate disposition, which frequently leads them to attack 
any bird they fancy is trespassing on their domain. They know no 
fear, and with equal courage rush at one of their kind or a passing 
Hawk. 

1892. RiDGWAY, R., Rep. U. S. N. M., for;i890, 253-383. (Monographic.) 

428. Archilochus colubris {Linn.). Ruby-throated Hummingbird. 
(Fig. 57.) Ad. cf. — Upperparts bright, shining green; wings and tail fuscous, 
with purplish reflections; throat beautiful metallic ruby-red, bordered on 
the breast by whitish; rest of the underparts dusky, washed with greenish 
on the sides; tail forked. Ad. 9. — No ruby throat-patch; bronzy green 
above, whitish below; tail nearly even, outer three feathers tipped with 
white. Im. d'. — Similar to 9, but throat with dusky streaks, and, in older 
birds, with ruby colored feathers. L., 3-74; W., 1*54; T., 1*15; B., -67. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from se. Sask., cen. Que., and Cape Breton 
Is. s. to Gulf coast and Fla., w. to N. D., Nebr., Kans., and cen. Tex.; winters 
from middle and s. Fla., and La. through s. Mex. and Cen. Am. to Panama; 
casual in Cuba in migration. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 23-Oct. 18. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 30-Oct. 3. Cambridge, very common T. V., uncommon S. R., May 10- 
Sopt. 20. N. Ohio, common S. R., May 1-Sept. 15. Glen Ellyn, rare S. R., 
May 1-Sept. 22. SE. Minn , common S. R., May 19-Oct. 8. 

Nest, of plant down, covered externally with lichens and firmly wound 
with almost invisible plant fibers; generally 15-25 feet up, saddled on a limb. 
Eggs, 2, white, '50 x -35. Date, Lafayette Co., Miss., May 6; Iredell Co., 
N. C, May 11; Ossining, N. Y., May 20; Cambridge, May 24. 

The Ruby-throat needs no song. Its beauty gives it distinction, 
and its wings make music. Its only note, so far as I know, is a squeak, 
expressive of distrust or excitement. It has no rival in eastern North 



FLYCATCHERS 337 

America, and is to be confounded with nothing but sphinx (hum- 
mingbird) moths. One hears of ''Hummingbirds" seen in the evening 
about flower-beds. The mistake is not unnatural, and a correction is 
sometimes received with incredulity. The birds spend but a compara- 
tively small part of the time upon the wing. Whoever watches a female 
busy about her nest will see her constantly perching here and there 
in certain branches of the tree, preening her plumage and looking 
about her. The male, at the same season, forgetful, to all appearance, 
of his conjugal and parental duties, may be found at home day after 
day on a dead twig in some tall tree, where he sits so constantly as to 
make the observer wonder what he can be about, and when, if ever, he 
takes his food. Further investigation, however, will show that he makes 
frequent and regular rounds of favorite feeding-places, A tall blue- 
berry bush, for example, will be visited at short intervals as long as the 
observer has patience to stand beside it. The Hummingbird is curiously 
fearless. Sometimes one will probe a flower held in the hand, and when 
they fly into houses, as they pretty often do, they manifest but the 
smallest degree of suspicion, and will feed almost at once upon sugar 
held between the lips. The old bird feeds the young by regurgitation — 
a frightful-looking act — the food consisting largely of minute insects. 
The young remain in the nest for some three weeks, and on leaving 
it are at once at home on the wing. Bradford Torrey. 



XVn. ORDER PASSERES. PERCHING BIRDS. (Fig. 58.) 

"Doubtless every order of birds has had its day when, if it were not 
a dominant type, it was at least sufficiently near it to be considered 
modern; and as we review what is known to us of that great series of 
feathered forms, from the Archa^optcryx to the Thrushes, we can rea- 
lize how varied has been the characteristic avifauna of each succeeding 
epoch from the Jurassic period to the present. 

"Now has come the day of the order Passercs, the Perching Birds; 
here belong our Flycatchers, Orioles, Jays, Sparrows, and Finches, 
Vireos, Swallows, Wrens, Thrushes, and many others. A recent autlior- 
ity classifies birds in thirty-four orders, but fully one-half of the 
13,000 known species are included in the single order Passercs" 
("Bird-Life"). 

All our Passerine birds are born in an almost naked condition, having 
only a mere trace of down on the feather-tracts of the upp(>rparts of 
the body. At its full development this natal down pn^sfMits a soft, 
fluffy appearance over the cowering nestlings. It is pushed outward 
by the feathers of the ju venal plumage, to the tips of which portions of 
it may be seen adhering when the young bird leaves the nest. With 
some passerine birds (e. gr.. Song Sparrow) this is at the cnrl of only 
seven days (Owen, Auk, 1899, p. 222). Compare this suri:)risingly rapid 
development with that of a Noddy Tern, for instance, which does not 



338 FLYCATCHERS 

venture to leave its home until it is two months old, and is dependent 
on its parents for a month more (Thompson, Bird-Lore, 1903, p. 81). 

In most cases the nestling or juvenal plumage is soon followed by 
the first winter plumage, but some few birds (e. g. Seaside and Sharp- 
tailed Sparrows) wear it for two months or more. As a rule, at the post- 
juvenal molt, the feathers of the body and small wing-feathers are 
molted, while the primaries and secondaries with their coverts and the 
tail are retained, and it is often only by the color and appearance of 
these feathers that the bird of the year can be distinguished from the 
adult in winter, and during the former's first breeding season. 

The spring molt is rarely complete; more frequently it is restricted to 
the body feathers, more frequently still it affects only the region about 
the head and throat, while some species undergo no feather renewal 
at that season. The post-breeding molt of the bird a year old, as well 
as of those older, is complete. 

1900. D WIGHT, J., Jr., Sequence of Plumages and Moults of the Passerine 
Birds of New York, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIII, 173-360. 

47. Family Tyrannid^e. Flycatchers. (Fig. 59.) 

From the systematist's standpoint, Flycatchers are songless perch- 
ing birds. It does not follow that they are voiceless, or even truly song- 
less, but that, having the voice-organ, or syrinx, less highly developed 
than other Passeres, they are possessed of comparatively limited vocal 
powers. This family is peculiar to America. The Old- World Flycatchers 
belong to the family Muscicapidos and are true seines. Of the Tyran- 
nidcB some four hundred species are known. They are most abundant 
in the tropics, where their services as insect-catchers are in greatest 
demand. Thirty species reach the United States. 

Flycatchers are found wherever there are trees. As a rule they are 
of sedentary and soUtary disposition. Their manner of feeding is char- 
acteristic. From a favorable perch, hawklike, they await passing insects, 
and with an aim that rarely misses, launch forth into the air; there is a 
sharp, suggestive click of the broad bill, and completing their aerial 
circle, they return to their perch and are again en garde. 

Both the nature of their food and tropical origin induce in Fly- 
catchers highly migratory habits, the Phoebe being the only eastern 
species to winter in the United States north of southern Florida. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Wing over 3'00. 

1. Outer tail-feather white or whitish on outer web or both webs. 

A. Tail, 9.00, deeply forked, sides of breast scarlet, flanks salmon. 

443. SCISSOR-TAILED FilvYCATCHER. 

B. Tail black, not forked, outer web of outer feather, white, belly yellow, 

back gray 447. Arkansas Kingbird. 

2. Outer tail-feather not white on outer web. 

A. Tail black or blackish, sometimes tipped with white, adults with 
a concealed orange-red crown patch. 



FLYCATCHERS 339 

a. Under wing-coverts yellowish, no white tip on the tail. 

445. Gray Kingbird. 
6. Under wing-coverts blackish, tail tipped with white 444. Kingbird. 
B. Tail not tipped vnth white, no crown patch. 

a. Inner vane of tail-feathers pale rufous; throat and breast grajdsh; 
belly svilphur-yellow ...... 452. Crested Flycatcher. 

h. Tail fuscous. 

6^. Entire biU black; wing rarely more than '50 longer than tail; 
tarsus decidedly longer than bill; under tail-coverts alwaj's pale, 

yellowish white 456. Phcebe. 

c^. Under mandible generally in whole or part pale brownish; wing 

always more than "50 longer than tail; tarsus about equal to 

bill; some of under tail-coverts frequently with darker centers. 

c^. Wing over 3*50; sides and breast, except a narrow whitish line 

through its center, of the same color as the back. 

459. Olive-sided Flycatcher. 
c^. Wing under 3*50; breast and sides washed with olive-gray. 

461. Wood Pewee. 
II. Wing under 3 '00. 

A. Upperparts between olive-brown and dark olive-green, but with an 

e\ddent brownish tinge, or lower mandible brownish, 
a. Wing over 2*60; lower mandible flesh-color or whitish; underparts 
with only a very slight tinge of yellow. 

466. Traill's Flycatcher. 466a. Alder Flycatcher. 

h. Wing under 2*60; lower mandible rarely clear flesh-color, generally 

strongly tinged with brownish . . . 467. Least Flycatcher. 

B. Upperparts olive-green without a brownish tinge; lower mandible 

straw-color. 
a. First primary about equal to fifth; underparts white, slightly washed 
with yellowish on the breast and bellj-; throat white. 

465. Acadian Flycatcher. 
6. First primary shorter than fifth; underparts sulphur-yellow; the 
throat and breast more or less washed with olive-green. 

463. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. 

444. Tyrannus tyrannus {Linn.). Kingbird. Ads. — Upperparts 
grayish slate-color, darker on the head and upper tail-coverts; head with a 
concealed orange-red crest; tail black, tipped with white; underparts white, 
washed with grayish on the breast. Im. — Similar, but without the crown 
patch, and with the plumage more or less tinged with ochraceous-bufT. The 
male has two outer primaries deeply emarginate at the tip, the female 
usually only one, the immature bird, none. L., 8*51; W., 4'64; T., 3'55; B. 
from N., "55. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from s. B. C, s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, 
n. Ont., cen. Que., and N. F. s. to cen. Ore., n. N. M., cen. Tex., and cen. 
Fla.; winters from s. Mexico to Bolivia; casual in Cuba in migration; acci- 
dental in Greenland. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 18-Sept. 23. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 29-Sept. 10. Cambridge, common S. R.. May 5-Sopt. 1. N. Ohio, 
common S. R., Apl. 20-Scpt. 15. Glon Ellyn, fairly common S. R., Apl. 16- 
Sept. 6. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 26-Aug. 31. 

Nest, compact and symmetrical, of woed-stalks, grasses, and moss, lined 
with plant-down, fine grasses, and rootlets, generally at the extremity of a 
branch 15-25 feet up. Eggs, .3-5, white, spotted with umber, I'OO x "73. 
Date, White Sulphur Springs, Va., May 17; Cambridge, May 30; St. Louis, 
Mo., May 14, inc. adv.; se. Minn., May 14. 

The Kingbird is most frequently seen on a fence or dead twig on 
a tree, where leaves do not come in the way of his sight. He stands 
very upright, like a Hawk or an Owl, and, though as quiet as if he 
24 



340 FLYCATCHERS 

had nothing to do, he is keenly awake to every movement about him, 
and every few minutes he dashes into the air, seizes a passing insect, 
and returns to the spot from which he started. While his mate is 
sitting, he usually establishes himself near the nesting tree, and spends 
hour after hour in this apparently monotonous way, varying it only to 
reheve her by watching the nest, and thus give her an opportunity to 
seek food for herself. I never saw a Kingbird either assist in brooding 
or carry food to his mate, but his manners to her are most affection- 
ate, and he is untiring in his labors in the feeding of the young. 

This bird is accused of being quarrelsome and aggressive to other 
birds, and his scientific name means Tyrant Flycatcher, but in my 
study of his ways I have found him less aggressive than are most birds 
in the neighborhood of their nest. With the exception of the Crow, 
against whom he seems to have a special grudge, I have never seen a 
Kingbird take notice of any bird unless he alighted near his nest, and 
the meekest creature that wears feathers will try to drive away stran- 
gers who approach that sacred spot. 

The calls and cries of the Kingbird are generally loud and attract- 
ive, if not particularly musical, but while his mate is sitting — and pos- 
sibly at other times — he indulges in a soft and very pleasing song, 
which I have heard only in the very early morning. 

Olive Thorne Miller. 

1905. Hereick, F. H., Home-Life of Wild Birds, 49-55. 

445. Tyrannus dominicensis dominicensis (Gmel.). Gray King- 
bird. Ads. — Above ashy gray; an orange-red crown patch; wings and tail 
fuscous; under wing-coverts pale sulphur-yellow; underparts white, tinged 
with grayish on the breast. L., 9'00; W., 4-60; T., 3*50; B. from N., '80. 

Range. — Breeds from Ga., se. S. C., Fla., and Yucatan through the 
Bahamas and West Indies to n. S. A.; winters from Jamaica and Haiti 
southward; accidental in Mass. 

Nest, of grass and weeds, lined with fine grass and rootlets, in trees. 
Eggs, 4, deep salmon, irregularly spotted and blotched with umber and 
lilac, 1*00 X *75 (Maynard). Date, Little Sarasota, Fla., May 15. 

The Gray Kingbird is a common summer resident of parts of our 
South Atlantic States, arriving early in May, It resembles the King- 
bird in appearance, but lacks the white band at the end of the tail, 
and has quite different notes. Its usual call is a vigorous pitirri, pitirri, 
which, in Cuba, gives it its common name. 

The Arkansas Kingbird (44'^- Tyrannus verticalis), a western species, 
breeds mainly in Sonoran zones, from s. B. C., s. Alberta, and s. Sask., s. 
to n. Lower Calif, and Chihuahua, e. to w. Minn., w. Iowa, cen. Kans., and 
w. Tex.; winters from w. Tex. to Guatemala; casual in Man.; accidental 
in Mo., Wise, Maine, N. Y., N. J., and Md. 

Washington, one record, Sept. 30. 

The Fork-tailed Flycatcher (44^- Muscivora tyrannus), a South 
American species rarely found north of southern Mexico and the southern 
Lesser Antilles, has been recorded from Mississippi, Kentucky, New Jersey, 
Maine and Bermuda. 




FLYCATCHERS 341 

The ScissoR-TAiLED Flycatcher {443. Muscivora forficata) is found in 
the summer as far north as southern Kansas and western Louisiana. It has 
occurred accidentally near Hudson Bay, in Manitoba, Ontario, New Bruns- 
wick, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, and Florida. It may be known by 
its long, deeply forked tail and scarlet sides. 

452. Myiarchus crinitus {Linn.). Crested Flycatcher. Ads. — 
Upperparts grayish brown, washed with olive-green; outer vane of primaries 
margined with pale rufous ; inner vane of all but the middle tail-feathers pale 
rufous; throat and breast pearl- 
gray; belly siilphur-yellow. L., 
9-01; W.,4-14; T., 3-75; B. from 
N. -62. 

Range. — E. N. and n. S. Am. 
Breeds from upper edge of 
Transition zone in s. Man., cen. 
Ont., s. Que., and N. B., s. to s. 
Tex., and s. Fla.; winters from 
e. and s. Mex. to Colombia; 
casual in Wyo. and Cuba. 

Washington, very common 
S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 29. Ossining, 
common S. R., May 7-Sept. 12. 
Cambridge, rare S. R., May 15- Fig. 95. Crested Flycatcher. (Natural size.) 
Sept. 11. N. Ohio, common S. 

R., Apl. 25-Sept. 15. Glen EUyn, not common S. R., May 1-Sept. 18. SE. 
Minn., common S. R., Apl. 25. 

Nest, of grasses, twigs, and rootlets, with generally a piece of a cast snake 
skin, in a hole in a tree, generally less than 20 feet up. Eggs, 3-6, creamy 
white, streaked longitudinally %vith chocolate, *90 x '68. Date, San Mateo, 
Fla., May 10; Weaverville, N. C, May 20; Madison, Conn., June 2. 

During the spring migration each day brings its own surprise and 
pleasure. The bare, silent woods where I walked alone before are 
now astir with flitting wings and ringing with glad music. Each morn- 
ing I hurry out, full of eager anticipation, to be thrilled by the greeting 
of some old friend come home again. 

There are red-letter days, however, even in this calendar. Hark! from 
the woods a loud whistle pierces far through the clearing. The Great- 
crest has come! 

I break away from the confusing chorus of small voices and hurry off 
to the woods for the first sight of the distinguished bird. Full of life 
and vigor, he flies about in the green tree tops, chattering to himself 
or calling loudly as he goes. 

Not many days pass, however, before he is so taken up with domes- 
tic matters that his voice is rarely heard outside the woods. Is he 
engaged in his famous pursuit — hunting snake skins to line his nest? 
Absorbed in my daily round of nest calls, I cherish the memory of 
each passing glimpse of him. Now I see him launch from a basswood 
top, with wings and tail spread, to sail down through the air, his tail 
glowing red against the light. Again, when looking for a rare Warbler, 
his calls arrest me. In the dead top of the highest tree in sight I find 
him with his mate. With crests raised, the handsome birds chase each 
other about the bare branches. Tired of that, they explore the old 



342 FLYCATCHERS 

Woodpecker's holes in the trunk, and one of them walks out of sight 
down a hollow limb. A Blackbird lights in the tree, and the Great- 
crest above becomes so agitated that I am convinced his mate has gone 
to her nest, when lo! both Flycatchers are off and away to another of the 
great trees that overtop the forest. Florence Merriam Bailey. 

456. Sayornis phoebe {Lath.). Phcebe. (Fig. 59.) Ads. — Upperparta 
grayish brown with an olive-green cast; crown distinctly darker, fuscous; 
wings and tail fuscous, wing-bars not conspicuous'; outer vane of outer tail- 
feather white or yellowish white, except at the tip; underparts white, more 
or less washed with yellowish, and tinged with brownish gray on the breast 
and sides; bill black. Im. and Ads. in winter. — Similar, but upperparts more 
olive, underparts more yellow, and wing-bars more distinct. L,, 6"99; W., 
3-38; T., 2-95; B. from N., -41. 

Remarks. — The Phoebe's principal distinguishing characters are its fus- 
cous crown-cap, white outer vane of the outer tail-feather, and blackish 
lower mandible. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from sw. Mackenzie, Alberta, s. Keewatin, 
Ont., Que., N. B,, N. S., s. to ne. N. M., cen. Tex., n. Miss., and highlands 
of Ga. ; winters in U. S. s. of lat. 37° s. to s. Mex. ; in migration casual w. to 
Colo, and Wyo., accidental in Calif, and Cuba. 

Washington, common S. R., Feb. 25-Oct.; occasionally winters. Ossin- 
ing, common S. R., Mch. 14-Oct. 29. Cambridge, common T. V., and not 
uncommon S. R., Mch. 25-Oct. 10. N. Ohio, common S. R., Mch. 14-Oct. 
15. Glen EUyn, S. R., Mch. 13-Oct. 6. SE. Minn., common S. R=, Mch. 
22-Oct. 11. 

Nest, bulky, largely moss and mud lined with grasses and long hairs, on 
a beam or rafter, under a bridge or bank. Eggs, 4-6, white, rarely with a 
few cinnamon-brown spots, "78 x "59. Date, Delaware Co., Pa., Apl. 18; 
Cambridge, Apl. 28; Galesburg, lUs., Apl. 22; se. Minn., Apl. 19. 

, There is something familiar, trustful, and homelike in the Phoebe's 
ways which has won him an undisputed place in our affections. With 
an assurance born of many welcomes he returns each year to his perch 
on the bridge-rail, barnyard gate, or piazza, and contentedly sings his 
humble, monotonous pewit phoebe, pewit phoebe — a hopelessly tune- 
less performance, but who that has heard it in early spring, when the 
'pussy willow' seems almost to purr with soft blossoms, will not affirm 
that Phoebe touches chords dumb to more ambitious songsters! 

Sometimes Phoebe is inspired to greater effort, and, springing into 
the air on fluttering wings, he utters more phoebes in a few seconds 
than he would sing ordinarily in an hour. 

Phoebe is a devoted parent, and is rarely found far from home. 
His nest seems to be the favorite abode of an innumerable swarm of 
parasites which sometimes cause the death of his offspring, and when 
rearing a second family he changes his quarters. 

Aside from a few Great-crests, no other Flycatcher winters in num- 
bers in our Southern States, and Phoebe's notes heard in January in 
the heart of a Florida 'hummock' seem strangely out of place. 

Say's Phcebe (437. Sayornis saya), a western species, is of accidental 
occurrence east of the Mississippi. It has been found in northern Illinois, 
Wisconsin, Iowa, and, on Cape Cod, Massachusetts (Miller, Auk, VII, 1890. 
228). 



FLYCATCHERS 343 

459. Nuttallornis borealis (^it-ains.). Olive-sided Flycatcher. Ads. 
— Upperparts between fuscous and dark olive; wings and tail fuscous; throat, 
middle of the bell5^ and generally a narrow line on the center of the breast 
white or yellowish white; rest of the underparts of nearly the same color as 
the back; under tail-coverts marked with dusky; a tuft of fluffy, yellowish 
white feathers on either flank; upper mandible black, lower mandible yel- 
lowish or pale grajash brown, the tip darker, /m. and Ads. in winter. — Simi- 
lar, but with rather more olive above, more yellow below, and with the wing- 
coverts edged with ochraceous-buff. L., 7-39; W., 4-05; T., 2-70; B. from N., 
•54. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from 
cen. Alaska, s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, cen. Que., and Cape Breton Is. s. 
in coniferous forests of w. U. S. to s. Calif., Ariz., and w. Tex., and also n. 
Mich., N. Y., and Mass., s. in mts. to N. C; migrates through Mex. and Cen. 
Am. ; winters in n. S. A. to Peru. 

Washington, casual T. V. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., May 20; 
Aug. lo-Sept. 16. Cambridge, rare T. V., May 20- June 6; formerly not 
uncommon S. R. ; one Sept. record. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., May 13- 
June 11; Aug. 11-Sept. 15. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 10-Sept. 9. 

A'est, of twigs and moss, in coniferous trees, about 25 feet up, near the 
extremity of a limb. Eggs, 3-5, vinaceous-white, spotted, chiefly about the 
larger end, with distinct and obscure rufous markings, *85 x '62. Date, 
Wareham, Mass., June 8; Kent\-ille, N. S., June 15. 

Both the Olive-side's habits and notes make it conspicuous. It 
perches on the topmost limb of some high tree, where, even at a distance, 
its stocky body and large head are evident, and calls its loud, strongly 
accented "come right here, come right here," in a voice that commands 
attention. 

461. Myiochanes virens {Linn.). Wood Pewee. Ads. — Upperparts 
very dark, between olive and fuscous, with sometimes a tinge of dark olive- 
green, wings and tail fuscous; wing-coverts tipped with whitish, forming 
tv/o more or less distinct wing-bars; underparts white or yellowish white, 
washed with olivc-gray on sides of throat and breast, and, to a less extent, 
on center of breast; upper mandible black; lower mandible yellowish or 
brownish, the tip frequently darker. Im. — Similar, but yellower below, 
wing-coverts edged with cream-buff. L., 6*53; W., 3-34; T., 2-62; B. from N., 
•42. 

Remarks. — The Wood Pewee and the Olive-sided Flycatcher differ from 
our other Flycatchers in having the wings decidedly longer than the tail, 
and in their short tarsi. From the species of the genus Empidonax they may 
be known by these characters and their darker, more fuscous coloration. 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds from Man., Ont., s. Que., and Prince 
Edward Island to s. Tex., and cen. Fla., w. to e. Nebr. ; winters from Nicara- 
gua to Peru; casual in Colo; in migration in Cuba. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 29-Oct. 12. Ossining, common S. R., 
May 10-Oct. 2. Cambridge, common T. V., not uncommon S. R., May 18- 
Scpt. 15. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., May 2-Sept. 27. Glen Ellyn, fairly 
common S. R., May 9-Sept. 29. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 10-Sept. 
23. 

Nest, compact and symmetrical, of fine grasses, rootlets, moss, etc., 
thickly covered with lichens, saddled on a limb, 20-40 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, 
white, with a UTeath of distinct and ol)sourc umber markings about the 
larger end, '68 x •54. Date, Gainesville, Fla., May 9; Fairfax Co., Va., 
May 25; Ossining, N. Y., June S; Cambridge, June 10; Mt. Carmel, Ills., 
May 20. 

Thoroughly to appreciate how well the Pewee's disposition is 
suited to his haunts and notes, we have only to imagine him taking 



344 FLYCATCHERS 

the Phoebe's place and singing the Phoebe's song. He was not intended 
to adorn a bridge or barn, but in the darkened woods, high up in the 
trees, he finds a congenial home. 

His pensive, gentle ways are voiced by his sad, sweet call: 
The notes are as musical and restful, as much a part 
^ ^ i^ of Nature's hymn, as the soft humming of a brook. 

-^ i— J I All day long the Pewee sings; even when the heat 

of summer silences more vigorous birds, and the 



~Pee-a-wee ' niidday sun sends light-shafts to the ferns, the 
clear, sympathetic notes of the retiring songster 
come from the green canopy overhead, in perfect harmony with the 
peace and stillness of the hour. 

The Western Wood Pewee {Myiochanes richardsoni richardsoni) has 
been recorded from Wisconsin (Cory, Birds Ills, and Wise, 536). 

463. Empidonax flaviventris Baird. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. 
Ads. — Upperparts rather dark olive-green; wings and tail fuscous; greater 
and lesser wing-coverts tipped with white or yellowish white; underparts 
sulphur-yellow, the belly pure, the throat, breast, and sides more or less 
washed with olive-green; upper mandible black, lower mandible whitish or 
flesh-color; second to fourth primaries of equal length, the first shorter than 
the fifth. Im. — Yellow of the underparts brighter, wing-bars more yel- 
low, and sometimes tinged with pale ochraceous-buff. L., 5'63; W., 2*65; 
T., 2-16; B. from N., -33. 

Remarks. — This is the most yellow of our small Flycatchers. In any 
plumage the entire underparts, including the throat, are sulphur-yellow or 
dusky yellowish. In the other eastern species of this genus the throat is 
white. 

Range. — Breeds in Canadian zone from n. Alberta, n. Man., n. Que., 
and N. F., s. to N. D., n. Minn., n. Mich., n. N. Y., Pa. (mts.), and N. H.; 
w. in migration to the e. border of the Plains, e. Tex., and e. Mex. ; winters 
from s. Mex. to Panama, occasional in migration in w. Fla. ; accidental in 
Greenland. 

Washington, rather common T. V., May; July 28-Oct. 6. Ossining, 
common T. V., May 17- June 4; Aug. 8-Sept. 20. Cambridge, T. V., some- 
times rather common, Maj^ 25- June 3; Aug. 28-Sept. 8. N. Ohio, rare T. V., 
May 10. Glen Ellyn, rather rare T. V., May 20- June 5; Sept. 3. SE. Minn., 
common, T. V., May 19. 

Nest, of moss, lined with grasses, on the ground, beneath the roots of a 
tree or imbedded in moss. Eggs, 4, creamy white, with numerous pale cin- 
namon-brown markings, chiefly about the larger end, "68 x '54. Date, 
Wilmurt, N. Y., June 10; Grand Manan, N. B., June 16, inc. adv. 

To see this little Flycatcher at his best, one must seek the northern 
evergreen forest, where, far from human habitation, its mournful 
notes blend with the murmur of some icy brook tumbling over mossy 
stones or gushing beneath the still mossier decayed logs that threaten 
to bar its way. • Where all is green and dark and cool, in some glen 
overarched by crowding spruces and firs, birches and maples, there it is 
we find him, and in the beds of damp moss he skilfully conceals his 
nest. He sits erect on some low twig, and, like other Flycatchers, the 
snap of his bill tells of a sally after his winged prey. He glides quietly 
away when approached, and his occasional note of complaint may be 
heard as long as one remains in his vicinity. During the migration 



Plate XIX 




Flycatchers 



1. Wood Pewee. 

2. Acadian Flyciatclier. 



3 Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. 
4, Alder Flycatcher. 



S. Least Flycatcher. 



FLYCATCHERS 345 

this species is silent, and its several distinctive notes are not available 
for its identification, and the same thing may be said of our other 
small Flycatchers. Great similarity in plumage exists between 
them all, and without the bird in hand, identifications are at best 
questionable. 

The song is more suggestive of a sneeze on the bird's part than of 
any other sound ^ith which it may be compared. It is an abrupt 
vse-e}z', almost in one explosive syllable, harsh like the deeper tones 
of a House Wren, and less musical than the similar but longer songs of 
the Alder or the Acadian Flycatcher. It is hardly surprising that the 
birds sing very little when we see \\^th what a convulsive jerk of the 
head the notes are produced. Its plaintive call is far more melodious 
— a soft, mournful whistle consisting of two notes, the second higher 
pitched and prolonged, with rising inflection, resembhng in a measure 
chu-e-e'-v. J. D wight, Jr. 

465. Empidonax virescens (VieilL). Acadian Flycatcher. Ads. 
— Upperparts between olive-green and dark olive-green; wings and tail 
fuscous; greater and lesser wing-coverts yellowish white, forming two con- 
spicuous wdng-bars; underparts white, washed with pale yellowish and 
slightly tinged with greenish on the breast; the throat, and frequently the 
middle of the belly, pure white; upper mandible black, lower mandible 
whitish or flesh-color; second to fourth primaries of about equal length, the 
first and fifth shorter and also of equal length. Im. — Upperparts greener; 
underparts more tinged with yellow; wing-bars and outer edges of the 
tips of the secondaries ochraceous-buff. L., 5*7o; W., 2'85; T., 2"35; B. 
from N., -36. 

Remarks. — This species has the upperparts fully as olive-green as the 
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, but the underparts are never entirely yellow, and 
the throat is always white. 

Range. — E. N. Am. and n. S. A. Breeds from upper limit of Carolinian 
fauna in ne. Nebr., cen. Iowa, Mich., s. Ont., N. Y., Conn, (casually), and 
Mass. (one instance) s. to s. Tex., the Gulf States, and n. Fla.; migrate? 
through Yucatan and Cen. Arn. and winters in Colombia and Ecuador; 
casual in Bahamas and Cuba in migration. 

Washington, common S. R., May 1-Sept. 15. Ossining, common S R., 
May 10-Aug. 27. N. Ohio, common S. R., May 4-Sept. 15. Glen EUyn, 
not common S. R., May 6-Aug. 27, and probably later. 

Nest, shallow, of plant stems, grasses, and blossoms, generally on a fork 
of a beech about 8 feet iup. Eggs, 2-3, creamy white, with a few cinnamon- 
brown spots about the larger end, "74 x "56. Date, Gainesville, Fla., 
May 12; Chatham Co., Ga., May 13; Chester Co., Pa., May 31; Ossin- 
ing, N. Y., June 5. 

Look for the Acadian Flycatcher in woodlands watered by small 
streams. It selects a low rather than a high perch, and is rarely seen 
more than twenty feet from the ground. The frequently utt(>rcd calls 
of this bird are characteristic and will enable you to identify it with 
more ease in the field than in the study. The most common is a sin- 
gle spee or jteet, repeated at short intervals and accompaiiiod by a 
rapid twitching of the tail. A more peculiar note is a louder pee-c-yuk- 
The bird seems to articulate this note with difficulty, with bill pointed 
upward and wings trembUng Uke a fledgling begging for food. 



346 FLYCATCHERS 

Sometimes you may hear only the first call, sometimes only the 
second, while on other occasions the two may be uttered alternately. 
A rarer note may be heard when the bird makes a short, fluttering flight. 
It resembles the soft murmuring of whisthng wings. 

466. Empidonax trailli trailli (Aud.). Traill's Flycatcher. Simi- 
lar to E. t. alnorum but still browner; the upperparts with little if any 
greenish tinge; the bill averaging narrower. Specimens from the eastern 
border of the range of this race are often difficult to distinguish from alnorum. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds from s. B. C, and Idaho to s. Calif., Ariz., 
N. M., and Tamaulipas, e. to Mo., Ills., and Ohio, winters in Cen. Am,, s. 
to Colombia. 

N. Ohio, common S. R., May 7-Sept. 10, Glen Ellyn, quite common 
S. R., May 14-Sept. 19. SE. Minn., common S, R., May 6-Aug, 10. 

Nesting date, Monroe Co., Mich., June 20. 

466a. E. t. alnorum Brewst. Alder Flycatcher. Upperparts between 
olive-green and olive or olive-brown; wings and tail fuscous ; greater and lesser 
wing-coverts tipped with brownish ashy; underparts whitish, washed with 
dusky grayish on the breast and sides and pale yellowish on the belly; 
throat pure white; upper mandible black, lower mandible whitish or flesh- 
color. Ini. — Similar, but wing-bars ochraceous-buff and underparts slightly 
yellower. L., 6-09; W., 2-87; T., 2-33; B. from N., '35. 

Remarks. — This is the brownest of our small Flycatchers. The upper- 
parts have an evident tinge of brown or olive-brown, a color entirely want- 
ing in the Acadian and Yellow-bellied Flycatchers. In this respect it resem- 
bles the much smaller Least Flycatcher, from which, indeed, some speci- 
mens can be distinguished only by size. 

Range. — Breeds mainly in Hudsonian and Canadian zones from cen. 
Alaska, nw. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, cen. Que., and N. F., s. to e. cen. B, C, 
e. Mont., s. Minn., s. Ont., N. Y., n. N. J., and mts., of W. Va.; winters 
in Cen. Am. s. to Panama; casual in migration in s. Atlantic States. 

Washington, irregularly common T. V., May 8-May 28; Aug. 16- 
Sept. 17. Ossining, rare T. V., May 19-May 31; Aug. 29. Cambridge, rare 
T. v.. May 28- June 6; Aug.; occasional in summer. 

Nest,^ of coarse grasses, plant down, and plant fibers, lined with fine 
grasses, in the crotch of a small bush or sapling near the ground. Eggs, 3-4, 
creamy white, with cinnamon-brown markings about the larger end, *73 x 
•54. Date, Cambridge, June 15; Columbus, O., June 12. 

While the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher is distinctively a bird of the 
deep woods, this more abundant Flycatcher in its summer home resorts 
to the alder patches of the open country and is seldom found far from 
their protecting shade. It flits restlessly about, keeping well out of 
sight below the waving tops of the bushes, and its presence is betrayed 
only by a single pep of alarm that in no way resembles the mournful 
wail of the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. It, too, is silent when migrating, 
and on its breeding- grounds sings but little, so that if it did not take 
pains to call out to every one who passes it would not be noticed among 
the rusthng alders. The song most resembles that of the Acadian Fly- 
catcher, an ee-zee-e-iip, with stress on the rasping zee, the latter part more 
musical. The performer jerks out the notes rapidly, doubling himself up 
and fairly vibrating with the explosive effort. J. Dwight, Jr. 

1901. Farley, J. A., Auk, XVIII, 347-355 (in Mass.).— 1902. Allen, 
F, H., Ibid. XIX, 84 (song). — 1910. Stanwood, C. J., Journ. Me. Orn. 
Soc, XII, 3-5 (nesting in Maine). 



LARKS 347 

467. Empidonax minimus W. M. and S. F. Baird. Least Fly- 
catcher. Ads. — Upperparts between olive-green and olive or olive-brown; 
wings and tail fuscous; greater and lesser wing-coverts tinged with ashy 
white; underparts whitish, washed with dusky grayish on the breast and 
sides and generally with a slight tinge of j-ellowish on the belly; lower man- 
dible generallv horn-color. Im. — Underparts slightlv more j-ellow; wing- 
bars more buffy. L., 5-41; W.. 2-.51; T., 2-21; B. from X., -31. 

Remarks. — This is the smallest of our Flycatchers. Its size, the compara- 
tive absence of yellow on the underparts, and the generally* horn-colored or 
brown lower mandible are its chief distinguishing characters. 

Range. — Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from w. cen. Mack- 
enzie, s. Keewatin, Que., and Cape Breton Is., s. to cen. Mont., e. Wyo., 
cen. Xebr., Iowa, Ind., Pa., X. J., and in the Alleghanies to X. C; in migra- 
tion w. to e. Colo., and cen. Tex.; winters from ne. Mex. and Yucatan to 
Peru; casual in Grand Ca%Tnan Is., West Indies. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 20-May 20; Aug. 13-Sept. 15. Ossin- 
ing, tolerably common S. R., Apl. 25- Aug. 26. Cambridge, very common 
S.R., Ma3' 1-Aug. 25. X. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 15-May 25; Aug. 25- 
Oct. 1; rare in summer. Glen Ellvn, not common S. R., chiefly T. V., May 
4-Sept. 24. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 30-Sept. 13. 

• Xest, of plant down, plant fibers, rootlets, fine strips of bark, and long 
hairs, generally in a crotch 5-15 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, white, unmarked, 
•63 X -51. Date, Xew York City, May 30; Cambridge, May 20; se. Minn., 
May 24. 

When music was distributed, I believe most of our Flycatchers had 
back seats. It was an unfortunate circumstance, for their sedentary 
habits and apparently thoughtful, serious, even poetic dispositions 
make one beheve that -^ith proper training thej' might have taken high 
rank as musicians. 

Instead of the simple melody we might expect to hear from the 
modest Least Flycatcher, he salutes us -^ith a singularly inappropriate, 
business-like chebec, chebec, varvdng the performance by murderous 
sallies after passing insects. In crescendo passages he literally rises to 
the occasion, and on trembling wings sings an absurd chebec tooral- 
ooral, chebec, tooral-ooral, with an earnestness deserxing better results. 

The Chebec, however, possesses originality; we can not confuse his 
voice with that of any other bird, and young ornithologists should give 
him a vote of thanks for his clear enunciation. 

He prefers fruit and shade trees to those of forest growth, and is 
therefore an inhabitant of our lawns and orchards. 

The Vermilion Flycatcher (4-71.1 Pyrocephahis rubinus mexicaniLs) 
of our Mexican boundarv and southward, has been taken once in Florida 
(TaUahassee, March 25, 1901; WUliams, Auk, 1901, 273). 

48. Family Alaudid.e. Larks. (Fig. 60.) 

Some two hundred and twenty-five species and subspecies of Larks 
are known, the proportion of the latter to the former being exceptionally 
large, the Horned Lark, the only American species, being represented 
in North America by no less than fourteen subspecies. 

They are eminently terrestrial birds, always nest on the ground, 
rarely ahght in trees, usually run instead of hop, 'dust' instead of 



348 LARKS 

bathe, and sing while on the wing. They are generally colored in 
harmony with their haunts, and, except during the nesting season, are 
usually found in flocks. 

473. Alauda arvensis Linn. Skylark. Hind toe-nail as long as or 
longer than toe. Ads. — Above brownish ochraceous streaked with black; 
tail blackish, central feather margined with ochraceous buff; outer feathers 
more or less white; below whitish more or less washed with ochraceous buff, 
especially on breast, which is distinctly streaked with black. L., 7'50; W., 
4"10; T., 2'60; B., "45. Bears a superficial resemblance to a Vesper Sparrow, 
but, aside from structural differences, is larger and more buffy. 

Range. — Europe and N. Africa; accidental in Greenland and Bermuda 
and introduced into the U. S. 

The Skylark has been introduced several times in this country. In 
1887 a small colony had become established near Flatbush, Long Island, 
where a nest with young was found, (See Dutcher, Auk, V, 1888, p. 180.) 
After a supposed extinction a singing bird and nest were observed in 
July, 1895. (See Proctor, Auk.Xll, 1895, p. 390.) According to Braislin 
{Ahst. Proc. Linn. Soc. 17, 1907, p. 76) the bird is still present at Flat- 
bush where it may be heard singing from March to October. 

474. Otocoris alpestris alpestris* {Linn.). Horned Lark. (Fig. 
60.) Ad. cf. — Forehead, line over the eye, ear region, and throat sulphur- 
yellow; fore part of crown, a tuft of elongated feathers on either side of 
head, a mark from bill below eye and then downward to side of throat, and 
a patch on breast black; back of head and neck and rump vinaceous, more 
or less washed with grayish brown ; back grayish brown, edged with brownish 
ash and tinged with vinaceous; wing-coverts deep vinaceous; tail black, 
outer vanes of outer feathers margined with white, middle feathers broadly 
margined with brownish and vinaceous; lower breast and belly white, the 
former more or less soUed with dusky spots; sides vinaceous. Ad. 9. — 
Similar, but the marldngs, especially those of the head, less feharply defined, 
neck less vinaceous, etc. Im. and Ad. in winter. — Similar, but with the 
black markings veiled by yellowish or whitish tips to the feathers. L., 7'75; 
"W., 4-27; T., 2-84; B. from N., -40" (Dwight). 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Arctic zone of Canada from Boothia 
Peninsula s. to head of James Bay, Lab., and N. F. ; winters s. to the Ohio 
Valley and Ga. ; casual in La. and Bermuda; accidental in Greenland. 

Washington, common W. V., Oct.-Apl. Ossining, casual W. V. Cam- 
bridge, not uncommon T, V., Oct. 25-Nov. 25; Mch. 25-Apl. 5; occasional 
W. V. N. Ohio, common W. V., Nov. 1-Apl. 1. SE. Minn., W. V. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground. Eggs, 3-4, pale, bluish or greenish white, 
minutely and evenly speckled with pale grayish brown, "84 x *60. Date, 
Hebron, Lab., May 30. 

These hardy birds visit us in flocks in the winter. They frequent 
the vicinity of the seacoast or large, flat, open tracts in the interior, and 
are rarely found in well-wooded regions. They are terrestrial, and may 
be seen running over the snow or barren ground in scattered companies. 
They take wing with a sharp, whistled note, and seek fresh fields, or, 
hesitating, finally swing about and return to near the spot from which 
they were flushed. They are sometimes found associated with Snow- 

*See important papers on the relationships and distribution of the American 
representatives of this genus, by Dr. J. Dwight, Jr., in The Auk, VII, 1890, pp. 138- 
158, and by H. C. Oberholser, Proc. U. S. N. M., XXIV, 1902, pp. 801-883. 



LARKS 



349 



Buntings, and flocks may contain numbers of our resident Shore Lark, 
0. a. praticola. 




474b. O. a. praticola Hensh. Prairie Horned Lark. Similar to 
the preceding, but smaller and somewhat paler, with the forehead and line 
over the eye white instead of yellow, the throat but slightly tinged with 
yellow, and sometimes entirely white. 
L., 7-25; "W., 4-08; T., 2-86; B. from 
N., -37" (Dwight). 

Range. — NE, U. S. and Canada. 
Breeds chiefly in Transition zone from 
s. Man. and s. Que. to e. Kans., s. Mo., 
Ohio, W. Va., and Conn.; winters s. to 
Tex., Tenn., and Ga., and casually to 
Ariz, and Colo. 

Washington, common W. V., Aug. 
1 1-Apl. Cambridge, one record. N. Ohio, 
common P. R. Glen Ellyn, common 
P. R. SE. Minn., S. R., Mch.-Nov., a 
few in mild winters. 

Nesting date, Buffalo, N. Y., Mch. 9; 
se. Minn., Mch. 10. Fig. 96. Prairie Homed Lark. 

™, . . I. -, 1 . ■, 1 (Natural size.) 

This IS one of the birds that has 
changed its range since the settlement of America. It is properly a 
species of the prairies and open barrens, but since the once-continuous 
forest of the older States and provinces has been broken up, it has 
made its appearance in the East, wherever the country is suited to its 
requirements. 

It is strictly a ground bird, never perching on trees, though it com- 
monly aUghts on the top of a fence-post or other low, level surface. 
When encountered on a pathway it often runs before the pedestrian 
after the manner of the Vesper Sparrow, from which bird, however, 
it may be distinguished by the black feathers in its tail, by its brown 
back, and by the black marks on its face; also by the fact that it runs, 
but does not hop, and when it flies it usually utters a whistle, whereas 
the Vesper Sparrow invariably flies off in silence. 

Its chief song is poured forth in the air as it soars aloft, like a Sky- 
lark; but it often utters this same song while perched on some clod or 
stone, especially just before dawn and after sunset, as well as in the 
springtime, while the snow is yet on the ground. 

Ernest Thompson Seton. 



474k. O. a. ho3^i Bishop. Hoyt's Horned Lark. "Similar to O. a. 
alpestris but with the upperparts generally paler and more gray, the posterior 
auriculars gray rather than brown, and the yellow of the head and noek 
replaced by white, excepting the forehead, which is dirty greenish white, 
and the throat, which is distinctly yellow, most pronounced toward the 
center. . . . The adult female in spring plumage differs in a similar man- 
ner from the female of alpestris, ]:)ut in the female of hoyti the yellow on the 
throat is much paler than in the male." W., 4".i'). (Bisho)).) 

Range. — Cen. N. Am. Breeds n. of limit of trees from mouth of the 
Mackenzie to w. shore of Hudson Bay; winters s. to Nev., Utah, Kans., and 
Mich.; casual in Ohio and N. Y. 



350 CROWS AND JAYS 



49. Family Coevid^. Crows, Jays, Etc. (Fig. 61.) 

The Corvidce are represented in all parts of the world except New 
Zealand. They number about two hundred species, of which twenty-one 
are found in North America. Our Crows and Jays inhabit wooded 
regions, and are resident throughout the year, except at the northern 
limits of their range. They are omnivorous feeders, taking fruits, seeds, 
insects, eggs, nesthngs, and refuse. 

Crows and Jays exhibit marked traits of character and are possessed 
of unusual intelligence. Some systematists place them at the top of the 
avian tree, and, if their mental development be taken into consideration, 
they have undoubted claims to this high rank. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Plumage black. 

a. Wing about 15-00; bill over 2-50 486a. Raven- 

b. Wing about 13-00; bill about 2-00. 488. Crow. 488a. Florida Crow. 

c. Wing about 11 '00; bill about 1*50 490. Fish Crow. 

J5. Plumage bluish or grayish. 

a. Back blue; tail tipped with white; a black breast-patch. 

477. Blue Jay. 477a. Florida Blue Jay. 

b. Back bluish gray; tail not tipped with white; throat and breast indis- 

tinctly streaked with whitish 479. Florida Jay. 

c. Back gray; back of head and nape blackish; forehead whitish. 

484. Canada Jay. 484c. Labrador Jay. 

477. Cyanocitta cristata eristata (Linn.). Blue Jay. (Fig. 61a.) 
Ads. — Upperparts grayish blue; underparts dusky whitish, whiter on the 
throat and belly; forehead, and a band passing across the back of the head 
down the sides of the neck and across the breast, black; head crested; ex- 
posed surface of wings blue, the greater wing-coverts and secondaries barred 
with black, and all but the middle pair broadly tipped with white, this white 
tip rarely less than 1"00 in width on the outer feather. L., 11*74; W., 5-14; 
T., 5-19; B., r04. 

Range. — E. N. Am., breeding from cen. Alberta, s. Keewatin, Que., 
N. B., N. S., and N. F. s. to the Gulf States, except Fla., and w. to w. Nebr., 
6. Colo., and cen. Tex. ; casual in N. M., migratory in the n. part of its range. 

Washington, rather rare P. R., common T. V., Apl. 28-May 15; Sept. 
15-Oct. 15. Ossining, tolerably common P. R. Cambridge, common P. R., 
abundant T. V., Apl. and May; Sept. and Oct. N. Ohio, common P. R. 
Glen EUyn, common P. R. SE. Minn., common P. R. 

Nest, of twigs, compactly interwoven, lined with rootlets generally in a 
tree crotch 10-20 feet up. Eggs, 4-6, pale olive-green or brownish ashy, 
rather thicldy marked with distinct or obscure spots of varying shades of 
cinnamon-brown, 1-10 x -85. Date, Charleston, S. C, Apl. 25; Cambridge, 
Apl. 28; se. Minn., May 2. 

The Blue Jay, I fear, is a reprobate, but, nothwithstanding his fond- 
ness for eggs and nestlings, and his evident joy in worrying other birds, 
there is a dashing, reckless air about him which makes us pardon his 
faults and like him in spite of ourselves. Like many men, he needs the 
inspiration of congenial company to bring out the social side of his dis- 
position. Household duties may perhaps absorb him, but certain it is 
that when at home he is very different from the noisy fellow who, with 
equally noisy comrades, roams the woods in the fall. How his jay, jay 



CROWS AND JAYS 351 

rings out on the frosty morning air! It is a signal to his companions, 
breakfasting in a near-by oak or chestnut, "Here, here, here's some fun!" 
and the poor, bhnking Ovvi he has discovered looks helplessly at the 
blue-coated mob, whose uproar alone is terrifying. Suddenly there is 
absolute silence; every Jay has disappeared. One of them has seen 
3-ou, and not until your silence reassures the band will they return to 
the sport of teasing their victim. 

The Blue Jay is both a mimic and a ventriloquist. Besides an inex- 
haustible stock of whistles and calls of his own, he imitates the notes of 
other species, notably those of the Red-shouldered, Red-tail, and Spar- 
row Hawks. 

1908. Cblipman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 5-14 (nesting). 

477a. C. c. florincola Coues. Florida Blue Jay. Similar to the 
preceding species, but smaller, the upperparts somewhat grayer, the white 
tips to the feathers narrower, those on the outer pair of tail-feathers generally 
less than l-QO in length. L., lO'To; W., S'lS; T., 4-80; B., -96. 

Range. — Florida. 

Nesting date, Archer, Fla., Apl. 4. 

Blue Jays in Florida are common inhabitants of towns with live- 
oaks, and hop about the fences and gardens with all the domesticity 
of the Robins on our lawns. It has always seemed to me that the Florida 
birds were possessed of greater vocabularies than their northern 
brethren. 

The Magpie (475. Pica pica hudsonia) inhabits western North America; 
stragglers have been recorded from as far east as Montreal and Illinois. 

479. Aphelocoma cyanea {Vieill.). Florida Jay. Ads. — Top 
and sides of the head and neck, wings and tail, grayish blue; back pale 
brownish gray; underparts dirty white, obscurely streaked on the throat and 
breast; sides of the breast and faint breast-band grayish blue. L., 11*50; 
W., 4-45; T., 5-40; B., '98. 

Range. — Fla., local, chiefly along coasts, between lat. 27° and 30°. 

Nest, of sticks and roots Hned with weeds and rootlets, in trees and bushes. 
E,ggs, 4, olive-green spotted and blotched with black, I'll x "75 (Maynard). 
Date, Lantana, Fla., Apl. 6. 

"The Florida Jays are noisy birds at all times, and the first intima- 
tion which one receives of their presence is a harsh scream which is given 
as a note of alarm. As they usually move in flocks, this cry is tak(Mi up 
by others, and soon the scrub for many rods around will be resounding 
with these peculiar sounds. Wh(!n undisturbcid they feed on the ground 
or in bushes, but, upon the approach of an intruder, they will mount 
the highest point available, where they remain until driven away. They 
are not usuall}^ shy, and will allow one to approach them quit(3 closely, 
but when one or two are shot the survivors usually disappear. . . . 
They will glide through the bushes with remarkable rapidity, never 
once showing themselves, or, if they have an open space to cross, dart 
over it, not in flocks, but singly, and, plunging into the next thicket, 
they will at once be lost to view" (Maynard). 



352 CROWS AND JAYS 

484. Perisoreus canadensis canadensis {Linn.). Canada Jat. 
Ads. — Forepart of the head white, back of the head and nape sooty black, 
back gray; wings and tail gray, most of the feathers narrowly tipped with 
white; throat and sides of the neck white, rest of the underparts ashy gray. 
L., 12-00; W., 5-85; T., S'SO; B., '82. 

Range. — Boreal zones of e. N. A. Breeds from limit of conifers in nw. 
Mackenzie and cen. Keewatin and from n. Que., s. to w. cen. Alberta, n. 
Minn., Mich., the Adirondacks of N. Y,, n. Maine, N. H., N. B., and N. S.; 
casual in Nebr., Pa., and Mass. 

Cambridge, A. V., one record, Oct. 

Nest, of coarse twigs and strips of bark, in coniferous trees. Eggs, 4-5, 
white, distinctly and obscurely spotted with light olive-brown, 1*12 x '81. 
Date, Stewiacke, N. S., Apl. 17, inc. adv.; Mahoning, Mich., Mch. 18. 

While studjdng the habits of birds in the great coniferous forest of 
the north, I soon found that I was very safe in attributing any new 
strange shrieks or wails, whose origin I was otherwise unable to trace, 
to the Canada Jay. Many of the notes resemble those of the Blue Ja}', 
but it has a number that are distinctly its own. Some of these are 
musical, but most of them are harsh and discordant. 

In its habits it is much like its blue cousin, but it is less shy, and 
becomes almost tame if allowed to come unmolested about the camp 
for a few days in succession. In form it is like a magnified Chickadee, 
clad in singularly furlike, thick, puffy gray feathers; on its forehead 
is a white spot, the size of a dime, and its wings and tail are of a much 
darker gray than- the other parts. This description, remembered in 
conjunction with the habits, will at once identify the species. 

It nests early in March — that is, while deep snow still covers the 
ground and hard frost reigns supreme; and no satisfactory explana- 
tion of this strange habit has yet been brought forward. No doubt 
one or other of the parents always remains with the eggs, but still it 
is difficult to see how they can keep them from freezing when the sur- 
rounding air is chilled to 30° below zero. 

It is a non-migratory species, and it is said that in autumn it pro- 
vides against the annual famine of winter by laying up a store of nuts 
and other food. Ernest Thompson Seton. 

1899. Warren, O. B., Auk, XVI, 12-19 (nesting). 

484c. P. c. nigricapillus Ridgw. Labrador Jay. Similar to the 
preceding, but darker, the black of the head and neck extending forward 
and surrounding the eye. 

Range. — Northern and eastern Ungava, Lab., and N. F. 

Nesting date, Lab., Apl. 16. 

48G. Corvus corax sinuatus (Wagl.). Raven. Similar to C. c. prin- 
cipalis but with a "smaller or slenderer bill, the tarsus more slender, with 
less of upper portion concealed by feathering of lower part of thighs." 
W., 16-87; T., 9*86; B., 2-80; depth of B., at N., '94 (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Ore., Mont., S. D , s. to Honduras and e. probably to Mo., 
Ills., and Ind. 

486a. Corvus corax principalis Ridgw. Northern Raven. Ads. — 
Entire plumage black with steel-blue reflections; feathers on the throat 



CROWS AND JAYS 353 

narrow, lengthened, and pointed. "L., about [22-00-26-o0; W., 16-99; 
T., 9-86; B., 3-03; depth of B. at N.,1-04" (Ridgw.). 

Remarks. — The Raven differs from the Crow in its much greater size and 
in having long, pointed, instead of the usual short, rounded feathers on the 
throat. 

Range. — NW. ^\Jaska, Melville Is., n. Ellesmere Land, and n. Greenland 
B. to Wash., cen. ]Minn., Mich., and locally to coast region of N. J. and 
Va., and in the higher Alleghanies to Ga. SE. Minn., uncommon W. V. 

Nest, compact and symmetrical, of sticks lined wath grasses, wool, etc., 
added to from year to year, in trees or on cliffs. ''Eggs, 2-7, pale bluish green, 
pale olive, or olive spotted or dashed (or both) with olive-brown (sometimes 
nearly uniform olive from density of markings), 2*02 x 1*38" (Ridgw.). 
Date, Grand Manan, Apl. 9. 

"The usual note of the Raven is a hoarse, rolling cr-r-r-cruck, but 
he has other cries. . . . 

"Despite their difference in size and habits, I must confess that I 
often had difficulty in distinguishing Ravens from Crows. Every one 
must have noticed how the apparent size of a Crow will vary under 
different conditions of the atmosphere; it is the same with the Raven. 
At times he looks as big as an Eagle; at others scarcely larger than a 
Fish Crow. But when actually in company with Crows he can not be 
possibly mistaken, for he then appears, as he is, nearly double the size 
of any of them. His flight did not seem to me as characteristic as it 
has been described. True, he sails more than does the Crow, and there 
is something pecuHar in his wing-strokes, but the difference is not always 
appreciable unless there is an opportunity for direct comparison" 
(Brewster, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XXII, 1883, p. 378). 

1910. Harlan, R. C.,.Cassinia 11-18 (nesting in Pa.). 

488. Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm. Crow. 
(Fig. 616.) Ads. — Entire plumage black, with steel-blue or deep purplish 
reflections; the underparts duller than the upperparts; feathers on the neck 
normal, short, and rounded. L., 19-30; W., 12*18; T., 7*52; B., 2-00. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from sw. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, cen. 
Que., and N. F. s, to s. Tex., and the Gulf coast (except Fla.); winters from 
near the n. boundary of the U. S. southward*-^ 

Washington, abundant P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, 
common P. R., abundant T. V. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen Ellyn, com- 
mon P. R. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch.-Nov., uncommon W. V. 

Nest, bulky, of sticks lined with strips of grape-vine bark, grasses, moss, 
etc., in trees, averaging about 30 feet up. Eggs, 4-0, generally bluish green, 
thickly marked with shades of brown, ])ut sonictinics light blu(! or even 
white with almost no markings, 1'65 x 1"19. Date, Wash., D. (\, Mch. 27; 
Delaware Co., Pa., Apl. U; Os.sining, N. Y., Apl. 14; Cambridge, Apl. 15; 
se. Minn., Apl. 12. 

Throughout his wide range the size, color, voice, habits, and abun- 
dance of the Crow combine to make him the most conspicuous and 
consequently the best known of our birds. liut in spite; of his great 
circle of acquaintances he has few friends. An unfortunate fondness 
for corn has placed him under the ban of the agriculturi.st; there is a 
price on his head; every man's hand is against him. Apparently he 
does not mind this in the least; in fact, he seems to rejoice in being 
an outlaw. As for fear, I doubt if he knows what it means; he has far 



354 CROWS AND JAYS 

too much confidence in his undoubted ability to escape his human 
persecutors. He laughs at their attempts to entrap him; his insolent 
assurance is admirable. For several centuries man has been his sworn 
enemy, nevertheless he appears to have held his own, accepting and 
adjusting himself to every new condition. 

Afraid of no one, he migrates boldly by day, and in March and 
October we may see him with his comrades high in the air, returning 
to or leaving their summer homes. In winter the Crows are exceedingly 
abundant along our seacoasts, where they congregate to feed on mollusks, 
fish, and other sea food. -At this season they roost in colonies. It has 
been estimated that some roosts contain upward of three hundred 
thousand birds. Early in the morning, with regularly executed maneu- 
vers, they start on the day's foraging, flying low, on the lookout for 
food. Late in the afternoon they return at a much greater height — 
"as the Crow flies" — and, alighting at some point near the roost, wait 
the coming of the last stragglers. Then, at a given signal, they all rise 
and retire for the night. No one one who has listened to Crows will 
doubt that they have a language. But who can translate it? 

1886. Rhoads, S. N., Am. Nat., 691-700; 777-786 (roosts).— 1895. 
Barrows and Schwarz, Bull. 6, Biol. Surv. 1-98 (food). ^1895. Burns, 
F. L., Wilson Bull. No. 5, 1-41 (monograph).— 1897. Butler, A. W., 
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 175-178 (roosts). 

488a. C. b. pascuus Coues. Florida Crow. Similar to the preced- 
ing, but wings and tail somewhat shorter, and bill and feet slightly larger, 
L., 20-00; W., 11-50-12-30 T., 7-00-7-70; B., 2-00-2-20; depth of B. at 
base, •75--85; Tar., 2-40-2-50 (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Peninsula of Florida. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 3. 

490. Corvus 'ossifragus Wils. Fish Crow. Ads. — Entire plumage 
black, with steel-blue or deep purplish reflections, generally more greenish 
on the underparts. L., 16-00; W., H'OO; T., 6-40; B., 1-50. 

Remarks. — The Fish Crow may be distinguished from the common Crow 
(1) by its much smaller size. (2) By the uniform and somewhat richer color 
of the back. In brachyrhynchos the feathers of the back have dull tips ; when 
the freshly-plumaged bird is held between the observer and the light these 
tips give the back a ringed or slightly scaled appearance. In ossifragus these 
tips are wanting, and the back is uniformly colored. (3) By the brighter 
color of the underparts. In brachyrhynchos the underparts are generally 
much duller than the upperparts; in ossifragus they are nearly as bright. 

Range. — Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas of Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts from lower Hudson River valley and Conn, to La. and Fla.; casual 
in Mass. ; migratory only at extreme n. limit of range. 

Washington, rather common P. R. Cambridge, A. V., one record, Mch. 

Nest, of sticks, lined with strips of grapevine bark, moss, grasses, etc., 
generally in pines or cedars, 20-50 feet up. Eggs, 4-6, similar in color to 
those of the preceding species, r52 x 1-06. Date, Lake Kissimmee, Fla., 
Apl. 30; D. C, May 5; Seven Mile Beach, N. J., May 15. 

The Fish Crow can be distinguished from the common Crow in 
life only by its call. Its voice is cracked and reedy, and its notes resem- 
ble those of a young common Crow. Instead of the loud, clear, open 
caw of adults of that species, it utters a hoarser car, as if it talked through 



STARLINGS 



355 



its nose! The difference is perhaps not appreciable upon paper, but one 
who is famihar with their calls need never confuse these two birds in the 
field. The Fish Crow, while not confined to the coast or even the vicinity 
of water, is not found far inland. 

The EuHOPEAN Rook U90.1. Corvus frugilegus) and the European 
Hooded Crow {490.2. Corvus cornix) are both of accidental occurrence in 
Greenland. 

Clarke's Nutcracker {491. Nucifraga columhiana) of western North 
America is of accidental occurrence in Iowa and Wisconsin. 



50. Family Sturxid.e. Starlings. (Fig. 62.) 

The sixty species of true Starlings (cf. Sharpe) are distributed 
throughout the Old World except in Austraha and New Guinea. The 
only American representative was introduced into this country in 1890. 

493. Sturnus vulgaris Linn. Starling. (Fig. 62.) Ads. in summer. 
— Metallic purplish or greenish; feathers of the upperparts all tipped with 
cream-buff spots, feathers of the underparts marked only on the sides; lower 
belly and under tail-coverts, wings, and tail dark brownish gray, edged with 
cream-buff; bill yellow. Ads. and Im. in winter. — Similar, but the upper- 
parts heavaly spotted with brownish cream-buff; the entire underparts heav- 
ily spotted with white; bill blackish brown. L., S'oO; W., S'lO; T., 2-50. 

Range. — W. and cen. 
Europe; winters s. to 
Africa; accidental in 
Greenland ; introduced 
in 1890 in N. Y. City, 
and thence has spread 
as far as Springfield, 
Mass., Stonington, 
Conn., Orient, L. I., 
Ossining, N. Y., and 
Phila., Pa. 

Nest, of grasses, 
twigs, etc., in a crevice in 
a building or hollow tree. 
Eggs, 4-6, pale bluish, 
1-20 X -86. Date, Engle- 
wood, N. J., May 15, 
young on wing. 



The Starling was 
introduced into this 
country by Eugene 
Schieffelin, who also 
imported one of the 

early shipments of House or 'English' Sparrows. Sixty Starlings wore 
released in Central Park, New York City, in ISDO, and forty more in* 
1891, and from these one hundred birds (other introductions having 
apparently failed) the thousands of Starlings now occupying the coun- 
try for one hundred miles or more from New York City have descended. 
In this area they are permanently resident, but there are pronounced 
25 




Fig. 97. Starling; summer plumage. (Roduced.) 



356 



STARLINGS 




local fluctuations in their numbers due to the influences of the pairing 
and flocking season and of the food supply. Continuous residence, as 
with the English Sparrow, not only implies the possession of powers 
of endurance and adaptability, but gives an advantage over species 
with which there may be conflict over the possession of a nesting-site. 

Such conflict occurs with the 
English Sparrow, but the latter 
nests in so great a variety of 
places that it readily abandons 
one for another. With the Blue- 
bird this is not so, and it is this 
species, more than any other, 
which is threatened by the 
Starhng. 

At the present rate of in- 
crease it is clear that within two 
decades the Starling will occupy 
the greater part of the eastern 
States, and unless its spread 
westward be prevented by the 
plains, it may eventually be as 
widely distributed as the Enghsh 
Sparrow. It has not as yet been 
decided whether, from an eco- 
nomic standpoint, the Starling is 
a desirable addition to our avifauna; but in spite of his undoubted claims 
to our interest, he is a distinctly foreign element in our bird-life, and 
seems out of place among those species with which we share the bond 
of a birthplace in common. 

About New York City the Starling is among the first birds to nest, 
and the harsh, grating food-call of the young may be heard by May 15. 
Here apparently but one brood is raised and young and old begin to 
flock the latter part of May, forming the nucleus of gatherings which 
in late summer and fall contain several thousand birds. Their aerial 
evolutions admirably demonstrate the unity of spirit which appears 
to control the movements of birds in flocks, and are performed with a 
precision which suggests long training and instant obedience. 

The call of the male is a high, clear, rather long-drawn, ascending 
whistle, which may be easily imitated. This appears in its song, which 
is a choking, gasping, guttural soliloquy, with imitations of the notes 
of other birds interspersed. The flocking chorus is an indescribable 
chattering. On a number of occasions I have heard Starlings utter 
notes resembling those of the Wood Pewee (see page 344) but whether 
they were natural or acquired must be determined by some observer 
in the Old World. 

Starlings are walkers, not hoppers, and aside from color, may be 
known by their long, pointed wings, and short, square tail. 



Fig. 98. Starling; winter plumage. 
(Reduced.) 



BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 357 



51. Family IcTERiDiE. Blackbirds, Orioles, Etc. (Fig. 63.) 

This distinctively American family is most abundantly represented in 
the tropics, where the majority of the one hundred and fifty odd known 
species are found, only nineteen advancing north of Mexico. With 
the exception of the Orioles, they are gregarious after the nesting season, 
while some of the species nest in colonies and are found in flocks through- 
out the year. They differ markedly in habits, and are found living in 
ground of every nature, from dry plains and wet marshes to the densest 
forest growth. Some species possess marked vocal abihty, while the 
voices of others are harsh and unmusical. They feed on fruit, seeds, 
grain and insects. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. With yellow or orange in the underparts. 
II. Underparts black with or without metallic reflections. 

III. Underparts grayish, slate-color, chestnut or buffy. 

IV. Underparts black and white, or black, tipped or margined with rusty, 

I. With yellow or orange in the underparts. 

1. Throat or breast-crescent black. 

a. Back black 507. Baltimore Oriole. 

h. Back greenish 506. Orchard Oriole (cf im.). 

c. A black or blackish crescent on the breast; outer tail-feathers white. 
501. Meadowlark. 501a. Western Meadowlark. 

2. Throat not black, no breast-crescent. 

A. Entire underparts yellow, yellowish, or orange. 

a. Rump and tail orange . . 507. Baltimore Oriole (9 and im.). 
h. Underparts yellowish green . 506. Orchard Oriole (9 and im.). 
c. Upperparts brownish, streaked and spotted with black; tail- 
feathers pointed. . . 494. Bobolink (9 ad. cf, fall and im.). 

B. Throat and breast yellow or yellowish; belly black or dark grayish 

brown 497. Yellow-headed Blackbird. 

n. Underparts black, with or without metallic reflections. 

A. Outer tail-feathers "75 or more shorter than middle ones; bill TOO or 

more in length. 

a. Tail over 6*00 513. Boat-tailed Grackle cf. 

h. Tail under 6-00. 

51. Back bronzy purple or shining, brassy bluish green, the feath- 
ers with mcZescen^ bars 511. Purple Grackle cf. 

62. Back bronze, without iridescent bars. 

5116. Bronzed Grackle cf. 
6^. Back bottle-green, the feathers more purple at their base, and 
with a narrow iridescent bar near the middle. 

511a. Florida Grackle cf. 
6^. Back bluish black, with or without iridescent bars. 

511. Purple Grackle (9). 511a. Florida Grackle 9. 

B. Outer tail-feathers little if any shorter than middle ones; bill less 

than TOO in length. ^ 
a. Entire plumage bluish black, the feathers sometimes tipped with 

buffy or rufous 509. Rusty Blackbird d'. 

6. A red and buff shoulder-patch . . . Red-winged Blackbirds cf. 

c. Head and neck all around seal-brown . . . 495. Cowbird d". 

d. Nape buffy, rump whitish 494. Bobolink d. 



358 BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 

III. Underparts grayish, slate -color, chestnut, or bufiy. 

A. Underparts grayish or slate-color. 

a. Underparts grayish; bill finchlike; wing under 4*00. 

495. COWBIRD 9. 

b, Underparts slate-color, sometimes tipped with brownish, bill 

thrushlike; wing over 4*00 . . . 509. Rusty Blackbird 9. 

B. Underparts buffy or chestnut. 

a. Underparts buffy, generally with a few black streaks. 

494. Bobolink 9. 

b. Underparts buffy, without black streaks; tail about 5'00. 

513. Boat-tailed Grackle 9. 

c. Underparts chestnut ; throat black. . 506. Orchard Oriole (t^ ad.). 

IV. Underparts black and white, or black tipped or margined with 

rusty. 

a. Underparts streaked black and white, or black tipped with white; 

shoulder generally red or reddish. 

Red-winged Blackbirds (9 andim.)./^ 

b. Upperparts and underparts tipped with rusty. 

509. Rusty Blackbird (im.). 

c. Nape buffy, rump whitish 494. Bobolink cT. 

494. Dolichonyx oryzivorus {Linn.). Bobolink. Ad. d', breeding 
plumage. — Top and sides of the head and underparts black, the feathers 
more or less tipped with a narrow whitish or cream-buff fringe, which wears 
off as the season advances ; back of the neck with a large yellowish cream- 
buff patch; middle of back generally streaked with cream-buff; scapulars, 
lower back, and upper tail-coverts soiled grayish white; wings and tail 
black; tail-feathers with pointed tips; bill blue-black. Ad. 9. — Upperparts 
olive-buff, streaked with black; crown blackish, with a central stripe of 
olive-buff; nape finely spotted and back broadly streaked with black; wings 
and tail brownish fuscous ; tail-feathers with pointed tips; underparts yellow- 
ish or buffy white. Ads. in fall and Im. — Similar to female, but huffier and 
more olivaceous throughout. L., 7 25; W., 3-76; T., 2-73; B., -55. 

Remarks. — The young and adults in fall plumage are known as Reed- 
birds. Adults acquire this plumage by a complete molt after the breeding 
season. The breeding plumage is regained by a complete molt in the spring, 
and not, as has been supposed, by a change in the color of the feathers with- 
out molting. Freshly plumaged males have the black veiled by yellow tips 
to the feathers; these gradually wear off, and by June have almost entirely 
disappeared (cf. Chapman, Auk, X, 1893, 309). 

Range. — N. and S. A. Breeds mainly in Transition zone from se. B. C, 
cen. Alberta, cen. Sask., cen. Man., cen. Ont., cen. Que., and Cape Breton 
Is. s. to ne. Nev., Utah, n. Mo., Ills., Ind., cen. Ohio, W. Va., Pa., and N. J.; 
winters in S. A. to s. Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay; in migration to the West 
Indies and e. coast of Cen. Am.; casual in Calif.; accidental in Bermuda and 
the Galapagos. (See Fig. 7.) 

Washington, T. V., common in spring, abundant in fall; Apl. 26-May 
30; July 23-Nov. 14. Ossining, tolerably common S. R., May 1-Oct. 5. 
Cambridge, very common S. R., May 8-Sept. 10. N. Ohio, common S. R., 
Apl. 16-Oct. 10. Glen Ellyn, S. R., Apl. 27-Oct. 9. SE. Minn., common 
S. R., Mch. 5- Aug. 27. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground. Eggs, 4-7, grayish white, frequently 
tinged with the color of the numerous irregular spots and blotches of olive- 
brown or umber, '85 x '62. Date, Ossining, N. Y., May 29; Cambridge, 
June 1; Erie Co., N. Y., May 15; Austin, Ills., May 20. 

In June our fields and meadows echo with the Bobolink's "mad 
music" as, on quivering wing, he sings in ecstasy to his mate on her 



Plate XX 




^^^//^i 



Plumages of the Bobolink 
nr,.!^* i^u"J^ male, summor. 2. Adult malo in post-nuptial (fall) molt. 3. Adult male 
and adult female a tor postnuptial molt, and youuR in first winter. (This is the Hoodl.ird 
plumage) 4. Adult female, summer, r,. Adult male after eomplete preuuptial (spring) 
molt. Plumage No. 1 is then actiuired by wear and fading. v«pr'"g^ 



BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 359 

nest in the grasses below. What a wonderful song it is! An irrepressible 
outburst; a flood of melody from a heart overflowing with the joy of 
early summer. 

But this glad season is soon over. Even before the tide of the year 
is full, the Bobolink begins to prepare for the long journey to his win- 
ter resorts. Doffing his jaunty costume of black, white, and buff, he 
dons the less conspicuous dress of his mate, and travels in disguise under 
the assumed name of Reedbird or Ricebird. His voice is hushed, save 
for a single call-note — a metallic chink. He travels both by day and 
night, and from the sky we hear his watchword as he signals his com- 
panions. 

The wild-rice marshes of our coasts and rivers are the rendezvous 
of the countless flocks of Bobolinks, which later will invade South 
America, stopping en route to visit the rice, fields of South Carolina 
and Georgia. They pass the winter south of the Amazon, and in March 
or April begin their northward journey. The males, in flocks of two or 
three hundred, precede the females by several days. They reach Florida 
about April 25, and are then in full song. Only one who has heard the 
Bobolink sing can form an idea of the effect produced by a flock of 
three hundred or more singing in chorus. 

495. Molothrus ater ater (Bodd.). Cowbird. Ad. d". — Head, neck, 
and breast coffee-brown; rest of the plumage glossy black, with metallic 
bluish and greenish reflections. Ad. 9. — -Dark brownish gray, lighter below, 
especially on the throat. Juvenal plumage. — Similar to the female, but 
whiter below, all the feathers edged with buffy. This plumage is worn but 
a short time, and is then changed for that of the adult. cT L., 7*92; W., 4*24; 
T., 3.03; B., -67. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from s. B. C, s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, Ont., 
Que., and N. B. s. to n. Calif., Nev., n. N. M., Tex., La., and N. C; winters 
from se. Calif, and the Ohio and Potomac valleys (casually further n.) to 
the Gulf coast and cen. Mex. 

Washington, rather rare P. R., common T. V. Ossining, common S. R., 
Mch. 22-Nov. 11. Cambridge, common S. R., Mch. 25-Nov. 1; occasional 
in winter. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 10-Nov. 15. Glen Ellyn, common 
S. R., Mch. 15-Sept. 10. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 11-Aug. 19. 

Nest, none, the eggs being laid in the nests of (some 90 recorded) other 
species. Eggs, white, evenly and distinctly speckled with cinnamon-brown 
or umber, "86 x "65. Date, Montgomery Co., Pa., May 10; Cambridge, 
May 15. 

The Cowbird is an acknowledged villain, and has no standing in 
the bird world. English Sparrows, either because thoy arc not aware 
of the customs of New World bird life, or because of a possible and 
not unlikely affinity, associate with him; but no self-respecting American 
bird should be found in his company. 

As an outcast he makes the best of things, and gathers ;il)()ut him 
a band of kindred spirits who know no law. There is an air about (ho 
group which at once tells the critical observer that their deeds arc evil. 
No joyous song swells the throat of the male. His chief contribution 
to the chorus of springtime is a guttural bubbling produced with appar- 
ently nauseous effort. In small flocks they visit both pasture and wood- 




360 BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 

land, and are given to following cattle, clustering about the feet of the 
herd, presumably to feed on the insects found there. They build no 
nest, and the females, lacking every moral and maternal instinct, 

leave their companions only long 
enough to deposit their eggs in the 
nests of other and smaller birds. I 
can imagine no sight more strongly 
suggestive of a thoroughly despicable 
nature than a female Cowbird sneak- 
ing through the trees or bushes in 
search of a victim upon whom to 
shift the duties of motherhood. 
Fig. 99. Cowbird. (Natural size.) The ill-gotten offspring are born 

with the Cowbird character fully 
developed. They demand by far the greater share of the food, and 
through gluttony or mere size alone starve or crowd out the rightful 
occupants of the nest. They accept the attention of their foster-par- 
ents long after they could care for themselves; and when nothing more 
is to be gained desert them and join the growing flocks of their kind 
in the grainfields. 

497. Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonap.). Yellow-headed 
Blackbird. Ad. d'. — Head, neck, throat, and breast orange-yellow; region 
before the eye and chin black; outer wing-coverts white, rest of the plumage 
black. Ad. 9. — Forehead, line over the eye, sides of the head, throat, and 
upper breast pale, dirty yellow, more or less mixed with white ; lower breast 
generally more or less marked with white; rest of the plumage grayish 
brown. L., lO'OO; W., S'SO; T., 4-05; B., -85. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds from s. B. C, s. Mackenzie, sw. Keewatin, 
and n. Minn. s. to st Calif., Ariz., and Mex., and e. to s. Wise, cen. Iowa, 
n. Ills., and Ind.; winters from sw. Calif., s. Ariz., and sw. La. s. to Mex.; 
accidental in Greenland and in various e. localities from Ont. and Que. to 
S. C, Fla., and Cuba. 

Washington, A. V., one instance, Aug. Cambridge, A. V., one record, 
Oct. Glen Ellyn, A. V., May 21, 1898. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 21. 

Nest, bulky, of coarse reeds, grasses, etc., in marshes. Eggs, 4-5, grayish 
white, evenly and rather obscurely speckled with pale cinnamon-brown, 
1*00 X -72. Date, se. Minn., May 18 (first egg). 

When nesting, the Yellow-head is one of the characters of the quill- 
reed or tule marshes. Later, he joins others of his kind, forming vast 
flocks which frequent corn and grain fields or wherever food can be 
found. 

"If result were commensurate with effort, the Yellow-head would be 
a world-famed songster; but something besides unbounded ambition 
and limitless muscular exertion is required to produce music. In vain 
the Yellow-head expands his lungs and throws out his chest, his wide- 
spread tail testifying to the earnestness of his endeavor; sound he pro- 
duces in volume, but surely such a series of strained, harsh calls, whist- 
tles like escaping steam, grunts, groans and pig-like squeals never before 
did duty as a song. In his youth he does far better, the note of the young 



BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 361 

bird being a wooden rolling call as different from the voice of the 
parent as is that of the young Baltimore Oriole." (Chapman, F. M., 
Camps and Cruises.") 

1909. Roberts, T. S., Auk, XXVI, 371-389 (home-life). 

498. Agelaius phoeniceus phoenieeus {Linn.). Red-winged Black- 
bird. Ad. o". — Lesser wing-coverts — 'shoulders' — bright scarlet; middle 
wing-coverts varying from ochraceous-buff to buffy white; rest of the plu- 
mage black. Ad. d in winter. — Similar, but upperparts margined, with rusty. 
Im. cf in winter. — -Upperparts margined with rusty and buffy; underparts 
tipped with whitish; lesser wing-coverts dull orange-red mixed with black. 
Ad. 9. — Head and back blackish, streaked with rusty and buffy; rump 
and upper tail-coverts fuscous, more or less edged with ashy; wings fus- 
cous, edged with buffy, the lesser coverts sometimes tinged with reddish; 
underparts conspicuously streaked with black and white; the throat tinged 
with orange or yellow, d^ L., 9-51; W., 4-72; T., 377; B., -88., depth at 
base "50. 

Range. — N. A. e. of the Great Plains, except Gulf coast and Fla. Breeds 
from Ont., N. S., and Que., southward; winters mainly s. of Ohio and Del. 
valleys, locally n. to Mass. 

Washington, common P. R., abundant in migration. Ossining, common 
S. R., Feb. 25-Nov. 11. Cambridge, abundant S. R., Mch. 10- Aug. 30.; 
a few winter. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 1-Nov. 15. Glen EUyn, 
common S. R., Mch. 5-Nov. 19. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 8-Nov. 14. 

Ne^t, of coarse grasses, weed stalks, etc., lined with finer grasses and root- 
lets, attached to low bushes or reeds. Eggs, 3-5, pale blue, singularly 
streaked, spotted or scrawled with dark purple or'black, chiefly at the larger 
end, 1-04 x '72. Date, Chester Co., Pa., May 16; Cambridge, May 16; 
ee. Minii., May 8. 

A swiftly moving, compact band of silent birds, passing low through 
the brown orchard, suddenly wheels, and, alighting among the bare 
branches, with the precision of a trained choir breaks into a wild, tink- 
ling glee. It is quite possible that in the summer this rude chorus 
might fail to awaken enthusiasm, but in the spring it is as welcome 
and inspiring a promise of the new year as the peeping of frogs or 
blooming of the first wild flower. 

Plain, streaked Mrs. Redwing, who has been spending the winter in 
flocks composed only of others of her sex, soon appfnxrs, but mating is de- 
layed until late April or early May. Then wl^ find the old homes in 
the wet meadows and marshes occupied by apparently the same birds 
which have dwelt there for years. 

Mounting the topmost branch of a tree not far ffom the nest, the 
male becomes an ever-vigilant sentinel. His rich '^koig-quSr-ree," 
which by association is so strongly suggestive of reedy marshes, is a 
signal that "all's well." He challenges all suspicious (characters by an 
inquiring chut, chuck, and with a long, shrill alarm-note, chee-e-e-c-e, 
circles out on fluttering wings, his gorgeous crimson epaulets showing 
conspicuously. 

The nesting season is a short one, and in July young and old begin 
to gather in flocks in the marshes, where later they will be found, la 
countless numbers, feeding on the wild rice. 

1905. Herrick, F. H.. Home-Life of Wild Birds, 45-48. 



362 BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 

498b. A. p. bryanti Ridgw. Bahama Red-wing. Similar to ^. p. flor- 
idanus but smaller, the bill much more slender; 9 with the underparts 
streaked with brownish. W., 3'70; T., S'SO; B., '90; depth of bill at nos- 
tril, -35. 

Range. — SE. coast of Fla., Florida Keys to Key West, and the Bahamas. 

498e. A. p. floridanus Mayn. Florida Red-wing. Similar to A. v. 
ph(e7iiceus but smaller, bill longer, and more slender, cf W., 4*20; B., '90; 
depth at base, '40. 

Range. — Fla. (except the se. coast and keys), and w. along the coast at 
least to Galveston, Tex. 

Nesting date, Lake Flirt, Fla., Apl. 15. 

498d. A. p. fortis (Ridgw.). Thick-billed Red-wing. Similar to 
A. p. phceniceus but larger (largest of the genus), bill shorter and proportion- 
ately thicker, 9 somewhat paler and browner, d' W., 5"00; B., "SO; depth 
at base "50. 

Range. — C8n.-N. A. Breeds from cen. Mack, and s. Keewatin s. to ne. 
Colo, and n. Texas; winters principally in the s. part of its breeding range, 
wandering irregularly further eastward. SE. Minn., common T. V. 

501. Sturnella magna magna (Linn.). Meadowlark. (Fig. QSh.) 
Ads. in summer. — Prevailing color of upperparts black, crown wdth a buffy 
line through center, back bordered and tipped with rufous and buffy; 
outer tail-feathers mostly white, middle ones with imperfect, connected bars, 
not reaching the outer edge of the feather; line from bUl over eye yellow; 
sides of the throat and ear-coverts whitish; throat, between the lower 
branch of the under mandible, breast, and middle of the upper belly bright 
yellow; a black crescent on breast; sides and lower belly whitish, spotted 
or streaked with black. Ads. and Im. in winter. — Feathers all much more 
widely margined, the prevailing color of the upperparts rufous-brown; 
black breast crescent veiled with buffy; yellow of underparts duller. 
L., 10-75; W., 4-76; T., S'lG; B., I'SO. 

Remarks.— This bird is to be distinguished from the western species by 
its much darker upperparts, by the imperfect, confluent tail-bars, and, 
especially, by the absence of yellow on the sides of the throat. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition and Upper Austral zones from 
e. Minn., s. Ont., s. Que., and N. B. s. to n. Tex., Mo., and N. C, and w. to 
w. Iowa., e. Kans., and nw. Tex.; winters regularly from s. New England 
and Ohio valley s. to the Gulf States, and n. locally to the Great Lakes and 
s. Maine. 

Washington, commoi^. R., less common in winter. Ossining, tolerably 
common S. R., Feb. 20 to W^ov. 27; a few winter. Cambridge, common S. R., 
not common W. V. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 5-Nov. 15; a few winter. 
Glen Ellyn, common S. R., .Jan. 24-Nov. 15; irregular W. V. SE. Minn., 
common S. R., Mch. 25-Oct. 15, rare W. V. 

A^e.s^ of grasses, usually arched, on the grovmd. Eggs, 4-6, white, spotted 
or speckled with cinnamon or reddish brown, 1'15 X *80. Date, Beech Haven, 
N. J., May 7; Chester Co., Pa., May 9; Cambridge, May 28; Tampico, Ills., 
May 5; se. IVJinn., May 16. 

In walking through grassy fields, meadows, or marshes, we some- 
times flush rather large, brownish birds, which, alternately flapping 
and sailing, scale away with a flight that suggests a Quail's. Their 
white outer tail-feathers show conspicuously, and, if, instead of return- 
ing to the ground, they alight on a fence or the outer branch of a tree, 
as they utter a d.zil or yerl and metallic twitter, they will nervously 
flit their tails, displaying the same white feathers. When in an exposed 



BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 363 

position they are wary and difficult to approach, but when walking 
about on the ground they trust to the long grasses for protection, and 
sometimes do not take wing until one is within a few feet of them. 
In Cuba I noticed that a Meadowlark, closely related to ours, was 
very careful to conceal its brightly colored breast, with its distinctly 
marked crescent, and, although even perching birds were not shy, they 
would invariably turn their backs upon me as I drew near. 

The Meadowlark's song is a clear, plaintive whistle of unusual 
sweetness. It is subject to much variation, both individually and 
geographically. The birds near my home at Englewood, N. J., generally 

But the songs of 



smg: 






Florida birds are so different, I hardly recognized them by their notes. 

In the fall, Meadowlarks at the north gather in flocks and resort to 
large marshes. 

1908. Chapman, F. M., Camps and Cruises, 15 (nesting). 

501c. S. m. argutiila Bangs. Southern Meadowlark. Similar to S. 
m. magna but smaller and darker. W., 4'40. 

Range. — Austroriparian and Floridian faunas from s. Ills., sw. Ind., 
and N. C., s. to the coast of se. Tex., La., and s. Fla. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 22. 

501.1. Sturnella neglecta Aud. Western Meadowlark. Ads. — ■ 
Prevailing color of upperparts grayish brown, crown with a central buffy 
stripe; back black, feathers widely margined with grayish brown; rump 
and upper tail-coverts with narrow black bars; outer tail-feathers mostly 
white; middle ones brownish gray, barred with black, the bars generally 
not connected, and as a rule reaching the margins of the feathers; line from 
the bill over the eye yellow; ear-coverts grayish white; throat yellow, this 
color reaching up on the sides of the throat and touching ear-coverts; breast 
and upper belly yellow, a black crescent on breast; sides and lower belly 
whitish, spotted or streaked with black. Ads. and Im. in winter. — Upper- 
parts more widely margined with grayish brown, those grayish brown tips 
with small, broken black bars; yellow of underparts duller, the black cres- 
cent veiled with whitish. W., 4-GO; T., 3-00; B., 1-25. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds from s. B. C, cen. Alberta, and s. Man. s. 
to s. Calif., n. Mex., and cen. Tex.; winters from s. B. C. and Iowa, s. to L. 
Calif., and Guanajuato; e. casually to Wise, s. Mich., and n. III., accidental 
in s. Mackenzie. 

SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 25-Oct. 15. 

The Western Meadowlark resembles the eastern bird in habits, 
but its markedly different song and the fact that at the junction of thoir 
ranges in the Mississippi Valley both birds may be found nesting with- 
out evidence of geographical intorgradation, have finally won for the 
western bird the rank of a species. Just what the relations of the two 
forms may be in the Rio Grande Valley, and what part SfurneUa magna 
hoopesi, of that region, plays in the problem has not yet been determined. 

The call note of ncglcdn is a chucks chuck followed by a wooden 
rolling h-r-r-r-r, analogous to but very unlike the dzU or ycrl and metallic 
twitter of magna. The song of magna is a clean-cut fifing without 
grace notes; that of neglecta is of mellow bubbling flute-notes. The 



364 BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 

flight-songs of the two birds are much alike, but, in my experience, 
negleda sings much more frequently on the wing, and, in the height of 
the mating season, sings as often in the air as from a perch. 

1890. Seton, E. T., Proc. U. S. N. M., XIII, 573-379 (biog.).— 1896. 
Belding, L., Auk, XIII, 29, 30 (songs). 

506. Icterus spurius (Linn.). Orchard Oriole. Ad. cf. — Head, 
neck, throat, and upper back black; breast, belly, lower back, and lesser 
wing-coverts chestnut; wings and tail fuscous, more or less edged or tipped 
with whitish. Ad. 9 .— Upperparts grayish olive-green, brighter on the 
head and rump; wings fuscous, middle and greater coverts tipped with whit- 
ish; tail bright olive-green; underparts dull yellow. Im. cf, fijst winter 
plumage. — Similar to the ad. 9, but with the back browner. Im. d", first nup- 
tial plumage. — Similar to the ad. 9 , but with the throat black and occasion- 
ally patches of chestnut on the underparts. L., 7'32; W., 3*18; T., 2-92; B., 
•65. 

Remarks. — The interesting changes of plumage which the Orchard Oriole 
undergoes are well illustrated by the accompanying plate (plate xxi). The 
Juvenal or nestling plumage (not shown) resembles, but is browner above 
and paler below than the first winter plumage (Fig. 6), which is acquired 
by molt of the body feathers and wing-coverts in July. The male in first 
winter plimiage is indistinguishable from the female in first winter plumage; 
and differs only slightly from the adult female in summer plumage (Fig. 5) . 
In first nuptial plumage, acquired by partial molt in spring, the male has 
the throat black, but, as a rule, is otherwise like the female (Fig. 4) . The 
amount of black in the throat varies. Sometimes it is restricted to a few 
feathers, again it spreads somewhat down the breast, and such highly devel- 
oped birds usually have traces of chestnut in the underparts (Fig. 3). 

The postnuptial (fall) molt apparently does not occur until after the 
bird has left us for the South, when it passes into winter plumage (Fig_. 2) 
which , as Dwight has said, resembles that of the adult. There is no spring 
molt and the adult chestnut and black breeding plumage (Fig. 1) is acquired 
by a wearing off of the buffy tips which fringe the winter plumage. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from N. D., nw. JMinn., Wise, Mich., 
s. Ont., cen. N. Y., and Mass. s. to n. Fla. and the Gulf coast to s. Tex., and 
in Mex. to Oaxaca and Jalisco, and w. to cen. Nebr. and w. Kans.; winters 
from s. Mex. to n. Colombia; casual n. to Vt., N. H., Maine, and N. B., 
and w. to Colo. ; occasional in s. Fla. and Cuba in spring migration. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 29- Aug. 22. Ossining, common S. R., 
May 2- Aug. 6. Cambridge, S. R., sometimes rather common. May 15- 
July. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 28-Sept. 5. Glen Ellvn, not common 
S. R., Apl. 28. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., May 10- Aug. 26. 

Nest, pensile, of grasses interwoven, near the extremity of a limb, 10-15 
feet up. Eggs, 3-5, bluish white, distinctly and obscurely spotted, blotched, 
and scrawled with fuscous or black, "79 x '58. Date, Ossining, N. Y., May 
29; St. Louis, Mo., May 14. 

Although the Orchard Oriole generally frequents apple orchards, 
he is entirely at home among the shade trees of our lawns. 

There is an air of refinement about this bird which seems to per- 
vade his whole life history. He dresses quietly but with excellent taste, 
his nest is of the choicest materials, while his song suggests the finished 
effort of a perfectly trained performer. His voice is indeed unusually 
rich and flexible, and he uses it with rare skill and expression. Words 
can not describe his song, but no lover of bird-music ^vill be long in the 
vicinity of a singing Orchard Oriole without learning the distinguished 
songster's name. 



Plate XXI 




Plumages of the Orchard Oriolk 
1. Adult main, sumnior. 
^. Adult male, winter. 
•i. Male, first nuptial phunagf!. 



4. Male, first nuiXial phirnage. 

■•>. Adult fciiiaic. 

(>. Male, first winter. 



BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 365 

507. Icterus galbula (Linn.). Baltimore Oriole. Ad. cf. — Head, 

neck, throat, and upper back black; breast, belly, lower back, and lesser 
wing-coverts deep, rich, reddish orange; wings black, the outer margin 
of the greater coverts and quills edged with white; end half of middle tail- 
feathers black, base orange; all the others orange, crossed by a black band 
in the middle. Ad. 9 . — Upperparts brownish or grayish orange, brighter on 
the rump; head and back mottled with black; wings fuscous, greater and 
middle coverts tipped with white; tail like the rump, the middle feathers 
stained with black; underparts dull orange, throat sometimes spotted with 
black. L., 7-53; W., 3-52; T., 2-84; B., -70. 

Range. — Breeds mainly in Transition and Upper Austral zones from cen. 
Alberta, cen. Sask., Man., Ont., N. B., and N. S. s. to n. Tex., cen. La., and 
n. Ga. and w. to Mont., Wyo., and Colo. e. of the Rocky Mts.; migrates 
through e. Mex. ; winters from s. Mex. to Colombia; accidental at York 
Factory, Hudson Bay, and in Cuba. 

Washington, rather common S. R., Apl. 29- Aug. 26. Ossining, common 
S. R., May 2-Sept. 1. Cambridge, very common, S. R., May 8 through 
Aug. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 15-Sept. 10. Glen Ellyn, common S. R., 
Apl. 26-Sept. 4. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 1-Sept. 1. 

Nest, pensile, of grasses, bark, plant fibers, hair, strings, etc., firmly 
interwoven, in fruit or shade trees, near the extremity of a limb 20-40 feet up. 
Eggs, 4—6, white, singularly scrawled with fine, distinct or obscure black 
or fuscous lines, and with a few spots or blotches, *94 x '63. Date, D. C, 
Mav 27; Cambridge, June 1; Martin's Ferry, Ohio, May 20; se. Minn., 
May 22. 

Sometimes Nature, as if to remind us of the richness of her stores, 
sr^nds from the tropics a gayly attired bird which seems quite out of place 
among the more soberly clad inhabitants of northern chmes. The 
genus Icterus contains nearly forty species, all more or less brightly 
dressed in orange, yellow, and black, but not one is more beautiful 
than our Baltimore Oriole. There is reason to believe that he is not 
unaware of his own charms; indeed, we may almost suspect him of 
intentionally displaying them. His splendor is not to be lost in the 
forest, and, whistling loudly, he flashes through our fruit and shade 
trees. 

He leaves to the female the task of constructing their wonderfully 
made nevSt, but he seems quite as deeply interested in the performance 
as if he were a skilled weaver himself; indeed, he would probably assist 
if he were permitted. 

Young Orioles have been well named by Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller 
the cry-babies of the bird w^orld. Their ceaseless call for food is almost 
as much a midsummer voice as the song of cicadas. Long after they 
have left the nest we may find them in the different trees about our lawn 
calling out monotonously and persistently dee-dee-dec-dee, until one of 
the parents arrives and momentarily fills their mouths. 

Bullock's Oriole {508. Icterus hullocki), a species of f)ur Western 
States, has been taken in New York and in Maine. 

509. Euphagus earolinus {Miill.). Rusty Blackbiuo. Ad. o^, hrccd- 
ing 'plumage. — Entire plumage uniform, glossy blni.sli l)lacl<; tail-feathers of 
nearly equal length. Ad. cT and Im. cf in ivintcr. — Similar, but the upper- 
parts widely tipped with rxifous or rusty, the imderparts similarly tipped 
with ochraceous- or cream-buff; a buffy line over the eye. Ad. 9 in breeding 
plumage. — Slate-color, glossy above, duller below; wings and tail darker 



366 BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC, 

and more glossy. Ad. 9 and Im. 9 in winter. — Similar, but somewhat lighter, 
the upperparts widely tipped with rufous or rusty, the underparts similarly 
tipped with ochraceous- or cream-buff. L., 9"55; W., 4'61; T., 3*52; 
B., -80. 

Range. — E. and n. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zone from the Kowak 
River, Alaska, n. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, and n. Ungava s. to s. Alaska, 
cen. Alberta, s. Keewatin, cen. Ont., N. Y., Vt., N. H., n. Maine, N. B., and 
N. S. ; winters mainly s. of the Ohio and Delaware valleys to the Gulf coast; 
w. in migration to the Plains; casual in B. C, Mont., and Colo.; accidental 
in Calif., L. Calif., and Greenland. 

Washington, common W. V., Oct. 13-Apl. 30. Ossining, common T. V., 
Mch. 26-May 8; Sept. 28-Nov. 27. Cambridge, very common T. V., Mch. 
10-May 8; Sept. 15-Oct. 31. N. Ohio, common T. V., Mch. 5-May 10; 
Sept. 10-Nov. 15. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Mch. 3-May 8; Sept. 12- 
Nov. 15; uncommon W. V. SE. Minn., common T. V., Mch. 26-Nov. 24. 

Nest, of twigs and coarse grasses lined with finer grasses, in coniferous 
trees or on the ground. Eggs, 4-7, grayish green to pale green, thickly 
blotched with light and dark brown and purple, I'OO x "76 (Chamberlain). 
Date, Wilmurt, N. Y., May 7; Kings Co., N. S., May 11. 

This bird is found during the migrations in small flocks on fresh- 
water meadows or about open, bushy swamps, feeding on the ground 
in alder thickets or along the edges of swampy woods. It resembles, 
more or less, the Red-winged Blackbird in size, flight, and notes, but 
unlike this species, with which it sometimes associates, it is compara- 
tively quiet and retiring. Only at times, in the spring, do we find the 
flocks musical centers, whence issues a confused medley of whistles, 
sweeter and higher-pitched than the best efforts of the Redwings. 
Little is known of this Blackbird in its northern home. It gathers into 
flocks early in the summer, and the most frequently heard note is a 
cluck, not in the least characteristic. Its quiet demeanor, pale yellow 
eye, and uniform color are its chief distinguishing characters in the 
field, where it may be mistaken for the Bronzed or Purple Grackle. 
The gray female is unlike the streaked female Redwing. 

J. DwiGHT, Jr. 

Brewer's Blackbird {510. Euphagus cyanocephalus) inhabits western 
North America, and is of casual occurrence as far east as Illinois and 
Louisiana, and has been once recorded from South Carolina. It may be 
distinguished from E. carolinus by its deep violet-purple head and the com- 
parative absence of rusty tips to the feathers. 

511. Quiscalus quiscula quiscula (Linn.). Purple Grackle. (Fig. 
63c.) Ad. cf. — Head, neck, throat, and upper breast all around varying 
from brilliant metallic purple to bluish green or steel-blue; back and rump 
varying from bottle-green to metallic purple or shining brassy green, the 
feathers with iridescent bars; wings and tail externally metallic purple or 
bluish black; lower breast and belly resembling the back but duller. Ad. 9. — 
Much duller than the male, but the feathers of the back generally show- 
ing at least traces of iridescence, cf L., 12-00-13-50; W., 5-66; T., 5-18; 
B., 1-18. 

Remarks. — Intermediates between this and the Bronzed Grackle are 
found whore thoir ranges adjoin, but typical quiscula always has iridescent 
bars on the feathers of the back, rump, and belly, while in ceneus these bars 
are wanting. (On relationships of this group see Chapman, Bull. Am. Mus. 
Nat. Hist., IV, 1892, 1-20.) 

Range. — Middle Atlantic coast region of the U. S. Breeds in the Car- 



BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 367 

olinian fauna from the n. shore of L. I. Sound, rarely Mass., and the middle 
Hudson Valley w. to the Alleghanies and s. to the uplands of Ga., Ala., and 
e. Tenn. ; winters mainly s. of the Delaware Valley. 

Washington, common T. V. and S. R., Feb. 20; a few winter. Ossining, 
tolerably common S. R., Feb. 15-Xov. 8. Cambridge, rare S. R. 

N'est, bulky and compact, of mud and coarse grasses lined with finer 
grasses, in colonies, generally in coniferous trees about 30 feet up, some- 
times in bushes or holes in trees. Eggs, 3-7, very variable, generally pale 
bluish or bluish green, singularly spotted, blotched, or scrawled with 
cinnamon-brown, umber, or black, but sometimes evenly speckled with 
brownish, and rarely almost solid cinnamon- or rufous-brown, 1*15 x "82. 
Date, D. C, Apl. 17; Delaware Co., Pa., Apl. 25. 

When winter gives signs of retreating, there comes from the south 
in sable array the tried advance guard of the feathered army which is 
impatiently awaiting the order to march. In close rank they come, 
phalanx after phalanx, to retake the land which winter — once conquer- 
ing, now defeated — yields to them. The air resounds with martial music; 
their harsh voices, united, rise in an inspiring chorus. 

The campaign over, they settle in colonies on their recently acquired 
possessions, and these careless rovers become so attached to their 
homes and famihes that they are rarely seen far from their vicinity. 
Sometimes we may see them walking sedately over the lawns near their 
home, their glossy plumage gleaming in the light, and their yellow eyes 
giving them a peculiar, unbirdlike expression. But when their young are 
old enough to care for themselves, the old habits return, and, leading 
their offspring into the world, they teach them the ways of wanderers. 
Meeting others of their kind, they join forces, and in the fall we find 
them in hordes ravaging the country. 

The Crackle's disposition is as gloomy as his plumage is dark. Life 
with him is a serious affair. He seems to utterly lack the Blue Jay's 
sense of humor. As a parent he is beyond reproach, and every moment 
is devoted to the care of his young, but it is all done in a joyless way. 
Eggs and nestlings form part of his fare, and I can imagine bird-mothers 
frightening their young into obedience by threatened visits from that 
ogre, the Grackle. 

1892. Chapman, F. M., Bull. A. M. N. H., 1-20 (relationships).— 1897. 
Jones, L., Wilson Bull., No. 15, 39-56 (roosts). 

511a. Q. q. agl^eus (Baird). Florida Grackle. Ad. d". — Head, 

neck, throat and upper breast all around metallic violet-purple; back an(i 
rump rich bottle green, the feathers with more or less concealed iridcscint 
bars; wings and tail externally metallic purple or bluish black; the wing- 
coverts generally with iridescent tips; lower breast and belly similar to the 
back but duller. Ad. 9. — Not distinguishable in color from the 9 of Q. q. 
quiscula, but differing in size. W., 5'38; T., 4-90; B., r25. 

Range. — S. Atlantic coast from S. C. through to Fla., and w. in the s. 
part of the Gulf States to e. Tex. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 30. 

This is a locally abundant bird, and is found in flocks throughout 
the year. In Florida it sometimes lives in the towns in which live-oaks 
grow, and it also makes its headquarters in cypress 'bays,' but ita' 



368 BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, ETC. 

favorite resort is among the cabbage palmettos, upon the berries of 
which it feeds. 

511b. Q. q. seneus Ridgw. Bronzed Grackle. Ad. d". — Head, 

neck, throat, and upper breast all around varying from brilliant metallic 
purple to bluish green or steel-blue; back metallic seal-bronze, the feathers 
without iridescent bars; wings and tail metallic purplish or bluish black; 
lower breast and belly similar to the back but duller. Ad. 9 . — Much duller, 
the back and belly brownish, sometimes without metallic reflections and 
never with iridescent bars. W., 5-62; T., 5*04; B., 1-21. 

Range. — Central and e. N. A. Breeds from Great Slave Lake, cen. Kee- 
watin, N. S., and N. F., s. to Mont., and Colo. (e. of the Rocky Mts.) s. 
to San Antonio, Tex., Gulf States, cen. La., cen. Miss., cen. Ala., W. Pa,, 
cen. N. Y., and Conn. (s. of N. Y. breeds only w. of the Alleghanies); win- 
ters mainly from the Ohio Valley s. to s. Tex.; casual in migration on the 
s. Atlantic coast. 

Washington, rare T. V., between Feb. 20 and Apl. 17. Ossining, toler- 
ably common T. V., ApL; Nov. Cambridge, abundant S. R., Mch. 10- 
Nov. 1; occasional in winter. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 1-Nov. 15; 
rarely winters. Glen Ellyn, common S. R., Mch. 5-Nov. 15. SE. Minn., 
common S. R., Mch. 18-Nov. 1; rare in winter. 

Nesting date, Cambridge, May 2; Grinnell, Iowa, May 2; se. Minn., 
Apl. 25. 

"The general habits of the Bronzed Grackle are in all respects 
identical with those of the Purple Grackle. . . . 

"From an almost equal familiarity with the two birds we are able 
to say that their notes dififer decidedly, especially those of the male 
during the breeding season, the 'song' of the western bird being very 
much louder and more musical or metaUic than that of its eastern 
relative" (Ridgway). 

513. Megaquiscalus major major (Vieill.). Boat-tailed Grackle. 
Ad. cP. — Glossy bluish black; head, throat, and breast more purplish, wings 
and tail more blackish. Ad. 9. — Much smaller, upperparts blackish brown, 
underparts soiled ochraceous-buff. <f L., 16-00; W., 7-50; T., 7-00; B., 155. 

Range. — Austroriparian fauna from Chesapeake Bay to Fla., and w. 
to the e. coast of Tex. 

Nest, bulky and compact, of grasses, seaweed, etc., with a median layer 
of mud or partially decayed vegetation, in colonies in bushes. Eggs, 3-5, 
pale bluish white, frequently tinged with vinaceous-brown, singularly 
spotted, blotched, and scrawled with purplish or blackish, 1'32 x '90. Date, 
Ft. Pierce, Fla., Mch. 20; Ft. Macon, N. C, Apl. 26; Accomac Co., Va., 
Apl. 28. 

Boat-tail Grackles are rarely if ever found far from water. Shallow 
lakes or marshy lagoons grown with aquatic plants are their favorite re- 
sorts. Here they may be seen in small groups, which usually contain more 
males than females, walking or jumping from plant to plant, sometimes 
springing into the air to catch a passing insect, or wading along the shore 
in search of food. Their usual notes are hoarse, rather forced whistles; 
more rarely they utter a singular rolling call, which bears a close resem- 
blance to the sound producd by a Coot in pattering over the water. 
The Great-tailed Grackle, the larger southern form of this species, is 
unquestionably polygamous, but it is unknown whether the Boat-tail 
has more than one mate. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 369 



52. Fairly Fringillid^. Finches, Sparrows, Etc. (Fig. 64.) 

This, the largest family of birds, contains some twelve hundred 
species and subspecies, which are represented in all parts of the world 
except the Australian region. Sparrows are plastic birds, responding 
so readily to environmental influences that probably not more than 
half the forms recognized in this family deserve standing as species, 
while the remaining half are chmatic or geographic races. They present 
wide diversity of form and habit, but generally agree in possessing stout, 
conical bills, which are admirably adapted to crush seeds. They are 
thus chief among seed-eaters, and for this reason are not so migratory as 
insect-eating species. It is only of late years that their great economic 
value as the destroyers of weed-seeds has been recognized. 

The brown, streaked Sparrows are, to a large extent, field- or plain- 
inhabiting, and their neutral colors are therefore a means of protection 
in the exposed situations they inhabit. The brighter Grosbeaks and 
Finches are more arboreal. Many species take high rank as songsters, 
and some of our favorite cage-birds belong to this family. 

The birds of this family are now generally considered to represent 
the most highly developed type of the Class Aves, and the anatomical 
reasons on which this claim is based are supported by their numerical 
abundance; thus the Order Passeres, beyond question the highest of 
avian groups, contains the greatest number of species, a distinction 
in turn shared by its 'highest' family. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Underparts with red. 
II. Underparts with no red and without distinct streaks; throat or breast 

sometimes with a patch or spot. 
III. Underparts without red and with numerous streaks. 

I. Underparts with red. 

1. Wing-coverts plainly tipped with white or whitish, or with a white or 
yellow band in the wing. 

A. No red in the upperparts. 

a. Back black, rump whitish, throat black, breast and under wing- 

coverts rosy red . . 595. Rose-breasted Grosbeak (cT ad.) 

b. Back and underparts streaked with Ijlack; tnider wiug-(;overts 

rosy red. . . . 595. Rose-bueasted Grosbeak (cf im.). 

B. With red in the upperparts. 

a. Red on upperparts confined to crown or forehead, and sometimes 

a tinge on the rump; wing under 3*25. 
a^. Rump and flanks generally without blackish streaks; feathers 
of back generally with whitish borders. 

527. Greenland Redpoll. 527a. Hoary Redpoll. 
a^. Rump and flanks always streaked; feathers of hack with 
little white, if any, and generally with brownish borders. 

528. Redpoll and races. 
a^. Back cinnamon-brown, unstreaked; crown, nape, and sides of 
neck black; a yellow band in the wing. 

European Goldfinch. 

b. Red or pink spread more or less over entire upperparts; wing over 

3-25. 



370 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

61. Tips of mandibles crossed. 

522. White-winged Crossbill (c? ad.). 

62. Bill stout; mandibles not crossed. 515. Pine Grosbeak (cT ad.). 
2. Wing-coverts not tipped wdth white. 

a. Throat black or blackish; wings and tail red; body red or olive. 

593. Cardinal. 
h. Throat and more or less of underparts red or greenish red. 

61. Plumage blood-red, brownish red, or greenish red; tips of the 

mandibles crossed 521. Am. Crossbill cf. 

62. Plumage dull reddish; belly whitish ; back indistinctly streaked, 

with bristly feathers over the nostrils. 

517. Purple Finch (d" ad.). 

63. Head blue; back green; rump red. 

601. Painted Punting (c? ad.). 
II. Underparts with no red and without distinct streaks; throat oc 
breast sometimes with a patch or spot. 

1. Tail with white spots, bars, or patches. 
A. Back plain, without streaks. 

a. Throat and breast black, brown, or slate-color, sharply defined 
from the white belly. 
a}. Breast black or brown; sides rufous . . . 587. Towhee. 
o?-. Breast slate-color; sides the same, or brownish. 

567. JuNCO. 567e. Carolina Junco. 
6. Throat and breast not black or brown. 

61. Throat and belly more or less yellow or ashy. 

62. Wing over 4" 00; bill stout, greenish yellow. 

514. Evening Grosbeak. 

63. Bill small and sharp; back brown; throat yellowish. 

529. Goldfinch (? and im.). 
6^. Body bright yellow, cap black . 529. Goldfinch (cf ad.). 
c^. Underparts pure white, middle of back black. 

534. Snowflake. 
. B. Back streaked with black, brown, or white. 
a. Bend of the wing yellow; tail under 2 '20. 

546. Grasshopper Sparrow. 
6. Breast black or blackish; lesser wing-coverts reddish brown. 

539. McCown's Longspur c?. 
c. Breast buffy; belly whitish; outer tail-feathers white, next three 
or four more or less white with a black band at the end; seconda- 
ries not entirely white . . . 539. McCown's^ Longspur $. 
d,. Underparts entirely light brown or buffy, only two outer tail- 
feathers white; no yellow on the bend of the wing. 

537. Smith's Longspur. 

e. Underparts pure white, with a blackish spot on the center of the 

breast, a black stripe on the sides of the throat; sides of the 

crown and ear-coverts chestnut . . 552. Lark Sparrow. 

/. Wing slightly over 4*00; underparts pure white or washed with 

rusty; head and rump white or rusty; most of secondaries white. 

534. Snowflake. 

2. Tail without large white spots or patches. 
A. Back plain, without distinct streaks. 

a. Back blue, bluish or brownish blue. 

. ai. Wing over 3'00; lesser wing-coverts chestnut or with broad 

chestnut tips 597. Blue Grosbeak. 

a?. Wing under 3*00; lesser wing-coverts blue or bluish, tipped 

with light brown 598. Indigo Bunting. 

6. Back not blue. 

61. Back green or greenish, or rump yellow or greenish yellow. 
62. Mandibles not crossed. 

63. Back greenish 001. Painted Bunting 9. 



I 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 371 

b*. Back and underparts slaty gray; bill black. 

515. Pine Grosbeak (? andim.). 
b^. Forehead, rump, underparts, and scapulars yellow or 
brownish yeUow; secondaries white; bill yellow. 

514. Evening Grosbeak d". 
c2. Mandibles crossed. 

c^. Wing-bars white . . 522, White-winged Crossbill. 
c*. Without white wing-bars . . . 521. Am. Crossbill. 
d. Back brown or brownish, ashy, or slate-color. 

c^. Head and rump yellowish or reddish; wing-bars white; wing 

over 4"00 515. Pine Grosbeak (9 andim.). 

c^. Underparts brownish cream-buff; wing-coverts with broad 
chestnut tips; wing over 3"00 . . 597. Blue Grosbeak 9. 
c*. Underparts whitish; wing without yellow and under 3*00. 

598. Indigo Bunting 9. 
c^. Back ashy; spot before the eye and on bend of wing yellow. 

550. Seaside Sparrow. 
B. Back distinctly streaked. 

a. Bend of the wing yellow. 
a\ TaU over 2*20. 

a\ A white throat-patch; breast gray; a yellowish line over 

the eye 558. White-throated Sparrow. 

a^. A black spot on the throat; breast yellow, or both. 

604. DiCKCISSEL. 

a*. No yellow over the eye; breast ashy or buffy; outer tail- 
feathers much the shortest. 

575. Pine-woods Sparrow. 575a. Bachman's Sparrow. 
b^. Tail under 2*20, the feathers narrow and sharply pointed. 

62. Crown olive-brown, a blue-gray line through its center; 

cheeks and breast ochraceous-buff. 

549a. Nelson's Sparrow. 

63. Crown blackish, a cream-buff line through its center. 

54G. Grasshopper Sparrow. 

b. Bend of the wing not yellow. 

b^. Crown bright reddish brown, the feathers sometimes tipped 
with ashy or brownish, but without black streaks. 
fe2. No white or whitish wing-bars; outer tail-feathers much 
shorter than middle one; lesser wing-coverts, upper tail- 
coverts, and margins of most of the tail-feathers rufous; 

wing under 2"50 584. Swamp Sparrow. 

63. Cheeks and throat ashy, a narrow reddish brown line from 
back of the eye to the nape, an indistinct black spot in the 

center of the breast 559. Tree Sparrow. 

b*. Eye-ring whitish, entire bill brownish flesh-color. 

5G3. Field Sparrow. 
66. Rump slaty gray; underparts generally all grayish white; 
forehead black, with a narrow grayish line in its middle, a 
narrow black line from back of the eye to the nape. 

500. Chippin(J Spauuow. 
c^. Crown not bright reddish l)rown. 

c2. Crown streak(>d or spotted with black or black and white. 
c3. Crown with chestnut streaks, and somctimr's a slight 
ashy lino through its center; no white or whitish wing- 
bars; outer tail-feathers much shorter than middle ones. 
51S4. Swamp Spauuow (Im.). 
c*. Crown with reddish brown; rump ashy; winK-l)ars huffy; 
middle tail-feathers shortest. 5G0. Chippin(; SpAUUowdm.). 
c^. Center of crown white; the sides black; wing-bars white. 

554. White-crowned Spauuow. 
(fi. Crown grayish; mandibles crossed . 521. Am. Crossbill. 



372 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

d^. Crown mixed grayish brown and rufous, ashy, or slate-color, 
without black streaks. 

(p. Wing 2*50; bill brownish flesh-color; back rufous, streaked 
with black 563. Field Spaerow. 

d^. Wing 3 '00; center of crown grayish brown, bordered by 
chestnut-rufous; back grayish brown, spotted with olive- 
brown 554. White-crowned Sparrow. 

d^. Crown slate-color; a chestnut patch behind the eye; throat 
black English Sparrow d". 

d^. Crown entirely dull brown; lesser wing-coverts broadly 
tipped with buffy English Sparrow 9. 

in. Underparts without red and with streaks. 

1. Tail-feathers without white or yellow spots or patches. 

A. Outer tail-feathers little if any shorter than the middle pair. 
a. Head of the same general color as the back. 

ai. No yellow over the eye or on the bend of the wing or under 
wing-coverts. 
a2. Rump yellowish or yellowish green; mandibles crossed. 
a^. Wing-coverts tipped with white. 

522. White-winged Crossbill 9. 
a^. Wing-coverts not tipped with white. 

521. Red Crossbill 9. 
62. Rump brownish or sandy or rufous; mandibles not crossed. 
b^. Back pale brownish ashy, streaked with brownish; a whitish 
streak over the eye ; legs flesh-color ; first primary as long as 
or longer than the second . . 541. Ipswich Sparrow. 
6*. Back and most of underparts streaked with black and red- 
dish brown; upper and under tail-coverts streaked; first 
primary shorter than second; outer tail-feathers shorter 

than middle ones 581. Song Sparrow. 

&5. Back distinctly streaked; a cream-buff band across the 

breast 583. Lincoln's Sparrow. 

b^. Back grayish brown, the feathers with or without distinct 
streaks; first primary nearly as long as or longer than 
second; outer tail-feathers longer than middle pair; legs 
and feet blackish; with bristly feathers over the nostrils. 

517. Purple Finch 9. 
6^. Back without streaks; no bristly feathers over the nostrils. 

598. Indigo Bunting 9. 
b^. Upper tail-feathers and tail bright reddish brown, with- 
out black streaks; rump brighter; wing about 3 '50. 

585. Fox Sparrow. 
¥. Cheeks buffy, bill pinkish; breast with a band of black- 
ish blotches 553. Harris's Sparrow Im. 

fei. A yellow mark before the eye, or on the bend of the wing, or 

under wing-coverts yellow. 
■ b"^. Wing about 4*00; under wing-coverts deep yellow. 
X 595. Rose-breasted Grosbeak 9. 

b^. Wing generally under 2"90; feathers of the crown black, 
bordered by chestnut-brown; a buffy line through the center 

of crown 542a. Savannah Sparrow. 

b*. Wing generally over 2'90; feathers of crown with small black 
centers bordered with cinnamon-brown and pale brownish 

gray 541. Ipswich Sparrow. 

¥. Wing about 3*00 ; breast washed with yellow. 

604. DiCKCISSBL. 

b^. Wing about 3 '00; sides brownish; throat white, quite different 
from the grayish breast. 

558. White-throated Sparrow. 



I 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 373 

b. Head not the same color as the back, 
fei. A bright red crown-cap. 

b^. Rump and flanks always heaAoly streaked with blackish. 

528. Redpoll and races. 
h^. Rump white, generally without streaks; flanks lightly 
streaked; more or less white in the feathers of the back. 

527. Greenland Redpoll. 527a. Hoary Redpoll. 
ci. Crown-cap black 553. Harris's Sparrow. Ad. 

B. Tail-feathers narrow and generally sharply pointed, the outer ones 
always much shorter than the middle pair. 

a. Crown of a different color from the back, or a buffy line over the 

eye. 

ai. Center of crown with a more or less distinct brownish or buffy 

line. 

a^. Nape dull, pale olive-green, of the same color as the line over 

the eye, but finely streaked with black; back rufous-brown, 

streaked with black .... 547. Henslow's Sparrow. 

a'. Nape bright rufous-brown, the feathers bordered by gray; 

the feathers of the back black, bordered by buffy whitish. 

548. Leconte's Sparrow. 
b^. Center of crown with a naore or less distinct stripe of ashy blue. 
62. Breast and sides distinctly streaked with black or blaclsish. 

549. Sharp-tailed Sparrow. 
6'. Breast and sides buffy or brownish, the former generally 
without distinct black streaks. 

549a. Nelson's Sharp-tailed Sparrow. 
5496. Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow. 

b. Crown of the same color as the back; no buff"y line over the eye. 
a. A yellow spot before the eye and on the bend of wing. 

ai. Upperparts very dark brown or black; the feathers edged 

with olive-gray or ashy, breast generally with black streaks. 

(Florida.) . . 550a. Scott's Seaside Sparrow and races. 

551. Dusky Seaside Sparrow. 

a^. Back olive-gray; breast with grayish brown streaks. 

550. Seaside Sparrow. 
6. No yellow before the eye. 

61. Bend of wing yellow. 

575. Pine-woods Sparrow. 575a. Bachman's Sparrow. 

62. A broad cream-buff band across the breast. 

583. Lincoln's Sparrow. 

6'. No cream-buff band on the breast; streaks on the l^renst 

tending to form a spot in its middle . 581. Song SparroWi 

Tail with white patches or base of tail yellow. 

A. Base of the tail yellow 533. Pine Siskin. 

B. Outer tail-feathers with white patches. 

a. Hind toe-nail shorter than the bill from the nostril. 

ai. Lesser wing-coverts rufous; breast streaked with l^lack. 

540. Vesper Sparrow. 
a2. Sides of crown and ear-coverts chestnut; a black spot on the 

center of the breast 552. Lark Sparrow. 

6. Hind toe-nail longer than bill from nostril. 

6^ Underparts cream-buff; two outer tail-feathers mo.stly white. 

537. Smith's Longspur. 

6^. Underparts whitish; breast streaked or spotted with black or 

entirely black; second outer tail-feather with but little white. 

536. Lapland Longspur. 



374 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 



A Field Key to the 

Adult Male Finches and Sparrows of the Middle States 

(Virginia to Massachusetts) in Breeding Plumage 

I. Breast with more or less yellow. 
II. Breast blue. 

III. Breast or throat red. 

IV. Breast without either yellow, blue, or red. 
I. Breast with more or less yellow. 

A. Chin white, throat black; haunts grassy fields; song an unmusical 

effort of six or seven notes delivered with great earnestness from a 
low perch (rare east of the AUeghanies) .... 604. Dickcissel. 

B. Underparts and breast pure yellow, crown and wings black; song a 

sweet canarylike warble; flight undulating, frequently accompanied 
by the notes chlc-o-ree, per-chlc-o-ree .... 529. Goldfinch. 
n. Breast blue. 

A. Length over 6*00; plumage deep blue, a chestnut bar across the wings 

(not found north of Virginia) .... 597. Blue Grosbeak. 

B. Length under 6*00; plumage indigo-blue; haunts woody fields, scrub 

or second growth; song clear and musical, generally delivered from a 

tree-top 598. Indigo Bunting. 

in. Breast or throat red. 

1. Length over 7'00. 

A. Length 8"00; throat and region about the base of the bill black, rest 

of the plumage bright vermilion-red; head with a conspicuous 
crest; song a rich, musical whistle; call -note an insignificant cheep; 
haunts thickets and bushy woodland (rare north of New York 
City) 593. Cardinal. 

B. Length 7"50; breast rose-red; belly, tip of the tail, rump, and a band 

in the wings white; rest of the plumage black; haunts wooded 
growths; song loud, clear, and highly musical; call-note a metallic 
peek 595. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 

2. Length under 7-00. 

A. Length under 6"50; plumage more or less heavily washed with dull 

reddish; haunts orchards and wooded growths; song a liquid warble; 
call-note a metallic chink, frequently uttered while on the wing. 

517. Purple Finch. 

B. Length about 6'00; plumage dull blood-red; mandibles crossed at 

the tips; generally found in small flocks in coniferous woods; utters 
a clicking or whistled note when on the wing (rarely found south of 
New England after May 1) 521. Am. Crossbill. 

C. Breast white, tinged with brown; region about the bill red, a yellow 

band in the wings (vicinity of New York City). 

European Goldfinch. 
IV. Breast without exther yellow, blue, or red. 
1. Underparts distinctly streaked or spotted. 

A. Outer tail-feathers white, showing conspicuously when the bird 

flies; haunts dry fields and roadsides; song loud and musical.. 

540. Vesper Sparrow. 

B. Outer tail-feathers not white. 

a. Song loud and musical; an abundant and familiar bird of gen- 
eral distribution; spots on the breast tending to form one larger 
spot in the center; crown umber, a whitish line over the eye. 

581. Song Sparrow. 

6. Song not loud and musical; short and generallj' unattractive- 
haunts wet meadows or marshes; passes most of the time on the 
ground, rarely perching far from it, and when flushed generally 
returning to it. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 375 

b^. A buffy line over the eye and at the side of the throat, breast 
generally washed with buffy; haunts only salt marshes (rarely 
found far from the \dcinity of the seashore). 

549. Sharp-tailed Sparrow. 
&2. No buff on the sides of the head or breast; upperparts black- 
ish; song tsip-tsip-tsip'se-e-e-s'r-r-r; rarely breeds south of 
New York City; haunts both salt- and fresh-water marshes. 

542a. Savannah Sparrow. 
6*. Back reddish, head and neck buffy olive; haunts generally 
wet pastures; song an inconspicuous see-wick (rather rare, 
living in small colonies of local distribution). 

547. Henslow's Sparrow, 
2. Underparts not distinctly streaked or spotted. 

A. Underparts not white or whitish, all one color. 

a. Throat pure white, sharply defined from the grayish breast, a 
yellow spot over the eye; crown black, with a central stripe of 
white; haunts thickets or bushy woodlands; song a high, clear, 
musical whistle; call-note a sharp chink. 

558. White-throated Sparrow. 

h. Throat not white. 

a. Throat and breast black. 

ai. Sides of the throat and belly white, crown ash, sides of the 
head chestnut House Sparrow. 

a^. Length 8'00; sides of the body light rufous, outer tail-feathers 
tipped with white; haunts thickets and bushy woodlands; 
call-note a vigorous towhee or chce-wink . . 587. Towhee. 

b. Throat and breast slate-color, like the back; belly and outer tail- 

feathers white; bill flesh-color (nests, in the Middle States, only 
on the higher parts of the Alleghanies) . . . 567. JuNCO. 

B. Underparts wliite or whitish, practically all one color. 

a. Haunts wet marshes. 

ai. Haunts always salt marshes, generally near the sea; back 
grayish 550. Seaside Sparrow. 

a^. Haunts both salt- and fresh-water marshes; back brown, 
streaked with black; cap and wings chestnut; song a loud, 
sharp, rapidly repeated weet-weet-weet, etc. 

584. Swamp Sparrow. 

b. Haunts dr.y fields, pastures, roadsides, lawns, thickets, etc. 

b^. Outer tail-feathers white, middle of the breast with a small 
black spot (not found east of the Alleghanies). 

552. Lark Sparrow. 
c^. Outer tail-feathers not white. 

c^. Upperparts reddish brown, bill pinkish flesh-color; haunts 
bushy fields and pastures; song a musical, plaintive, cher- 
wee, cher-wee, cher-wee, cheeo-dee-dee-dee-dee-dee. 

563. Field Sparrow. 
c'. Bill dark brown, a buffy line through the center of the 
ground; song an insect-like pit-tiik, zee-zee-zee-zee-zee. 

546. Gr.\sshopper Sparrow. 

c*. Back streaked with black, cap chestnut, a white line over the 

eye, bill black; song a monotonous chippy-chippij-chippu, etc. 

560. Chippinc; Si'vuiunv. 
d>. Larger, length about 7*00; crown black, with a white central 
stripe; throat not noticeably different from the breast; no yel- 
low over the eye (rare; nests north of New England). 

554. White-crowned Sparrow. 

514. Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina {W. Coop.). Evenino 
Grosbeak. Ad. d". — Forehead yellow, crown black; upperparts olive- 
brown, becoming dull yellow on rump ; belly and scapulars yellow, wings and 



376 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

tail black; end half of the secondaries and their coverts white. Ad. Q. — 
Brownish gray, lighter on the underparts more or less tinged with yellow, 
especially on the nape; wings black, inner primaries white at the base, 
secondaries edged with white; tail b]?ack, the feathers tipped with white on 
the inner web; upper tail-coverts black tipped with white. Ads. and Im. 
in winter. — Similar to ads. in sumnaer. L., 8-00; W., 4-50; T., 3-50; B., -72. 

Range. — Cen. N. Am. Breeds in w. Alberta; winters in the interior of 
N. A. s. of the Sask. and e. of the Rocky Mts. and more or less irregularly 
s. to Mo., Ky., and Ohio, and e. to e. Pa., N. Y., n. N. J., New England, 
and Que. 

Glen Ellyn, one record, Dec. 11, 1889. SE. Minn., common W. V., 
Oct. 17-May 19. 

Nest, known from but few specimens, composed of small twigs, lined with 
bark, hair, or rootlets, placed within twenty feet of the ground. Eggs, 3-4, 
greenish, blotched with pale brown (see Davie). Date, Springerville, Ariz., 
June 5 {H. v. montana); Las Vigas, Vera Cruz, alt. 8,000 ft., Apl. 30, young 
on wing {H. v. mexicana). 

This distinguished inhabitant of the far Northwest is a common 
winter visitant in Manitoba and the contiguous parts of the bordering 
states. At irregular intervals it invades the northern Mississippi 
Valley in numbers, while still more rarely it extends its wanderings 
to the North Atlantic States. It travels in flocks of from six or eight 
to sixty individuals which by their tameness show their ignorance of 
man and his ways. They feed largely on the buds or seeds of trees — 
maple, elder, and box elder. Their notes are described by different 
observers as a shrill "cheepy-teet,'' and a "frog-like peep," while one 
writer remarks that "the males have a single metallic cry like the note 
of a trumpet, and the females a loud chattering hke the large Cherry 
Birds {Ampelis garrulus)." Their song is given as a wandering, 
jerky warble, beginning low, suddenly increasing in power, and as sud- 
denly ceasing, as though the singer were out of breath. 

During the winter and early spring of 1890 there was a phenomenal 
incursion of Evening Grosbeaks into the Northern States, accounts of 
which, by Amos W. Butler, will be found in The Auk, 1892, pp. 238-247; 
1893, pp. 155-157. In the winter of 1910-11 the birds again appeared 
in large numbers. Records of their occurrence will be found in The 
Auk and Bird-Lore for 1911. 

1910. Roberts, T. S., Bull. Minn. Acad. Sci., IV, 406-414 (habits in 
Minn.).— 1901. Birtwell, F. J., Auk, XVIII, 388-391 (nesting). 

515. Pinicola enucleator leucura {Mull.). Pine Grosbeak. (Fig. 
64a.) Ad. cT. — Slaty gray, more or less strongly washed with rose-red, 
strongest on the crown, rump, upper tail-coverts, and breast; wings fuscous, 
their coverts edged with white ; tail fuscous. This plumage is acquired at the 
first postnuptial molt. Ad. 9. — Slaty gray, crown, upper tail-coverts, and 
breast more or less strongly washed with olive-yellow; wings and taU as in 
the (f. Im. — Resembles the 9, but is somewhat brighter. L., 9'08; W., 4*36; 
T., 3-67; B., -54. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal forests from nw. Mackenzie (Great 
Bear Lake), cen. Keewatin, and n. Ungava to the White Mts. of N. H., 
Maine, cen. N. B., s. N. S., and Cape Breton Is.; winters s. to Iowa, Ind,, 
Pa., n. N. J., and casually to D. C. and Ky.; w. to Man., Minn., and e. 
Kans. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 



377 



Washington, casual in winter. Ossining, irregular W. V., Dec. 18-Apl. 
12. Cambridge, irregular W. V., frequently common, sometimes abundant, 
Nov. l-Mch. 25. N. Ohio, occasional W. V. Glen EUyn, uncommon and 
irregular W. V., Oct. 25-? SE. Minn., uncommon W. V. 

Xest, of twigs and rootlets lined \^'ith finer materials, in coniferous trees a 
few feet up. Eggs, "pale greenish blue, spotted and blotched -wdth dark 
brown surface markings and lilac shell-spots, 1*05 x '74." Date, Bangor, 
Maine, June 5. 

The Pine Grosbeak, like the Spruce Partridge and Canada Jay, may 
be said to find its true home in the coniferous forest or Canadian belt, 
which crosses the continent diagonally from Maine to Alaska. 

Like many of its congeners in this inhospitable region, it nests so 
early in the springtime that the winter's frost and snow are still domi- 
nant among the evergreens when the eggs come to claim the attention 
of the pair. 

Its habits at this season are but little known ; but in midwinter, when 
it comes southward in search of food, it is a well-known frequenter, in 
flocks, of plantations of mountain-ash trees, or groups of sumach bushes, 
whose unfallen berries provide it with a bountiful supply of nourishing 
diet. 

Its form has a general resemblance to that of the common Robin, 
but its very short, thick beak and its forked tail are striking differences. 
It is rather slow and inactive when in a tree, and when on the wing 
it has a loud whistle which is very characteristic and during the spring- 
time has a prolonged and melodious song. At all times its colors, aa 
above described, should distinguish the bird at a very considerable 
distance. Ernest Thompson Seton. 

1895. Brewster, Wm., Auk, XII, 245-256 (remarkable flight of). 



517. Carpodacus purpureus purpureas (Gmel.). Purple Finch. 
Ad. cf . — Body streaked, suffused with ros('-rf;d, strongest on the head, rump, 
and breast, more brownish on the back; whitc^r, generally white, on the belly; 
wings and tail brownish fuscous, the outer wcl)s of the feathers finely edged 
with rose-red; a small tuft of bristly feathers over the nostrils; outer tail- 
feathers longest. This plumage is acquired at the first postnuptial molt. 
Ad. 9. — Very different, sparrowlike in appearance; upperparts dark grayish 
brown, finely streaked with black; wings and tail dark grayish brown; under- 
parts white, streaked, or with wedge- 
shaped spots of fuscous. A whitish super- 
ciliary line. Im. d". — Similar to adult 
female. L., 6-22; W., 3-24; T., 2-29; 
B., -45. 

Remarks. — Females and young males 
bear a decided reseniblancc to .sonic Spar- 
rows, but the rounded i)ill, tufts of feathers 
oyer the nostrils, and forked tail are dis- 
tinguishing characters. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Cana- 
dian and Transition zones from ccn. B. 
C, ne. Alberta, n. Ont. (Moose Factory), 
cen. Que. (Gaspe Basin), and N. F. to s. 
Alberta, N. D. (Turtle Mts.), cen. Minn., 

n. Ills., Pa. (mts.), n. N. J., and L. I.; pio. 100. Purple Finch 

winters from considerably n. of the south- (Natural size.) 








378 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

ern boundary of its breeding range to the Gulf coast from Tex. to Fla.; 
casual in Colo. 

Washington, common W. V., Sept. 12-May 26, largely a migrant. 
Ossining, rare P. R,., common T. V. Cambridge, P. R., common from Apl. 
to Oct.; irregular, but sometimes abundant, in winter. N. Ohio, common 
W. v., Sept. 1-May 20. Glen Ellyn, fairly common T. V., Mch. 8-May 15; 
Aug. 25-Nov. 2. SE. Minn., common T. V., Mch.-ApL, Sept.-Oct., uncom- 
mon W. V. 

Nest, of twigs, grasses, and rootlets, thickly lined with long hairs, in 
coniferous trees, 5-30 feet up. Eggs, 4-6, blue, spotted about the larger 
end with fuscous, '79 x "56. Date, Cambridge, May 25; Holland Patent, 
N. Y., May 15. 

During the nesting season the Purple Finch frequently takes up 
its abode in private grounds, even becoming a familiar garden bird, 
while others of its race find a congenial home in wild mountain forests, 
far away from the society of man. The rosy plumage of the males 
makes it attractively noticeable as a garden bird; but a serious offense 
must be charged against it — it has far too ready a taste for the blos- 
soms of fruit trees, and is, perhaps, the most confirmed bud-eater of 
all our birds. It has naturally a roving disposition, and, in the autumn 
especially, seems ever to be impelled by some restless impulse. At this 
season it may often be seen descending with airy, sweeping flight into 
some leafless treetop, as if from a far aerial journey, its identity made 
known by its very characteristic utterance, a short, rather dull-sound- 
ing note, scarcely metallic — the metal pressed the instant the bell is 
struck. 

Although the Purple Finch often essays to sing in the autumn and 
earliest spring, its full powers of voice belong alone to the nuptial 
season. Then it easily takes its place among our noteworthy song 
birds. Its full song is a sweet-toned, carelessly flowing warble — not 
too brief to miss definite character as a song, and positive enough in 
modulation and delivery to find ready place in the memory. At times, 
indeed, its singing is of a character not to be easily forgotten. The 
song bursts forth as if from some uncontrollable stress of gladness, 
and is repeated uninterruptedly over and over again, while the ecstatic 
bird rises high into the air, and, still singing, descends into the trees. 

Eugene P. Bicknell. 

Passer domesticus domesticus (Linn.). House or English Spakrow. 
Ad. d'. — Crown gray, bordered from the eye backward and on the nape by 
chestnut; lesser wing-coverts chestnut, middle coverts tipped with white; 
back streaked with black and chestnut; rump ashy; middle of the throat and 
breast black; sides of the throat white; belly whitish. Ad. 9. — Head and 
rump grayish brown; back streaked with black and deep ochraceous-buff; 
underparts dirty whitish, the breast and sides washed with pale grayish 
brown. L., 6\3.3; W., 3-01; T., 2*30; B., '48. 

Range. — "Nearly the whole of Europe, but replaced in Italy by P. italics, 
extending eastward to Persia and Central Asia, India, and Ceylon" (Sharpe). 
Introduced and naturalized in America, Australia, New Zealand, etc. 

Nest, of any available material in any available place. Eggs, 4-7, varying 
from plain white to almost uniform olive-brown, generally white, fiiiely 
and evenly marked with olive, I'Se x "62. Date, D. C, Mch, 1, 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 379 

This pest was first introduced into the United States at Brooklyn, 
New York, in 1851 and 1852. As late as 1870 it was largely confined to 
the cities of the Atlantic States, but since that date, partly through 
man's agency and partly through the bird's rapid increase in numbers 
and its adaptability, it has spread over most of the United States and 
Canada. Its harsh insistent, incessant chir-p is now the dominant bird 
voice about our homes, where we may never again hope to hear a chorus 
of native bird music un marred by the discordant chatter of this ahen. 

1889. Barrows, W. B., Bull. Xo. 1, Biological Survey, 1-105 (economic 
Status).— 1909. TowNSEXD, C. W., Auk, XXVI, 13-19 (habits). 

The European Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) has become natural- 
ized about St. Louis, Missouri. 

521. Loxia curvirostra minor (Brehm). Am. Crossbill. (Fig. 64c?,) 
Ad. d". — Tips of the mandibles crossed; body dull red, brighter on the rump, 
browner on the back; wings and tail fuscous. This plumage is acquired 
at the first postnuptial molt. Ad. g . — Dull olive-green, yellower on the rump, 
indistinctly mottled with blackish on the head and back, mixed with whitish 
on the underparts. Im. d- — Similar to the 9, but mixed with red and 
green. L., 6-19; W., 3-40; T., 2-13; B., -66. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds from cen. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, cen. Ungava, 
and N. F. s. to Calif. (Sierra Nevada and San Bernardino Mts.), s. Colo., 
Mich., and in the Alleghanies of n. Ga. (casually in Mass., Md., and Va.); 
winters irregularly s. to s. Calif., N. M., n. Tex., La., and Fla. 

Washington, irregular W. V., sometimes abundant. Ossining, irregular; 
noted in almost every month. Cambridge, of common but irregular occur- 
rence at all seasons. N. Ohio, irregular, often common, sometimes breeds. 
Glen Ellyn, uncommon and irregular, Oct. 20- June 11. SE. Minn., W. V., 
Oct. 25. 

Nest, of twigs and grasses, lined with bits of moss and rootlets, in conifer- 
ous trees, 15-30 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, "pale greenish, spotted and dotted about 
the larger end with various shades of brown anci lavender shell-markings, 
1*75 X "57." Date, Morehouseville, N. Y., Mch. 30. 

These parrotUke Finches are famous for their erratic wanderings. 
They seem to have no regard for the laws of migration which regulate 
the journeys of most birds, and, having no home ties, may linger in 
regions which offer them abundant fare without much regard to season. 
They nest early in the spring, sometimes when they are far south of 
their breeding range, but they seem quite unconcerned by their unusual 
surroundings, and their young are born and raised in a foreign land. 
Coniferous forests form their natural surroundings, and their bills 
are especially adapted to aid them in forcing off the scales from the 
cones of these trees to obtain the seed within. 

They hve in flocks, and when in the trees climb about like Parrots, 
sometimes exhibiting as little fear of man as Polly on hor pedestal. When 
feeding, they have a short, whistled call-note; they take wing in a body, 
and their undulating flight is accompanied by a sharp clicking or whistled 
note. Their song is described as "varied and pleasing, but not powerful 
or in any respect remarkable." 

522. Loxia leucoptera Gmel. White-winged Crossbill. Ad. cf. — ■ 
Tips of the mandibles crossed; body dull pink, brighter on the rump, more 



380 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

or less marked with black on the back; belly whitish; wings and tail black, 
the greater and middle wing-coverts, and sometimes tertials, tipped with 
white. This plumage is assumed at the first postnuptial molt. Ad. 9 . — Dull 
olive-green, yellow on the rump, grayer on the underparts, mottled with 
blackish on the head and back; wings and tail as in the d'. Im. cf . — Similar 
to 9, but plumage often with more or less pink. L., 6'05; W., 3'27; T., 2*41; 
B., -62. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zones s. to s. B. C, s. Alberta, 
cen. Ont., N. Y. (Adirondacks), N. H. (White Mts.), s. Maine, and s. 
N. S.; winters in much of its breeding area and s. irregularly to n. Ore. 
(Cascades), Nev., Colo., Kans., s. Ills., s. Ohio and N. C. 

Washington, casual. Ossining, rare T. V., Oct. 29-Dec. 6. Cambridge, 
irregular W. V. N. Ohio, rare W. V. Glen Ellyn, rare, fall records only, 
Nov. SE. Minn., W. V., latest record Mch. 4. 

Nest, of twigs and strips of birch bark, covered exteriorly with moss 
( Usnea), and lined with soft moss and hair, on the fork of an evergreen in 
deep forests. Eggs, 3 (?), pale blue, spotted and streaked near larger end 
with reddish brown and lilac, '80 x '55 (Chamberlain). Date, Wolfeville, 
N. S., Feb. 6 (Thayer Coll.). 

Goss writes that in general habits these birds resemble the American 
Crossbill. Their flight is swift and undulating. While feeding and mov- 
ing about they are quite noisy, almost constantly uttering a plaintive 
wheep or cheeping note. Their song is low, soft, and sweet, much like 
that of the American Goldfinch. 

527. Acanthis hornemanni hornexnanni (Holb.). Greenland 
Redpoll. Similar to the next, but "larger (length about 5'50-6"50), with 
proportionally thicker and less acute bill, cf W., 3"37; T., 2*75; exposed 
culmen, '35; depth of B. at base, •31." 

Range. — Arctic Am. and Europe. Breeds in Greenland n. to 70° and 
in Iceland; winters in its breeding area and s. to Ungava; casual at Ft. 
Churchill, Hudson Bay, and Gait, Ont. 

527a. A. h. exilipes (Coues). Hoary Redpoll. Ad. (f. — Bill very 
sharply pointed, a small tuft of bristly feathers over the nostrils; crown-cap 
bright red; back dark grayish brown, the feathers more or less margined with 
white; rump white, generally unstreaked, and tinged with pink; wings and 
tail brownish fuscous, the feathers all more or less edged with white; middle 
of the throat blackish, breast tinged with pink, belly white, a few streaks on 
the side. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with no pink on the rump or breast. Im. — 
Similar to the 9, but without the red crown-cap. L., 5-00; W., 3-00; T., 2-30; 
B., -30. 

Remarks. — This species is to be distinguished from Acanthis linaria and 
its races by the greater amount of white in its plumage, its unstreaked rump, 
and comparatively unstreaked underparts. 

Range. — Arctic Am. and ne. Asia. Breeds from w. Alaska to Ungava, 
and on Chukche Peninsula, ne. Asia; winters occasionally s. to B. C, Mont., 
n. Minn., Mich., Ills., Ont., Maine, and Mass. 

Cambridge, rare W. V. 

Nest, of grass and twigs lined with feathers, in a low tree or on the 
ground. Eggs, 3-5, white, tinged with blue or green, spotted with reddish 
brown, '65 x '50 (Chamberlain). Date, Ft. Chimo, Lab., May 19. 

528. Acanthis linaria linaria (Linn.). Redpoll. Ad. d'. — Bill very 
sharply pointed, a small tuft of })ristly feathers over the nostrils ; crown-cap 
bright red; back fuscous grayish lirown, the feathers margined with ochra- 
ceous-buff ; rump tinged with pink; wings and tail fuscous, the feathers more 
or less edged with whitish ; chin and upper throat blackish, breast suffused 



Plate XXII 




Redpoll 



Pine Siskin 



Tree Sparrow 
Snow Bunting 




FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 381 

with pink, belly white, sides streaked with fuscous. This plumage is ac- 
quired at the first postnuptial molt. Ad. 9. — Similar, but without pink on 
the rump or breast, the sides more heavily streaked. Im. — Similar to the 9, 
but without a red crown-cap. L., 5-32; W., 2-80; T., 2-32; B., -36; depth 
of B. at base, '22. 

Range. — N. parts of N. Hemisphere. Breeds 
in N. A. in Boreal zones from nw. Alaska, n. 
Mackenzie, and n. Ungava s. to n. Alberta, cen. 
Keewatin, and islands of Gulf of St. Lawrence; 
winters in more n. parts of U. S., irregularly s. to 
Lassen Co., Calif., se. Ore., Colo., Kans., Ind., 
Ohio and Va.; casual in Ala. and Bermuda. 

Washington, very rare and irregular W. V. 
Ossining, irregular W. V., Nov. 2o-A'Ich. 26. 
Cambridge, irregular W. V., often very abun- 
dant, Oct. 25-Apl. 10. N. Ohio, rare W. V. 
Glen Ellyn, irregular W. V., Nov. 6-Mch. 7. 
SE. Minn, common W. V., Oct. .31-Apl. 7. Fig. 101. Redpoll. (Natura 

Nest, of dry grass and moss Imed w^th hair, size.) 

feathers, or plant down, in a low tree or tuft of 

grass. Eggs, 4-6, white, tinged with green or blue, spotted ^ath reddish 
brown, '65 x *50 (Chamberlain). Date, St. Michael's, Alaska, June 6. 

The little Redpoll is one of those birds that are best known as win- 
ter visitors. Sometimes it comes from the north in flocks when driven 
from home by the annual failure of the food-supply, and speedily attracts 
attention by frequenting the gardens and orchards, even when these 
are within the limits of a town. In general habits it resembles a Gold- 
finch, and while mth us it finds its wants supplied chiefly by the various 
grasses and herbs which project through the snow and still retain 
their seed in spite of wind and weather. It is noted for its affectionate 
and confiding disposition, and although it is not knowni to breed in 
captivity it has always proved an easily tamed and interesting pet. 

Ernest Thompson Seton. 

528a. A. 1. holboelli (Brehm). Holbcell's Redpoll. Similar to 

A. I. linaria, but larger, the bill longer. W., 3-20; T., 2-35; B., -38; depth of 

B. at base, '22. 

Range. — N. parts of N. Hemisphere. Breeds on Herschel Is.; s. in winter 
to Germany, Japan, and se. Siberia; occasional in migration to nw. Alaska 
and se. to Keewatin, Iowa, Ills., Mass., Maine, and Que. 

Cambridge, very rare W. V. 

This is an intermediate between A. I. linaria and A. I. rostrata, most 
closely approaching the former, from which it sometimes can with diffi- 
culty be distinguished. It is an exceedingly rare bird in eastern North 
America, where there are but few records of its occurrence. 

528b. A. 1. rostrata (Coues). Greater' Redpoll. Similar to A. 
I. linaria, but larger, the margins to the feathers of the upperparts averaging 
darker, the bill shorter and stouter. L., 5*50; W., 3*20; T., 2-55; B., '35; 
depth of B. at base, '28. 

Range. — Resident in Greenland. In winter 8. through Man., Ont., Que., 
and Ungava to Colo., n. Ills., Mich., n. Ind., N. J., and Mass. 

Ossining, A. V. Cambridge, irregular W. V., Nov.-Feb. SE. Minn., 
uncommon W. V. 



382 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

"The Greater Redpoll is often rather common, and in February, 
1883, it occurred along the seacoast near Boston in positive abundance. 
As one sees them in winter in New England, the forms just mentioned, 
with A. hornemannii exilipes, do not differ appreciably in notes, habits, 
or general appearance. It is true that A. I. rostrata may be often recog- 
nized by its superior size, but the birds as a rule are so nervous and rest- 
less, and when in large flocks so constantly in motion and so likely to 
depart altogether at any moment, that a free use of the gun is ordinarily 
indispensable to positive identification" (Brewster, Minot's "Land 
Birds and Game Birds," 2d ed., App., p. 472). 

529. Astragalinustrististristis (Lmri.)- Goldfinch. Ad. d" in summer. 
— Bright canary-yellow; crown, wings and tail black; wing-bars and inner 
vanes of tail-feathers white; longer upper tail-coverts gray; lesser wing- 
coverts yellow. This plumage is acquired at the second prenuptial molt. Ad. d 
in winter. — Wings and tail as in summer but white edgings wider, lesser wing- 
coverts still yellow; back grayish brown, olive-tinged; throat and chest dull 
yellow, belly whitish, sides brownish buff. Im. (f in winter. — Similar to ad. cf 
in winter but lesser wing-coverts olive-green or olive-gray. Im. <f. in sum- 
mer. — Similar to ad. cf in summer but lesser wing-coverts as in winter. Ad. 9 
summer. — No black crown-cap; upperparts yellowish brown; below dull 
yellow; wings and tail less black than in ad. d", lesser wing-coverts olive- 
green. Ad. 9 and Im. 9 in winter. — Similar to im. d^ in winter, but wings 
and tail less black. L., 5-10; W., 2-82; T., 1-95; B., -40. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in lower Canadian, Transition, and Upper 
Austral zones from s. Man., cen. Que., and N. F., s. to e. Colo., s. Okla., cen. 
Ark., and n. Ga.; winters over most of its breeding area and s. to Gulf coast. 

Washington, common P. R. Ossining, common P. R. Cambridge, very 
common P. R. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen Ellyn, common P. R. SE. 
Minn., P. R., common in summer, uncommon in winter. 

Nest, externally of fine grasses, strips of bark, and moss, thickly lined 
with thistledown, in trees or bushes, 5-30 feet up. JEggs, 3-6, pale bluish 
white, '65 x '48. Date, D. C, July 5; Newport, R. I., June 20; Cambridge, 
July 21; Ogle Co., Ills., June 30; se. Minn., July 26. 

Except when nesting. Goldfinches are generally found in small 
flocks. Few birds seem to enjoy life more than these merry rovers. 
Every month brings them a change of fare, and in pursuit of fresh 
dainties the nesting-time is delayed almost until summer begins to wane. 

Seed-bearing plants, whether in field or garden, form their larder; 
the old sunflowers rattle before their vigorous attack ; the thistles spring 
into sudden blossom of black and gold as they swing from the nodding 
heads. 

Their flight is expressive of their joyous nature, and as they bound 
through the air they hum a gay 







FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 383 

Their love song is delivered with an ecstasy and abandon which car- 
ries them off their feet, and they circle over the fields sowing the air 
with music. The song has a canary like character, and while it is less 
varied it possesses a wild, ringing quahty wanting in the cage-bound 
bird's best efforts. 

1898. Bruce, M. E., Auk, XV, 239-243 (home-life). 

Carduelis carduelis (Linn.). European Goldfinch. Ads. — Region 

about the base of the bill bright red; crown, and a stripe extending from it 
on to the sides of the neck, black; back cinnamon-brown; wings black, 
crossed by a broad yellow band; tail black, inner webs of the feathers tipped 
with white; underparts white, sides tinged with the color of back. L., 5'50; 
W., 3-00; T., 2-95; B., "50. 

Range. — "Europe generally, except extreme northern part" (Sharpe). 
Introduced near New York City and occurring also about Boston; naturalized 
in Bermuda. 

Nest, externally, of grasses and plant down, lined with plant down, in 
coniferous trees. Eggs, 4-5, white, with purplish spots, "72 x '50. Date, 
Central Park, Apl. 26. 

This European species was introduced into this country at Hoboken, 
N. J., in 1878, and descendants of the original birds probably still exist 
in this part of New Jersey, since I observed two at Englewood in June, 
1911. In 1879 it appeared in Central Park, New York City, where 
it was probably also introduced, but it is now exceedingly rare in New 
York City. A third point of introduction is Boston, where, according 
to Hoffmann, ''it occurs rarely." In general habits this species resem- 
bles its American cousin with which it sometimes associates. 

533. Spinus pinus pinus (Wils.). Pine Siskin. Ads. — Bill sharply 
pointed, a small tuft of bristly feathers over the nostrils; upperparts streaked 
with black, the feathers margined with buffy; wings fuscous, most of the 
feathers margined with yellow, and yellow at the base; tail fuscous, all but 
the middle feathers yellow at the base; underparts white, tinged with buffy 
and heavily streaked with black. L., S'OO; W., 2-76; T., r90; B., "40. 

Remarks. — The yellow markings in the wings and tail of this species will 
always serve to distinguish it. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds mainly in Canadian zone, s. through the higher 
mts. of w. U. S. to n. L. Calif., and s. N. M., and to n. Minn., n. Mich., N. 
B., N. S., and in mts. to N. C., and casually in the lower Hudson Valley 
and Mass.; occurs in winter over most of the U. S. s. to n. Mex. 

Washington, irregularly abundant W. V., Oct. 24-May 20. Ossiiiing, 
irregular P. R. Cambridge, irregular W. V., Oct. 15-May 10; sometimes 
very abundant; one breeding record. N. Ohio, tolerably conmion W. V., 
Sept. 20-May 15. Glen Ellyn, irregular T. V., Apl. 8-May 24; Sept. 8- 
Nov. 29. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., and W. V. Oct. 20 Apl. 9. 

Nest, of twigs and rootlets, lined with plant down and lon^ hairs, in co- 
niferous trees. Eggs, 4, pale bluish white, thinly spotted with reddish brown, 
•67 X -46. Date, Ossining, N. Y., May 25; Lyons Falls, N. Y., Ai)l. 25; 
Farmington, Maine, June 14. 

Like some other winter birds whose movements are governed by the 
food-supply, the Siskin is more or less irregular in its occurn^ncc south 
of its breeding range, being abundant some years and rare or absent 
others. 

During the summer it is an inhabitant of coniferous growths and 



384 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

its habits now resemble those of the Goldfinch. It has a flight-song, but 
this with its perch-song is less musical than that of its more brightly 
plumaged relative. 

During its post-breeding wandering, it is found in closely massed 
flocks which move as one bird and which feed much upon the ground 
where they may be closely approached. 

1887. Allen, J. A., Auk, IV, 284-286 (nesting). 

The Black-headed Goldfinch {532. Spinus notatus), a Mexican spe- 
cies, is recorded by Audubon from Kentucky, where its occurrence is, of 
course, purely accidental. 

534. Pleetrophenax nivalis nivalis (Linn.). Snow Bunting. (Fig. 
10.) Ad. cf in summer. — Whole head and neck, rump, and underparts white; 
back and scapulars black; outer primaries black, white basally, secondaries 
wholly white; outer tail-feathers white, inner ones black. Ad. 9 in summer. 
Similar, but entire upperparts streaked with black; outer primaries all 
fuscous ; secondaries more or less tipped with fuscous, d" in winter. — Upper- 
parts a kind of rusty brown, almost umber on the center of the crown; back 
streaked with black, caused by the black bases of the feathers showing 
through their rusty tips; wings and taO. much as in summer, but more or 
less edged with rusty; underparts white, the breast and sides washed with 
rusty. 9 in winter. — Similar to cf, but wings as in summer 9. L., 6'88; 
W., 4-07; T., 2-70; B., '42. 

Range.— ^ . Hemisphere. In N. A., breeds in Arctic zone from at least 
83° north (including Greenland) to n. parts of mainland from Alaska to 
Ungava; winters from Unalaska, s. Alberta, s. Keewatin, and s. Ungava s. 
to n. U. S. and irregularly to n. Calif., Colo., Kans., s. Ind., s. Ohio, and 
Fla. ; casual in Bermuda. 

Washington, W. V., casual, one instance. Ossining, irregular W. V., 
Oct. 25-Mch. 22. Cambridge, common W. V., Nov. 1-Mch. 15; abundant 
in migrations. N. Ohio, tolerably common W. V., Dec. 10-Mch. 15. SE. 
Minn., common W. V., Oct. 9-Mch. 14. 

Nest, of grasses, rootlets, and moss, lined with finer grasses and feathers, 
on the ground. Eggs, 4-7, pale bluish white, thinly marked with umber 
or heavily spotted or washed with rufous-brown, "85 x ■64. Date, Pt. Barrow, 
Alaska, June 12. 

The Snowflake may readily be known by the fact that it is the only 
one of our sparrowlike birds that has white predominating on its wings 
and tail, as well as on its body. It feeds exclusively on seeds, and is so 
much like the Shorelark in habits that the two species occasionally 
associate. The Snowflake is also strictly a ground bird, rarely perching 
on a tree, though it often does so on a house or fence. It always pro- 
gresses by walking, not by hopping. 

Throughout Canada and the northern tier of states this is the 
familiar little white bird of winter. As soon as the chill season comes on 
in icy rigors, the merry Snowflakes appear in great flocks, and come 
foraging about the barnyards when there is no bare ground left in the 
adjacent fields. Apparently they get but little to eat, but in reality 
they always find enough to keep them in health and spirits, and are as 
fat as butter balls. In midwinter, in the far north, when the thermome- 
ter showed thirty degrees below zero, and the chill blizzard was blowing 
on the plains, I have seen this brave httle bird gleefully chasing his 




FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 385 

fellows, and pouring out as he flew his sweet, voluble song with as much 
spirit as ever Skylark has in the sunniest days of June. As long as the 
snow lasts the Snowflake stays, and as soon as the ground grows bare 
and there is promise of better days, tliis bird of winter betakes himself 
again to the north as far as the most northern habitation of man, and 
there builds his nest. Ernest Thompson Seton. 

536. Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus {Linn.). Lapland Long- 
spur. Hind toe-nail as long as or longer than toe. Ad. cf in summer. — Head, 
neck, throat, and breast black; a buffy line behind the eye; nape rufous; back 
streaked with black and ochraceous- and cream-buff; tail fuscous, the two 
outer feathers with more or less white; belly white; sides streaked with black. 
Ad. 9 in summer. — Upperparts streaked with black, rufous, ochraceous- and 
cream-buff; nape ochraceous-buff, the color some- 
times concealed by the tips of the feathers; tail 
fuscous, the outer one or two feathers marked with 
white; underparts white, the breast and sides 
streaked with black and ochraceous-buff. cf in 
winter. — Similar to 9 in summer, but upperparts 
blacker, nape more rufous, breast more heavily 
marked with black, most of the feathers black at 
the base. 9 in winter. — Similar to 9 in summer, 
but upperparts duller, nape with little or no 
ochraceous L., 6-25; W. 3-75; T. 2;55: B , -40. p^^ 102. Hind toe of Lap- 

Kemarks. — in some plumages this bird bears a land Longspur. 

general resemblance to certain Sparrows, but 

differs from them in having the hind toe-nail as long as or longer than the 
toe. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In N. A. breeds from about lat. 73° on Arctic 
islands, and w. Greenland, and from lat. 75° in e. Greenland s. to limit of 
trees in Mackenzie (at least as far w. as long. 120°), cen. Keewatin, and n. 
Ungava; winters from s. Que., and n. cen. U. S. irregularly s. to the middle 
States and Tex., rarely Ky. and S. C. 

Washington, W. V., one instance, Dec. Ossining, W. V., casual. Cam- 
bridge, one record. N. Ohio, tolerably common, W. V., Nov. 15-Apl. 25. 
Glen EUyn, common W. V., Oct. 16-May 16. SE. Minn., common 
W. V. 

Nest, of grasses and moss, lined with grasses, on the ground. Eggs, 4-6, 
bluish white, almost obscured by a uniform grayish brown, "82 x '60. Date, 
Pt. Barrow, Alaska, June 6. 

In the east, Lapland Longspurs are generally found luiiong flocks 
of Shorelarks or Snowflakos, but on the western plains tliey occur in 
great numbers. "High in the air they fly in long, straggling flocks, all 
singing together; a thousand voices, a tornado of whistUng. . . . When 
in the fields they have a curious habit of squatting just Ix^hind some 
clod, and, as their colors are nearly matched to the soil, they are not 
easily observed, nor will they move until you are within a few feet; they 
then run a few feet and squat again. . . ." (Seton). 

One of the most remarkable bird tragedies of which we have any 
knowledge is recorded by Dr. T. S. Roberts {Ank, 1907, pp. 3()9-377) aa 
occurring in southwestern Minnesota on March 13, 1904, when at least 
several million Lapland Longspurs were killed in a single night as the 
result of a storm in which they became exhausted and fell, or confused 
and struck various obstacles. 



386 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 



537. Calcarius pictus (Swains.). Smith's Longspur. Ad. c? in sum- 
mer. — Top and sides of the head black, a line over the eye and the ear-coverts 
white; back and rump streaked with black and ochraceous-buff ; lesser wing- 
coverts black, broadly tipped with white; tail fuscous, the two outer feathers 
mostly white; nape and underparts ochraceous-buff. Ad. 9 in summer. — 
Upperparts black, the feathers margined and tipped with pale cream-buff; 
two outer tail-feathers mostly white; underparts pale cream-buff; breast and 
sides sometimes lightly streaked with blackish, c? in winter. — Similar to 9 
in summer, but with the lesser wing-coverts black, tipped with white. L., 
6-60; W., 3-75; T., 2-50; B., "42. 

Range. — Interior of N. A. Breeds in Arctic zone on the Barren Grounds 
from Ft. Anderson, Mackenzie, e. to Hudson Bay (Ft. Churchill) ; has been 
taken w. to Ft. Yukon; winters from Kans. to cen, Tex.; e. in migrations to 
the prairies of Ills, and sw. Ind. ; casual in S. C. 

Nesting, similar to that of the preceding. Date, Ft. Anderson, Mack., 
June 12. 

"Their habits are quite similar to those of C. lapponicus while 
upon the ground. . . When flushed they invariably uttered a sharp, 
clicking note, rapidly repeated several times. When driven from their 
feeding-place by my approach they would rise in a loose flock, and, 
after wheeling about a few times, start off in a direct line, gradually 
rising higher until they disappeared. After a short time their peculiar 
note would be heard, and, darting down from a considerable height, 
they would aUght near the place from which they were driven" (Nelson). 

The Chestnut-collared Longspur (538. Calcarius ornatus) a species 
of the Great Plains, has been recorded from Massachusetts, Long Island, 
Maryland and Maine. 

McCown's Longspur (539. Rhynchophanes mccowni), a species of the 
Great Plains, is of casual occurrence in Illinois. 



540. Pooecetes gramineus gramineus (Gmel.). Vesper Sparrow. 
Ads. — Upperparts brownish gray, streaked with black and a little ochra- 
ceous-buff; wings fuscous, greater and middle coverts tipped with white, 
lesser coverts bright rufous; tail fuscous, the outer feather mostly white, the 
next one with much less white; underparts white; the breast and sides 
streaked with black and ochraceous-buff. L., 6-12; W., S'OG; T., 2-38; B., -41. 
Remarks. — The white tail-feathers and rufous lesser wing-coverts will 
always distinguish this species from any other of our Sparrows. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds 
in lower Canadian, Transition, 
and Upper Austral zones from 
sw. Keewatin, cen. Ont., cen. 
Que., and Cape Breton Is. s. to 
e. Neb., cen. Mo., Ky., Va., and 
N. C, w. to w. Minn.; winters 
from the s. part of its breeding 
range to the Gulf coast, w. to 
middle Tex. ; casual in Bermuda 
and Yucatan. 

Washington, P. R., very 
common T. V., lessso in sum- 
mer and winter. Ossining, toler- 
ably common S. R., Apl. 2 to Nov. 4. Cambridge, common S. R., Apl. 5- 
Oct. 25. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 20-Nov. 7. Glen Ellyn, fairly 
common S. R., Mch. 21-Oct. 25. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 1-Oct. 29. 
Nest, of rather coarse grass, lined with finer grasses, rootlets, and long 




103. Tail-feathers of Ve.sper Sparrow. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 387 

hairs, on the ground. Eggs, 4-5, bluish white or pinkish white, speckled and 
spotted with rufous-brown or umber, 1"83 x '61. Date, Chester Co., Pa., 
May 5; Norwich, Conn., May 8; Cambridge, May 10; se. Minn., May 6. 

In walking through dry upland fields or along dusty roadsides a 
rather pale, streaked Sparrow will sometimes run rapidly ahead of 
3^ou, wait for you to catch up, then run ahead again. It is best to be 
content with what measure of his confidence and society he voluntarily 
grants you, for, if you quicken your steps and try to overtake liim, he 
will rise and bound on before you or swing off to one side, showing, as 
he flies, the white feathers on each side of his tail. 

Frequently he will alight on a fence rail or even the higher branch 
of a tree, for, although a field Sparrow, he is by no means a purely ter- 
restrial one. WTien singing, he generally selects an elevated perch and 
gives himself entirely to his musical devotions. Early morning and 
late afternoon are his favorite hours, but he can be heard at other times. 
His song, which is loud, clear, and ringing, may be heard at a distance 
of several hundred yards. It resembles that of the Song Sparrow, but 
is sweeter and more plaintive. When heard in the evening it is a truly 
inspired and inspiring melody. 

541. Passerculus princeps Mayn. Ipswich Sparrow. Ads. — Gen- 
erally with a spot of sulphur-yellow before the eye and on the bend of the 
vdng; upperparts pale brownish ashy, streaked on the head, back, and 
upper tail-coverts with black and cinnamon-brown; the nape and rump with 
few or no streaks; a white line over the eye; wings graj-ish brown, outer 
webs of greater coverts and tertials margined with pale ochraceous-buff ; tail 
grayish brown, the outer webs of the feathers margined with brownish ashy; 
underparts white; breast and sides lightly streaked with blackish and 
ochraceous-buff. L., 6-25; W., S'OO; T., 2-25; B., -40. 

Range. — Breeds on Sable Is., N. S.; winters from Sable Is. s. along the 
Atlantic coast to Ga. 

Cambridge, casual, two instances, Oct. 

Nest, on the ground, in a cup-shaped hollow scratched by the birds, of 
weed-stalks, and coarse grasses, lined with finer grasses. £"^^75, 4-5, indistin- 
guishable from those of the Savannah Sparrow but averaging a little larger 
(Dwight). Date, Sabte Is., N. S., June 4. 

Those who care to visit in winter the bleak, wind-swept sand hillocks 
of our Atlantic coast will find this bird much loss rare than it wa.s once 
supposed to be. It never strays far from the waving tufts of coarse 
beach-grass that scantily cover the sand-drifts, and single individuals 
may be found skulking among such surroundings. They seldom allow 
a near approach, but fly wildly away to considerable distances, and 
on alighting run off so rapidly that they are difficult to find a second 
time. The flight is rapid and irregular, and the birds may ea.sily be 
mistaken for Savannah Sparrows, with which, during the migrations, 
they are sometimes associated. On rare occasions a sharp chirp is 
heard, but as a rule they are silent. 

It is an interesting species, discovered in 1868, and at first mistaken 
for Baird's Sparrow of the far west, a species, by the way, that it resem- 
bles very Httle. For many years nothing was known of its breeding 
range. In 1884 some large eggs from Sable Island, Nova Scotia, sup- 
27 



388 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

posed to be of tlie Savannah Sparrow, were unearthed at the National 
Museum, Washington, and later a summer specimen of the Ipswich 
Sparrow was obtained from this island. Ten years later I had the 
pleasure of ^dsiting Sable Island and sohing all the conjectures that 
had become current regarding the Ipswich Sparrow's summer home. 
The bird proved to much resemble the Savannah Sparrow in breeding 
habits, song, nest, and eggs. J. Dwight, Jr. 

1895. Dwight, J. H., Jr., Mem. Xo. II. Xutt. Orn. Club., 1-56 (mono- 
graph).— 1902. Saunders, W. E., Auk, XIX, 267-271 (nesting). 

542a. Passerculus sandwiehensis savanna (TFzTs.). Sava^tntah 
Sparrow. Ads. — A pale yellow mark over or before the eye and on the 
bend of the wing; general tone of the upperparts brownish black, the centers 
of the feathers black, margined first by rufous or ochraceous-buff. then by 
ashy; wings fuscous, the outer webs of the feathers margined with ochra- 
ceous-buff; tan fuscous, the outer web of the feathers margined with whit- 
ish; underparts white, hea^■ily streaked with blackish and rufous, the breast 
feathers tipped with wedge-shaped marks. Ads. and Im. in winter. — Similar, 
but color deeper, more suffused with ochraceous. L., o"68; W., 2*62; T., 
2-09; B., -40. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in Boreal and Transition zones from 
cen. Keewatin and n. Ungava s. to n. Iowa (casually Mo.), n. Ind., mts. of 
Pa., Conn., and L. I., and casually in s. X. J.; winters from s. Ind. and s. 
N. J. s. to ne. Mex., the Gulf coast. Bahamas, and Cuba; casual in Bermuda. 

Washington, abundant T. V., Mch. 20-May 11; Sept. 21-Oct. 23; a few 
winter. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 3-May 13; Aug. 28— Oct. 28. Cam- 
bridge, abundant T. V., Apl.; Oct.; breeds sparinglv. X. Ohio, not common 
T. v., Mch. 20-:vIav 12. Glen Ellvn, fairlv plentiful S. R., Apl. 8-Oct. 20. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 17-Oct. 23. 

Xest, of grasses and sometimes moss, lined with finer grasses or hair, on 
the ground. Eggs, 4-5, bluish white, thickly marked, sometimes hea\'ily 
washed, -n-ith reddish brown or cinnamon, "78 x "56. Date, Bolton, Mass., 
May 9; Cambridge, May 21; Utica, X. Y., May 19. 

This is essentially a bird of the fields, and one of the most abun- 
dant species of the ^Maritime Provinces of Canada — in fact, character- 
istic of them. The roadsides abound with the birds bobbing up and 
down on the fence-posts and chipping \dgorously at every passerby. 
Their boldness is tempered with a certain timidity that becomes appar- 
ent when they are followed, for, dropping into the grass, they wiU slip 
away \\ith surprising rapidity. They have a starthng way, sometimes, 
of springing up with a whirr of wings almost from under your very feet 
as you cross the fields where they have been feeding. At the southern 
limits of their breeding range they gather into irregularly distributed, 
isolated colonies frequenting wet, boggy meadows, and exhibit a shj-- 
ness that is not shared by their northern brethren. In the fall, young 
and old gather into bands, and, joining with other species, form an 
important part of the large flocks of migrating Sparrows that fill the 
fields and hedgerows. 

The song is insignificant — a weak, musical little trill follo\\'ing a grass- 
hopperhke introduction, and is of such small volume that it can be heard 
but a few rods. It usually resembles tsip-tsip-tsip' se'-e-e-s'r-r-r. More 
singing is heard toward sunset, when of a quiet evening the trills are 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 389 

audible at greater distances. Each male seems to have a number of 
favorite perches, weeds or fence-posts, which are \'isited as inchnation 
dictates, but he is of too restless a disposition to remain long on any of 
them. The most famihar note is a sharp tsip of alarm or expostu- 
lation heard during migration, but so constantly employed by both 
sexes in the breeding season, even on shght provocation, that one gets 
to think of them as veritable scolds. 

They are more likely to be mistaken for the Vesper Sparrow, which 
they resemble even in flight, than for any other except perhaps the 
Ipswich and Sharp-tailed Sparrows. J. Dwight, Jr. 

Baied's Sparrow (o4o. Ammodramus bairdi), a bird of the Great 
Plains region, has been once recorded from east of the Mississippi, — Mon- 
tauk Point, L. I., Nov. 13, 1899 (Hehne, Auk, 1900, 296). 

546. Ammodramus savannarum aus trails Mayn. Grass- 
hopper Sparrow. Ads. — Upperparts mixed black, rufous-brown, ashy, and 
cream-buff; crown blackish, a cream-buff line through its center; nape 
rufous-brown, each feather with a small black central spot and bordered by 
ashy; back black, the feathers bordered by cream-buff and with a small 
central tip of rufous-brown: rump rufous-brown and ashy; an orange mark 
before the eye; bend of the wing yellow, 
lesser ■wing-coverts yello%\"ish olive-green; 
greater coverts tipped with whitish; tail- 
feathers pointed, of about equal length, dark 
graj-ish brown, the centers of the feathers 
darker, the end half of the outer feather 
generally dusky whitish ; underparts gener- 
ally not streaked; breast and sides buffy; 
belly white Nestlings have the breast Yiq. lOi. Tail of Grasshopper 
spotted ^v-ith blackish. L., o'.SS; W., 2-38; Sparrow. 

T., 1-79; B., -43. 

Remarks. — The yellow on the wing, unstreaked underparts, even, 
pointed tail, and grayish mark on the outer tail-feather are the principal 
characters of this species. 

Range. — E. X. Am. Breeds in Austral zones (sporadically in Transition) 
6. of the Great Plains from s. Wise, s. Ont., and s. N. H. s. to s. La., can. 
Ala., n. Ga., and n. S. C.; winters from s. Ills, and N. C. s. to the Bahamas, 
Cuba, Yucatan, and the Gulf coast of Mexico; casual in Maine. 

Washington, verv' common S. R., Apl. 17-Xov. 20. Ossining, common 
S. R., Apl. 27-Oct. 23. Cambridge, rare S. R., xMay 16-Scpt. 1. N. Ohio, 
common S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 20. Glen Ellvn, not common S. R., May 4- 
Sept. 13. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 2.5-Sept. 6. 

N^est, of grasses, sometimes lined with hairs, arched, on the ground. Eggs, 
4-5, white, distinctlv spotted and speckled with rufous, "73 x •54. Date, 
Hall Co., Ala., May 11; Richmond, Va., May 25; Chester Co., Pa., May 27; 
Be. Minn., June 6. 

Few common birds may be more easily overlooked than this Spar- 
row. Its terrestrial habits and weak notes place it among the birds that 
you are not hkely to find unless you know how and where to look for 
them. I remember once introducing this bird and its song to a vi.siting 
ornithological friend. On returning to his home, greatly to his surprise, 
he found it a common resident of the fields about his hou.se, where, 
owing to his unfamiliarity with its notes and habits, its presence had 
been before unsuspected. 




390 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

In the North you will generally find it in old, dry daisy or sorrel 
fields; in the South it inhabits the broom sedge. It will not take wing 
until almost stepped upon; then, if bushes are near, it takes refuge in 
or under them, but out in the open field it flies rapidly some distance 
and drops to the ground. 

Its usual perch, when singing, is a fence-rail; and it does not often 
seek a more elevated position. Its fine, insectlike notes give it the name 
of Grasshopper Sparrow. They may be written pit-tuck, zee-e-e-e-e~ 
e-e-e-e. Under favorable circumstances they can be heard by an atten- 
tive hstener at a distance of two hundred and fifty feet, but the casual 
observer would pass within ten feet of a singing bird and be none the 
wiser. 

546b. A. s. floridanus (M earns). Florida Grasshopper Sparrow. 
Similar to A. s. australis "but smaller, with larger bill, longer tarsus, and 
much darker coloration above, paler below; chestnut of upper surfaces much 
reduced in amount and replaced by black; lateral dark areas of crown almost 
black, interscapular region much blacker." (Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 
XXIV, 1902, 915.) 

Range. — Central Florida. (Kissimmee Prairie region.) 

547. Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi (Aud.). Henslow's Spar- 
row. Ads. — Top and sides of head and nape dull, pale olive- green, more 
buffy in the fall; sides of crown black; nape finely streaked with black; back 
rufous-brown, the feathers with narrow, central, wedge-shaped black streaks, 
and narrow ashy margins; bend of wing pale yellow; wing-coverts much 
like back; tail-feathers very narrow and sharply pointed; middle feathers 
rufous-brown; the outer ones much the shortest; underparts white, more 
or less washed with buffy and streaked with black on the breast and sides. 
Nestlings have no spots on the breast. L., 5-00; W., 2-20; T., 2-00; B., -42. 

Remarks. — The peculiar olivaceous color of the head and nape, and the 
bright rufous-brown color of the back, wing-coverts, and middle tail-feathers 
are the best distinguishing marks of this species. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds in Transition and Upper Austral zones from cen. 
Minn., Ont., N. Y., and s. N. H. s. to s. Mo., and n. Va.; winters in s. U. S. 
to Tex. and s. Fla. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 10-Oct. 21. Ossining, rare T. V., Oct. 
5-Oct. 10. Cambridge, very rare S. R. N. Ohio, S. R. Glen EUyn, not 
common S. R., May 8-Sept. 26. SE. Minn., common S. R. 

Nest, of grasses, sometimes lined with hairs, on the ground. Eggs, 4-5, 
grayish white, thickly and evenly speckled with pale rufous-brown, '75 X '57. 
Date, Cape May Co., N. J., May 25; Richland Co., Ills., May 23. 

During the summer this species seems to prefer wet meadows, but 
in the winter it inhabits the dry 'old fields' grown with broom sedge, 
which are so common in the south. It has the secretive habits of the 
Grasshopper and Leconte's Sparrows, and takes wing only when 
forced to. 

P. L. Jouy writes of its song: "Besides the characteristic notes of 
tee-wick, they have quite a song which may be fairly represented by the i 
syllables sis-r-r-rit-srit-srit, with the accent on the first and last parts. - 
This song is often uttered while the bird takes a short fUght upward; 
it then drops down again into the tangled weeds and grasses, where it is ' 
almost impossible to follow it" (Bull Nutt. Orn. Club, VI, 1881, p. 57). 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 391 

548. Passerherbulus leeontei (Aud.). Leconte's Sparrow. Ads. — 
No yellow before the eye or on the bend of the wing; a broad ochraceous-buff 
line over the eye, and a cream-buff line through the center of the blackish 
crown; nape rufous-brown, each feather with a small black central spot and 
an ashy border; back black, the feathers margined first by rufous, then cream- 
buff and whitish; tail grayish brown, with a slight rufous tinge, darker along 
the shaft; the feathers narrow and sharply pointed, the outer ones much the 
shortest; breast and sides tinged -^vdth buffy, and more or less streaked with 
black; belly white. L., 5-00; W., 2-00; T., 2-05; B., So. 

Range. — Cen. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from 
Great Slave Lake, Mackenzie, s. Sask., and Man., s. to N. D. and s. Minn.; 
winters from s. Kans., and s. Mo., to Tex., Fla., and the coast of S. C, and 
occasionally to N. C; casual in Ont. and N. Y. ; accidental in Idaho and 
Colo. 

Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., May 4-?; Sept. 8-Oct. 6. SE. Minn., 
uncommon S. R., May 1-Oct. 17. 

Nest, of fine grasses, on the ground. Eggs, 3-5, delicate pink, lightly 
spotted with brownish and black near the larger end, *75 x "50 (Seton). 
Date, Raeburn, Man., June 6. 

My experience on the coast of Texas with this elusive little Spar- 
row conforms with that of most observers, and the few specimens I 
found were in wet marshes. Mr. L. M. Loomis, however, tells us that 
at Chester, South Carolina, where Leconte's Sparrow is a locally com- 
mon winter visitant, it shows a marked preference for dry 'old fields 
of broom sedge (Auk, II, 1885, p. 190). 

Few birds are more difficult to flush. It exhibits a rail-like disin- 
clination to take wing, and flying low and feebly, makes for the nearest 
cover. Ernest Thompson Seton records it as an abundant summer resi- 
dent in the willow sloughs and grassy flats of Manitoba, and describes 
its call-notes as a thin, sharp, ventriloquial tweet, and a single, long- 
drawn bizz; while its song, which is delivered from some low porch a 
little above the grass, is a tiny, husky, double-noted reese, reese, "so 
thin a sound and so creaky, that I believe it is usually attributed to a* 
grasshopper." 

1901. Peabody, p. B., Auk, XVIII, 129-134 (nesting). 

549. Passerherbulus caudacutus (Gmel.). Sharp-tailed Spar- 
row. Ads. — General color of tlu; upperparts a hrowni-sh olivo-green; crown 
olive-brown, with a blue-gray line through its center; gray oar-cf)Vcrt.s. in- 
closed by ochraceous-buff lines, one of which passes over the eye and one 
down the .side of the throat; feathers of the back margined with grayish and 
sometimes whitish; bend of the wing yellow; tail-feathers narrow and 
sharply pointed, the outer feathers much the .shortest; breast and .^ides 
washed with buffy, paler in summer, and distinctly .streaked with black: 
middle of the throat and belly white or whitish. "L., 5-85; W., 2-30; T., TOO; 
B., -50" (Dwight). 

Remarks. — The chief points of difference between this and the two fol- 
lowing birds are found in the markings of the })r(>ast and sides. In the i)r('S- 
ent species these parts are pale ochraceous-buff. distinctly streaked with 
blackish; in nelsoni they are deep ochraceous-buff, lightly if at all streaked; 
in subvirgatus they are cream-buff, indistinctly streaked with grnf/isfi. 

Range. — Salt marshes of Atlantic coast. Breeds in Alleghanian and 
Carolinian faunas from Mass. to Va. ; winters on salt marshes from N. J. 
(casually from Mass.) to Fla. 

Cambridge, formerly conmion S. R., but occurs no longer. 



392 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

Nest, of grasses and seaweed, lined with fine grasses, on the ground. Eggs,. 
3-4, white or grayish white, finely speckled with cinnamon-brown, especially 
at the larger end, "78 x "57. Date, Amityville, N. Y., May 31; Lynn, Mass., 
June 6. 

This species is confined exclusively to the salt-water marshes of our 
coast, where it may be found in large numbers. It runs about among the 
reeds and grasses with the celerity of a mouse, and is not apt to take 
wing unless closely pressed. Mixed flocks of the several varieties 
of the Sharp-tail, together with the Seaside Sparrow, gather in the fall 
among the sedges, and may be observed hiding in the grass or cUnging 
to the tall stalks of the cat-tails. In the breeding season it is usually 
associated with the Seaside Sparrow on the same marsh, but it prefers 
the drier parts, and builds its nest in the tussocks on the bank of a ditch 
or in the drift left by the tide, rather than in the grassier sites chosen 
by its neighbor. 

From some bit of driftwood or a convenient stake, its infrequent 
song may be heard morning and evening. It is short and gasping, and 
only less husky than the somewhat similar performance of the Seaside 
Sparrow. J. Dwight, Jr. 

549.1. Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni {Allen). Nelson's Spar- 
row. Similar to P. caudacutus, but smaller, the upperparts darker, the 
feathers of the back more olive-brown and more broadly margined with 
whitish; the throat, breast, and sides deeper ochraceous-buff, very slightly if 
at all streaked with blackish. "L., S'SO; W., 2-25; T., 1'90; B., -43" (Dwight). 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and upper Transition zones 
from Great Slave Lake and w. cen. Alberta se. to sw. Man. and ne. S. D.; 
winters on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from N. C. to Fla. and Tex.; n. on 
the Atlantic coast during migration at least to N. Y., Mass., and Maine, 
accidental in Calif. 

Washington, rare T. V., May-Sept. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., 
Sept. 28-Oct. 17. Cambridge, formerly uncommon T. V. Glen Ellyn, one 
record, Oct. 2, 1893. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V. 

Nest, on the ground, of fine grasses. Eggs, 5, grayish white ground, 
thickly sprinkled and clouded all over with markings of brown, thickening 
on the extreme butt into a dark brown zone, "65 x 50. Date, (found by E. 
S. Rolfe, at Devil's Lake, N. D., June 14, 1899; Auk, 1899, 356). 

This interior representative of the Sharp-tailed Sparrow occurs on 
the Atlantic Coast only as a migrant and winter visitant when it is 
associated with the Sharp-tail and Acadian Sharp-tail. 

549.1a. P. n. subvirgatus {Dwight). Acadian Sharp-tailed Spar- 
row. Similar to P. caudacutus, but paler above and with the throat, breast, 
and sides washed with cream-buff and indistinctly streaked with ashy. "L., 
5-55; W., 2-.30; T., 2-00; B., -46" (Dwight). 

Range. — Marshes of the Atlantic coast. Breeds mainly in Canadian 
fauna from se. Que., Prince Edward Is., and Cape Breton Is. to Maine; 
winters on coasts of S. C, Ga., and Fla. 

Ossining, rare T. V., Sept. 29-Oct. 16. Cambridge, formerly T. V., May; 
Sept. and Oct. ; very common in fall. 

Since this race was separated by me in 1887 few new facts have been 
developed regarding it, except that, as I anticipated, it has been found 
in other parts of the Maritime Provinces, and never far from salt water. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 393 

While frequenting brackish or fresh-water marshes, where the grasses 
grow more luxuriantly than in the haunts of its southern relative, it 
prefers the more open spots or those where damp ditches make high- 
ways of escape for it afoot. It is locally abundant, particularly in the 
great marshes that border the Ba}' of Fundy, but so retiring that, save 
for its httle song, its presence might be easily overlooked. Swaj-ing 
on a tall stalk of meadow rue or squatting on a convenient fence, the 
males may be found at all hours of the day repeating their song a few 
times and then flying to some new perch or burying themselves in the 
grass. Occasionally toward nightfall one will mount into the air and 
with set \N'ings float dowTi, fairly gushing with song, a habit shared by 
the ordinary Sharp-tail and by the Seaside Sparrow as well. 

\yith these birds they associate in autumn, and may be flushed one 
or two at a time from the strips of grass or reeds that are left on the 
salt marshes along the ditches after the hay has been cut. 

The song is a husky, gasping effort, not very loud, and executed 
with a nod of the head. It is sung in less than a second, and resem- 
bles ksh-sh-sh-oolp, the last sj^llable occupying one-fifth of the time 
and rather musical compared '^'ith the harsh lisp that precedes it. They 
also have a tchep of alarm, but it is the exception for them to show much 
anxiety about their nests or young. The nest has never been taken. 

J. DwiGHT, Jr. 

550. Passerherbulus maritimus znaritimus (Wils.). Seaside 
Sparrow. Ad.'i. — A yellow line before the eye and on the bend of the wirg; 
uppcrparts grayish olive-green; tail grayish brown, the outer webs of the 
feathers margined with olive-greenish ; a 
dusky line from the base of the lower 
mandible passes down the sides of the 
throat ; breast more or less suffused with 
buffy (wanting in summer specimens), 
and indistinctly streaked with grayish; 
throat and middle of the belly white; 
sides grayish. L., 6*00; W., 2-50; T., 
2-20; B., -60. 

Range. — Salt marshes of the Atlantic 
coast. Breeds chiefly in Carolinian 

fauna from 8. Mass. to Va.; winters Fia. 105. Seaside Sparrow, 

from Va. to Ga. (Natural size.) 

Ossining, A. V. 

A''es^ of coarse grasses and reed stalks, lined with gras.ses, on the ground. 
Eggs, 3-4, white or bluish white, clouded or finely si)(>rklod with cinnamon- 
brown, especially at the larger end, 'SO x 'G'.i. Date, Northamjiton Co., \a., 
May 18; Oyster Bay, N. Y., May 24. 

Like most marsh-loving birds, Seaside Sparrows are .so consistent 
in their choice of a hornet that it would be cjuite useless to look for them 
anywhere but in a marsh, and that a salt one, generally within sound 
or at least sight of the sea. The baymon call them 'Meadow Chippies,' 
and often when Snipe and Plover shooting, I have drawTi numbers to me 
by simply squeaking. They tipped all the reeds about my blind, chirping 
excitedly at the peculiar sound which aroused their curiosity. They pass 
much of their time on the ground among the reeds and grasses, but 




394 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

mount a stalk to sing their short, unattractive song of four or five notes. 
Sometimes they flutter into the air a few feet above the reeds and dehver 
their song while on the wing. 

The absence of distinct streaks on the breast and lack of rufous 
in their olivaceous or grayish plumage will distinguish them from the 
Sharp-tailed, Swamp, Savannah, or Song Sparrows, the only ones which 
are likely to be found in their haunts. 

550a. P. m. peninsulse (Allen). Scott's Seaside Spareow. Similar 
to the preceding, but much darker ; prevailing color of the upperparts brown- 
ish black, the feathers margined with grayish olive-green; underparts more 
heavily streaked, the breast and sides streaked with black or blackish. W., 
2-30; T., 2-00; B., -52. 

Range. — W. coast of Fla., w. probably to Ala. 

550c. P. m. fisheri (Chapm.). Louisiana Seaside Sparrow. Similar 
to P. m. peninsulcB but darker above, the breast and sides heavily washed with 
rusty buff and streaked with black. 

Range. — Cen. Gulf coast. Breeds on coasts of La. and Miss. ; winters sw. 
along the coast to Corpus Christi, Tex., and e. to Tarpon Springs, Fla.; 
casual at Charleston, S. C. 

550d. P. m. macgillivraii (Aud.). Macgillivray's SeasAe Spar- 
row. Similar to P. m. fisheri but above grayer, less black; breast and flanks 
but faintly washed with buff and streaked with dusky grayish. Grayer 
above than P. m. peninsulas, and less heavily streaked below. 

Range. — S. Atlantic coast. Breeds from N. C. to Ga. and n. Fla. ; winters 
along the Gulf coast to La. 

551. Passerherbulus nigrescens (Ridgw.) . Dusky Seaside Sparrow. 
Ads. — Upperparts black, narrowly margined with grayish and grayish olive- 
green; underparts sharply streaked with black and white in about equal 
proportions. "L., 5-95; W., 2-25-2-40; T., 2-10-2-50; B., -SO-'eO" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Marshes at n. end of Indian River, Fla. 
Nest and eggs unknown. 

This Sparrow has been recorded from Salt Lake, near Titusville, 
Fla., but with this exception it appears to be confined to the western 
side of Merritt's Island on the opposite shore of Indian River. In 
March, 1898, I found it to be abundant near the mouth of Dummitt's 
Creek where it inhabited the sedge (Borrichia) bordering the water and 
the adjoining grassy marshes. Savannah and Swamp Sparrows were 
also common in these marshes. The paler color and darting, more 
extended flight of the former at once distinguished it from nigrescens^ 
which, while more like the Swamp Sparrow, was soon recognized by its 
darker colors and shorter, more hesitating flight. The birds were not 
in song. 

In view of the fact that this species is abundant and that the region 
it inhabits is in no sense isolated, but that both to the north and south 
there are marshes apparently similar to those it occupies, the restriction 
of its range to an area only a few square miles in extent make its dis- 
tribution unique among North American birds. 

552. Chondestes grammacus grammacus (Say). Lark Sparrow. 
Ads. — Sides of the crown and car-coverts chestnut, a whitish line over the 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 



395 



eye and through the center of the crown; a black streak on the sides of the 
throat; upperparts brownish ash; back streaked with blackish; tail fuscous 
or black, the outer feathers tipped with white; underparts white, a small 
black spot in the middle of the breast. L., 6-25; W., S'oO; T., 2-75; B., -45. 

Range. — Miss. Valley e. of the Great Plains. Breeds mainly in Austral 
zones from e. Nebr., nw. Minn., cen. Wise, and s. Ont. s. to s. La. and cen. 
Ala. and e. to w. Pa., w. Md., and nw. W. Va.; casual in N. S., N. Y., Mass., 
N. J., D. C, N. C, and Fla.; winter home unknown, except in s. Miss. 

Washington, A. V., Aug., two captures. N. Ohio, rare S. R., Apl. 28. 
Glen Ellyn, local and uncommon S. R. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 20- 
Aug. 2. 

Nest, of grasses, lined with rootlets, fine grasses, and long hairs, on the 
ground or in low trees or bushes. Eggs, 3-5, white or pinkish white, spotted, 
blotched, or scrawled with purplish or black, chiefly at the larger end, 
78 X '60. Date, se. Minn., May 17. 

This is a common bird in the West. It frequents localities of much 
the same nature as those selected by the Grass Finch, and in its general 
habits reminds one of that species. The song is described b}' Ridgway 
("Birds of Ills.," I, p. 262) as "composed of a series of chants, each syllable 
rich, loud, and clear, interspersed with 
emotional trills. At the beginning the 
song reminds one somewhat of that of 
the Indigo Bird (Passerina cyanea), but -_- 
the notes are louder and more metallic, 
and their delivery more vigorous. 
Though seemingly hurried, it is one 
continued gush of sprightly music ; 
now gay, now melodious, and then 
tender beyond description — the very 
expression of emotion. At intervals 
the singer falters, as if exhausted by 
exertion, and his voice becomes scarcely audible; but suddenly reviv- 
ing in his joy it is resumed in all its vigor until he appears to be really 
overcome by the effort." 




Fig. 106. Lark Sparrow. 
(Natural size.) 



553. Zonotrichia querula (Nutt.). Harris's Sparrow. Bill pinkish; 

crown and throat or breast more or less black. Ads. — Crown, throat, brca.st 
and lores glossy black, checks gray; above brownish gray streaked with 
black; rump brownish ashy, tail fuscous-gray; two white wing-bars; belly 
white, sides with blackish streaks, hn. — Similar, but crown tipped with 
brownish; breast, and sometimes throat, with black streak.s or l)lotches; 
cheeks, flanks and under tail-coverts bufTy. L., 7'50; W., 3"50; T., 3"25; 
B., -50. 

Range. — Cen. N. A. Breeds in Hudsonian zone at Ft. Churchill, 
Hudson Bay, Artillery Lake, Mackenzie, and i)robabIy to Groat Bear Lake 
and the district just s. of the Barren (Jrounds; in migration ranges e. to w. 
Ont. and e. Ills., and w. to ceii. Mont, and e. Colo.; winters from n. Kans. 
and w. Mo. s. to s. Tex.; casual in B. ('.; accidental in Calif., Ore., Wash., 
and Ohio. Glen Ellyn, one record, May 19, 1897. SE. Minn., common T. V., 
May 6-?; Sept. 21-()ct. 25. 

Nest (found Aug. .5, 1907, by E. T. Seton, at Last Wood. Great Slave 
Lake, and the only one known), "was on th(> ground iiiidcr a dwarf birch, was 
made of grass and resembled the nest of a White-throated Sparrow. It con- 
tained three young nearly ready to fly" {Auk, 1908, 72). 



396 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

This handsome Sparrow barely enters the western hmits of the region 
covered by the "Handbook." It there inhabits brushy undergrowths 
and much the same locahties which White-throats frequent. Its pink 
or reddish bill and buff cheeks are excellent field characters. Its call- 
note is a sharp, metallic clink, louder than the White-throat's call, and, 
like that species, it utters low, chuckling, contented musical notes. Goss 
describes its song as composed of "pleasing, plaintive, whisthng notes, 
in musical tone much like the White-throated Sparrow's, but dehvered 
in a widely different song." 

554. Zonotrichia leucophrys leueophrys (Forst.). White-crowned 
Sparrow. Ads. — No yellow before the eye or on the bend of the wing; cen- 
ter of crown white bordered on either side by black stripes, no white before the 
eye; a white line from over the eye passes backward along the side of the 
head; nape gray; back dark grayish brown, margined with gray; rump dark 
brownish ash; greater and middle wing-coverts tipped with white; tail fus- 
cous; underparts grayish, white on the belly, flanks and under tail-coverts 
cream-buff. Im. — Similar, but much browner, sides of the crown rufous- 
brown, center of the crown pale grayish brown; nape brownish ash; back 
margined with the same color. L., G'SS; W., 3-03; T., 2*88; B., '43. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian zones of high mts. 
from s. Ore. to cen. Calif., and e. to Wyo. and s. N. M., and from limit of 
trees in cen. Keewatin and n. Ungava to se. Keewatin, cen. Que., and s. 
Greenland; winters from n. L. Calif., s. Ariz., s. Kans., and the Ohio Valley 
(casually from the Potomac Valley, s. to La. and Miss, and in Mex. 

Washington, irregularly common W. V. and T. V., May 1-17; Oct. 7- 
Nov. 20. Ossining, rare T. V., May 9-26; Oct. 3-30. Cambridge, uncommon 
T. v., May 12-22; Oct. 1-20. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 22-May 20; Sept. 
5-Oct. 16. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V.; chiefly spring, Apl. 24-May 31; 
Oct. 2-21. SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 30- ; Sept. 26-Oct. 14. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground or in bushes. Eggs, 4-5, pale greenish 
blue, speckled and spotted with bay, especially at the larger end, *90 x "62 
(Davie). Date, Ft. Chimo, Lab., June 3. 

This is one of the aristocrats of the family. Its size and its hand- 
some markings at once distinguish it from its congeners, and are sure 
to attract attention. Though its season of love and music is spent in 
the far north, it often favors us with selections of its melodies as it 
rests in thickets and hedgerows while slowly passing through our 
country on its northward pilgrimage. Its usual song is like the latter 
half of the White-throat's familiar refrain, repeated a number of times 
with a peculiar sad cadence and in a clear, soft whistle that is charac- 
teristic of the group. It resembles its relatives also in singing its 
sweetest songs in the woods, sometimes during the darkest hours of 
the night. Ernest Thompson Seton. 

554a. Z. 1. gambeli [Nutt). Gambel's Sparrow. Similar to Z. I. 
leucophrys but the lores wholly gray or whitish, the white superciliary there- 
fore reaching the bill. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zones from limit of trees in nw. 
Alaska and n. Mackenzie (rarely outside the mts. s. of Great Slave Lake) s. 
to cen. Ore. and cen. Mont., w. to coast mts. of sw. Alaska and B. C. ; win- 
ters from n. Calif, and Utah s. to San Luis Potosi, Mazatlan, L. Calif., and 
outlying islands; casual o. in migrations to Minn., Iowa, Kans., and e. Tex. 
SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., Apl. 30; Sept. 26-Oct. 14. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 397 

The GoLDEX-CROWNED Sparrow {557. Zonotrichia coronata) of the 
Pacific coast region is of accidental occurrence in Wisconsin (Nelson, Bull. 
Essex. Inst., VIII, 1876, 108). 

558. Zonotrichia albicollis (GmeZ.). White-throated Sparrow. Ads. — 
A yellow line before the eye ; bend of the wing yellow ; center of the crown with 
a white stripe bounded on either side by much wider black stripes; a white 
stripe from the eye passes backward along the side of the head; back rufous 
or rufous-brown, streaked with black and slightlj' margined with whitish; 
rump grayish brown; greater and middle wing-coverts tipped with white; 
tail grajnsh brown; underparts grayish, more so on the breast; throat with 
a square white patch; beUy whitish; flanks and under tail-coverts tinged with 
grayish brown. Im. and Ads. in winter. — Yellow before the eye, and on the 
bend of the wing duller; crown streaks brownish ashy and mixed chestnut 
and black, instead of white and black; throat-patch less sharply defined and 
in some (Im.) specimens practically obsolete when the breast is obscurely 
streaked with blackish. L., 6-74; W., 2*89; T., 2-86; B., "44. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and lower Hudsonian zones 
from n. Mackenzie (Ft. Good Hope), cen. Keewatin, and s. Ungava s. to 
cen. Alberta, s. Mont., cen. Minn., cen. Wise, s. Ont., and mts. of n. Pa., 
N. Y., and Mass. ; -ndnters from Mo., the Ohio Valley, s. Pa., Mass. (casually 
Maine), s. to ne. Mex. and Fla.; casual in Ore., Calif., Utah, and Colo. 

Washington, very common W. V., abundant T. V., Mch. 18-May; 
Sept. 15-Dec. 16. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 10-May 21; Sept. 20- 
Oct. 30; a few winter. Cambridge, very common T. V., Apl. 25-May 15; 
Oct. 1-Xov. 10; a few winter. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl 1-May 21; Sept. 
10-Nov. 7. Glen Ellvn, common T. V., Apl. 9-May 26; Sept. 13-Nov. 7. 
SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 8- ; Sept. 27N0V. 13. 

Nest, of coarse grasses, rootlets, moss, strips of bark, etc., lined with finer 
grasses, on the ground or in bushes. Eggs, 4-5, bluish white, finely and 
evenly speckled or heavily and irregularly blotched with pale rufous-brown, 
•82 X -60. Date, Wilmurt, N. Y., May 28; Lancaster, N. H., June 5; Char- 
lotte Co., N. B., June 5. 

In September, when the hedgerows and woodland undergrowths begin 
to rustle with Sparrows, Jun- 
cos, and Towhees, I watch 
eagerly for the arrival of 
these welcome fall songs- 
sters. There are a few sweet , 
tremulous trials before 
their plaintive, sympathetic 
whistle brings cheer to the 
browning woods: 

Few birds are more sociable than the White-throats. At this season 
they are always in little companies, and they frequently roost together 
in large numbers in the depths of dense thickets or clumps of ever- 
greens. After they have retired one may hear the sharp chinh of t-heir 
'quarrier' chorus, and when darkness comes, with low, brooding notes 
of cozy companionship they are hushed for the night. 

559. Spizella monticola monticola (GmcZ.). Tree Spauhow. Ads. — 
No black on the forehead; an indistinct black spot on the center of the breast; 
top of the head rufou.s-l)rown, .sometimes edged with ashy; a grayish lino 
over the eye and a rufous-brown line behind it; hack streaked with rufous- 
brown, black, and pale ochraceous-buff; rump pale grayish brown; greater 





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EEE 


or 




_#_#_ 

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398 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

and middle wing-coverts tipped with white; outer web of the outer tail- 
feather whitish; breast grayish white; middle of the belly white; sides 
tinged with pale grayish brown; upper mandible black; lower, yellow at the 
base, the tip black. L., 6-36; W., 2*99; T., 2-82; B., -41. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Hudsonian zone from cen. Mackenzie and 
n. Ungava to Great Slave Lake, cen. Keewatin, n. Que., and N. F. ; winters 
from s. Minn., Ont., and the Maritime Provinces s. to e. Okla., cen. Ark., 
and S. C. 

Washington, abundant W. V., Oct.-Apl. 1. Ossining, common W. V., 
Oct. 10-Apl. 27. Cambridge, common W. V., abundant T. V., Oct. 25- 
Nov. 25; Mch. 20-Apl. 20. N. Ohio, abundant W. V., Oct. 24-Mav 3. Glen 
Ellyn, common W. V., Oct. 4-Apl. 28. SE. Minn., common T. V., Oct. 6- 
May 5; a few winter. 

Nest, of grasses, rootlets, and hair, on or near the ground. "Eggs, 4-5, 
pale green or greenish blue, spotted with reddish brown, "75 x °60" (Cham- 
berlain). Date, Ft. Chimo, Lab., June 16. 

Tree Sparrows wear a small black dot on the center of their other- 
wise unmarked breasts, a badge which will aid in their identification. 
They come in flocks when the fields are beginning to look brown and 
dreary, but seem contented with the surroundings from which other 
birds have fled. They feed on the seeds of weeds and grasses, and even 
when the snow is deepest always find an abundance of food. I like to see 
them feasting on the seed-stalks above the crust, and to hear their 
chorus of merry, tinkling notes, like sparkling frost crystals turned to 
music. 

Winter Chippies they are sometimes called, but at this season there 
is little of the Chippy's nature about them. In February or March 
they begin to sing a song which has been compared to that of a Canary, 
but is "finer, sweeter, and not so loud." 

560. Spizella passerina passerina (Bech.). Chipping Sparrow. Ads. 
— Forehead black, a short grayish line in its middle; top of the head rufous; 
the nape generally with a few black streaks; a grayish line over the eye and 
a black line behind it; back of the neck grayish, separating the rufous crown 
from the back; back streaked with black, a little rufous, and more pale 
buffy ochraceous; rump slaty gray; wing-bars not 
conspicuous; underparts grayish white, whiter on 
the throat and belly; bill entirely black. Ads. in 
ivinter and Im. — Similar, but no rufous crown-cap 
or black on the forehead; top of the head streaked 
like the back; bill brownish. Nestlings have the 
breast streaked with black. L., 5-37; W., 2*74; T., 
2-29; B., -36. 

Remarks. — In adults the rufous crown, black 

Fig. 107. Chipping Spar- forehead, gray rump, and black bill are characteris- 

row, (Natural size.) tic; in winter the gray rump is a good distinguishing 

mark. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Austral zones 

from cen. Sask., sw. Keewatin, n. Ont., cen. Que., and Cape Breton Is. to 

cen. Tex., s. Miss., and cen. Ga.; winters chiefly in s. States, occasionally 

as far n. as Okla. and s. N. J.; casual in Cuba and ne. Mex. 

Washington, common S. R., abundant T. V., Mch. 9-Nov. 11, occasion- 
ally winters. Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 9-Nov. 7. Cambridge, abun- 
dant S. R., Apl. 12-Oct. 25. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 23 to Oct. 10. 
Glen Ellyn, not very common S. R., Apl. 5-Nov. 5. SE. Minn., common 
S. R., Apl. 8-Oct. 2G. 




FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 399 

Nest, of grasses, fine twigs, or rootlets, thicldy lined with long hairs, in 
trees or bushes, 5-20 feet up. Eggs, 4-5, blue or greenish blue, with cinnamon- 
brown or blackish markings, chiefly at the larger end, "72 x '51. Date, 
Montgomery Co., Pa., May 8; Cambridge, May 12; se. Minn., May 16. 

The Chippy is among Sparrows what the Phoebe is among Fly- 
catchers — the humblest, most unassuming member of its family-. Both 
show trustfulness, which, in spite of their unattractive appearance and 
far from pleasing voices, wins our affection. Chippy makes his nest in 
the vines on our piazza, and feeds on the crumbs at our doorstep, quite 
as though he were a member of the family; and he needs only a little 
encouragement to give evidence of his entire confidence in our good 
will by feeding from our hands. His song is a monotonous chippy- 
chippy-chippy-chippy, rather high and wiry and frequently running 
into an insectlike trill — by no means a musical performance. 

In the fall, Chippy changes his dress, dons a streaked cap for the 
one of bright bay, and, with others of his kind, goes to the fields to 
feast on the year's harvest of seeds. He is generally found near trees 
and hedgerows, into which, when alarmed, he flies with his companions. 

561. Spizella pallida (Swains). Clay-colored Sparrow. Ads. — 
With a general resemblance to immature S. socialis, but less rufous above, 
whiter below, the line over the eye white, and the rump pale grayish brown 
instead of slaty gray. W., 2-40; T., 2-35; B., -34. 

Range. — Interior N. A. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from 
se. B. C, s. Mackenzie, sw. Keewatin, and Isle Royale, Mich., to w. Mont., 
se. Colo., n. Nebr., and nw. Ills.; winters from s. Ariz., s. N. M., and a. 
Tex. s. to s. Mex., Guanajuato, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Chiapas; casual in 
Ont. and Ind. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 26-Oct. 19. 

Nest, of grasses, lined with hairs, on the ground or in bushes. Eggs, 3-5, 
similar to those of the preceding. Date, se. Minn., May 23. 

"This pale Sparrow of the plains is very similar in actions to the 
Chipping Sparrow, but less familiar and confiding in habits" (Goss). 

Brewer's Sparrow (562. Spizella hreweri), a western species, haa 
been recorded once from Massachusetts. (Brewster, Atn. Nat., VIII, 1874, 
366.) 

563. Spizella pusilla pusilla (Wils.). Field Sparrow. Bill reddish 
brown. Ads. — Top of hcsad rufous, a gray line over the eye; nape .slightly 
gray; back like the crown, but finely streaked with black and narrowly 
edged with brownish ashy; rump brownish ashy; iniddle and Krc-itcr winy- 
coverts tipped with white; underparts whitish, tinged with ochraccous-lxilT 
on the breast and sides. Ads. in winter and Im. — Similar, hut the coh)rs duller, 
the crown edged with grayish and sometimes a faint grayish Vnw. through its 
center. Nestlings have the breast streaked with black. L., 5*68; W., 2*50; 
T., 2-55; B., -36. 

Remarks. — This bird may ?)e known by its brightly colored back, huffy 
breast, and especially by it.s rerldish bill. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition and Austral zones from a. 
Minn., s. Mich., s. Que., and s. Maine, to cen. Tex., cen. La., and n. Fla.; 
winters from Mo., Ills., s. Pa., and N. J. to the Gulf coast, casually further n. 

Washington, very common P. R. Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 2 Xov. 
7. Cambridge, common S. R., Apl. 12-Nov. 1; easual in winter. N. Ohio, 
abundant in summer, Mch. 6-Oct. 25. CAvu Ellvn, tolerably common S. R., 
Mch. 27-Oct. 11. SE, Minn., common S. R., Apl. 1-Dec. 28. 



400 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

Nest, of rather coarse grasses, weed stalks, rootlets, etc., lined with fine 
grasses and long hairs, on the ground or in low bushes. Eggs, 3-5, white or 
bluish white, with numerous rufous markings, chiefly about the larger end, 
•70 X -52. Date, Raleigh, N. C, May 4; Montgomery Co., Pa., May 5; 
New London, Conn., May 21; Cambridge, May 25; Wheatland, Ind., Apl. 
30. 

Its bright rufous color, the absence of spots on its breast, and espe- 
cially its flesh-colored bill, are the best field-marks of this misnamed 
Sparrow, for he is not a true Field Sparrow, but prefers old pastures 
dotted with clumps of bushes or young cedars. There is something 
winning in his appearance; he seems such a gentle, innocent, dove- 
like little bird. His song is in keeping with his character, being an 
unusually clear, plaintive whistle, sweeter to the lover of birds' songs 
than the voice of the most gifted songstress. It is subject to much 
variation. Not only do the same individuals sing several different 
songs, but two individuals in the same locality rarely sing ahke. There 
is also much variation in the songs of birds from different regions. For 
this reason it is quite impossible to give a description of the song which 
will apply throughout the bird's range. However, an average song 
consists of the syllables cher-wee, cher-wee, cher-wee, cher-wee, chee-o, 
de-de-de-de-de, the last notes joined in a trill. 

This gives, of course, no idea of the quality of the Field Sparrow's 
song, but to be convinced of its rare beauty one need only hear it as 
the sun goes down and the hush of early evening is quieting the earth. 

The Western Field Sparrow {563a. Spizella pusilla arenacea), a pale 
form, has been recorded from the vicinity of New Orleans. 

567. Junco hyemalis hyemalis (Linn.). Slate-colored Junco. Ad. 
c?. — Upperparts, throat, and breast grayish slate-color; upperparts more or 
less washed with grayish brown; belly white, sides grayish; no wing-bars; tail 
fuscous, the two outer feathers and part of the third white; bill flesh-color. 
Ad. 9. — Similar, but the upperparts browner, throat and breast paler. Ads. 
in winter. — Resemble ads. in summer but are more richly washed with brown- 
ish or rusty. Nestlings, resemble the adults, but have the upperparts, throat, 
and breast streaked with black. L., 6-27; W., 3*03; T., 2-71; B., -41. 

Range. — E. and n. N. Am. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian zones 
in nw. Alaska (tree limit), n. Mackenzie (tree limit), cen. Keewatin, and cen. 
Ungava s. to base of Alaska Peninsula, s. Yukon, cen. Alberta, n. Minn., 
cen. Mich., Ont., and mts. of N. Y., Pa., and Mass.; winters throughout the 
e. U. S. and s. Ont. s. to the Gulf coast; casual in Calif., Ariz., and N. M.; 
straggles to Siberia. 

Washington, abundant W. V., Sept. 26-May 12. Ossining, common W. 
v., Sept. 19-May 4. Cambridge, rather common W. V., abundant T. V., 
Sept. 20-Nov. 25; Mch. 20-Apl. 20. N. Ohio, abundant W. V., Oct. 2-May 
5. Glen Ellyn, W. V., abundant spring and fall, Aug. 30-May 13. SE. 
Minn., common T. V., Mch. 4- ; Sept. 20-Nov. 12. 

Nest, of grasses, moss and rootlets, lined with fine grasses and long hairs, 
on or near the ground. Eggs, 4-5, white or bluish white, finely and evenly 
speckled or spotted, sometimes heavily blotched at the larger end with 
rufous-brown, '76 x '58. Date, Wilmurt, N. Y., May 27; Grand Manan, N. 
B., May 25. 

When the snow begins to fly, you will look out some gray morning 
to find a flock of small, plump, slate-colored birds hopping about the 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 401 

dooryard, picking up what they can find, or sitting in the bushes with 
an air of contentment that it is pleasant to see. 

Coming, as they do, when most of the home birds have left for the 
south, they bring their own welcome, and soon seem like old friends. 
But if you would really know your gentle winter visitors, you must 
go back into the woods when summer comes and find them in their 
own homes. 

Look for them in a tangle of fallen tree-tops, logs, and upturned 
roots. A pair I once surprised in such a place at first sat and chirped 
at me — with bills full of food — but soon they were flying freely back 
and forth to the upturned root where they had hidden their nest. 

I noticed with surprise that their gray plumage toned in so well 
with the dark earth that they were hard to see. The sharp horizontal 
line across the breast where the gray turns abruptly to white added 
to the disguise, the straight fine breaking the round form of the bird. 

The 'tsip of the Junco is unmistakable and more often heard than 
his song, but he has both a trill and a low, sweet song as unpretentious 
and cheery as the friendly bird himself. 

Florence Merriam Bailey. 

567e. J. h. carolinensis Brewsf. Carolina Junco. Similar to the 
preceding, but slightly larger, the upperparts, throat, and breast uniform 
grayish slate-color without sl brownish wash, bill horn-color. W., 3*26; 
T., 2-85; B., -43. 

Range. — S. Alleghanies. Breeds in the Canadian zone (overlapping 
into the AUeghanian fauna) of mts. from w. Md., Va., and W. Va., s. to n. 
Ga. ; winters in adjacent lowlands. 

Nesting date, Cold Knob, W. Va., May 21. 

This is a common and apparently permanent resident species in the 
higher parts of the southern Alleghanies. 

567f. J. h. xnontanus Ridgw. Montana Junco. Similar to J. h. 
hyemalis, but head and breast blacker, the former, sharply defined from the 
brownish black, the sides strongly washed with brownish pink. W., 3" 15; 
T., 2-60. 

Range. — N. Rocky Mts. Breeds in Canadian zone from s. Alberta s. 
to n. Idaho and nw. Alont.; winters s. to Ariz., N. M., Chihuahua, and Tex., 
and e. casually to Kans., Ills., Ind., Mass., and Md. 

Cambridge, one record (Mch. 25, LS74). 

575. Peucsea aestivalis aestivalis (TAcht.). Pink-woods Sparrow. 
Ads. — Upperparts light''r,7/r.s/rt//<, more or loss stn^akcd with black and mar- 
gined with gray; a grayish line over the; eye; bend of the wing yellow; tail- 
feathers narrow, grayish fuscous, the outer ones nnu-h the shortest; breast 
and sides washed with pale brownish ash; breast sometimes with a few black 
spots; middle of the belly white. L., 5-80; W., 2-.50; T., 2*50; B., '45. 

Range. — Ga. and Fla. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from s. Ga. s. 
to cen. Fla. ; winters in cen. and s. Fla. 

Nest, of fine grasses, on the ground, beneath scrub palmetto. Eggs, 3-5, 
pure white, '72 x '61. Date, Lake Okeechobee, Fla., Apl. 14; San Mateo, 
Fla., Apl. 23. 

This is a common bird in Florida. It winters in the southern part 
of the State and migrates northward in March. It is found only in 



402 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

pine woods having an undergrowth of scrub palmetto. Here it passes 
most of its time on the ground, and is difficult to flush. 

When singing, it seeks an elevated perch. In my opinion its song 
is more beautiful than that of any other of our Sparrows. It is very 
simple — I write it, che-e-e-e — de, de, de] che-e — chee-o, chee-o, chee-o, 
chee-o — but it possesses aU the exquisite tenderness and pathos of the 
melody of the Hermit Thrush; indeed, in purity of tone and in execu- 
tion I should consider the Sparrow the superior songster. It sings most 
freely very early in the morning and late in the afternoon, when the 
world is hushed and the pine trees breathe a soft accompaniment to 
its divine music. 

575a. P. se. bachmani (Aud.). Bachman's Sparrow. Similar to 
the preceding subspecies, but the upperparts rufous, black streaks generally 
confined to the back, or absent; line over the eye buffy; breast and sides 
brownish cream-buff without streaks. 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas 
in cen. Ills, (locally to se. Iowa), s. Ind., s. Ohio and cen. Va. s. to cen. Tex., 
and extreme nw. Fla. ; winters from s. N. C. s. into Fla. ; casual near Washing- 
ton, D. C. 

Washington, one record, Apl. 

Nest, of grasses, domed and cylindrical, on the ground. Eggs, 3-4, pure 
white, -74 x '60 (Bendire, Auk, V, 1888, 356). Date, WeaverviUe, N. C, 
May 6; Greensboro, Ala., May 8. 

In Florida, where this bird is not uncommon during the winter, I 
have found it in pine woods undergrown with turkey oaks, and not in 
localities frequented by P. oBstivalis. In South Carohna it was observed 
in essentially similar locahties, and its song did not differ materially 
from that of cestivalis. Mr. Ridgway writes that in Ilhnois this is 
"emphatically a bird of open oak woods, where large white and post 
oaks prevail, with grass land immediately adjoining, or where the in- 
tervals between the trees consist of sward rather than undergrowth; 
but neglected fields, grown up to weeds, and in which dead trees are 
left standing, are also its favorite haunts." 

He speaks of its song as reminding one somewhat of the plaintive 
chant of the Field Sparrow, but as far sweeter and louder; "the modu- 
lation, as nearly as can be expressed in words, resembhng the syllables 
theeeeeee-thut, lut, lut, lut, the first being a rich, silvery trill, pitched in 
a high musical key, the other syllables also metalhc, but abrupt, and 
lower in tone." 

1888. Bendire, C. E., Auk, V, 351-356 (nesting). 

581. Melospiza melodia melodia (Wils.). Song Sparrow. Ads.— 
Crown rufous-brown, with a grayish line through its center; a grayish line 
over the eye; a rufous-brown line from behind the eye to the nape; feathers 
of the back streaked with black and margined with rufous-brown and grayish ; 
greater wing-covcrts with black spots at their tips; no white wing-bars or 
yellow on the wing; tail rufous grayish brown, the middle feathers darker 
along their shafts; outer feathers shortest; sides of the throat with black or 
blackish streaks; breast with wedge-shaped streaks of black and rufous- 
brown which tend to form one larger blotch on the center; sides washed 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 403 

with brownish and streaked with black and rufous-brown; middle of the 
belly white. L., 6-30; W., 2-52; T., 2-62; B., -49. 

Range. — N. A. e. of the Rocky Mts. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, 
and Upper Austral zones from s. Mackenzie (Great Slave Lake), cen. Kee- 
watin, n. Ont., cen. Que., and Cape Breton Is. s. to s. Nebr., cen. Mo., Ky., 
s. Va., and s. N. C. (mts.), and w. to the Rocky Mts. of Alberta; winters 
from Neb., Ills., Mass. (locally), and N. J., s. to the Giilf coast, and sporadi- 
cally n. to Mich., and N. S. 

Washington, common P. R., abundant T. V., Mch. and Oct. Ossining, 
common P. R. Cambridge, very abundant S. R., Mch. 10-Nov. 1; locally 
common W. V. N. Ohio, P. R., abundant in summer, common in winter. 
Glen EUyn, common S. R., Feb. 12-Nov. 2. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 
16-Nov. 11. 

Nest, of coarse grasses, rootlets, dead leaves, strips of bark, etc., lined 
with finer grasses and sometimes long hairs, on the ground, sometimes in 
bushes. Eggs, 4-5, white or bluish white, with numerous rufous-brown mark- 
ings which sometimes nearly conceal the ground color, '76 x '60. Date, 
Montgomery Co., Pa., Apl. 27; Cambridge, Apl. 30; se. Minn., Apl. 27. 

The Song Sparrow's vast range in a dozen varying climates, its 
readiness to adapt itself to the different conditions in each of the regions 
it inhabits, its numerical abundance and steady increase while some of 
its family are dying out, its freedom from disease and vermin, and its 
perennial cheerfulness, evidenced by its never-failing music — all pro- 
claim that it is indeed one of Nature's successes. 

Its irrepressible vivacity and good spirits in spite of all circum- 
stances are aptly illustrated by the fact that its song may be heard in 
every month of the year and in all weathers; also by night as well as 
by day — for nothing is more common in the darkest nights than to 
hear its sweet chant in half-conscious answer to the hooting of the 
Owl or even the report of a gun. 

It is never seen far from water, and when it is alarmed it flies down- 
ward or along — never upward — into some low thicket, pumping its 
tail as it flies. 

Its alarm note is a simple metaUic chip, which is very distinctive 
when once learned. But its merry chant — which has won for it the 
name of "Song Sparrow" — is its best-known note. It is a voluble and 
uninterrupted but short refrain, and is, perhaps, the sweetest of the 
familiar voices of the meadow lands. The song that it occasionally 
utters while on the wing is of quite a different character, being more 
prolonged and varied. 

Though so abundant, it can not be styled a sociable species. Even 
during the migrations it is never seen in compact flocks like the Rod- 
poll or Snowflake; at most it will be found forming a part of a long, 
scattered migrating train that usually includes a number of different 
but nearly related species. Ernest Thompson Seton. 

1899. Owen, D. E., Auk, XVI, 221-225 (growth of young). 

583. Melospiza lincolni lincolni {Aud.). Lincoln's SpARnow. 

Ads. — Upperparts streaked with black, brownish gray, and grayish brown; 

tail-feathers narrow and rather pointed, the outer ones shortest; un(lc>r- 

parts white, rather finely streaked with black, a broad cream-buff band 

28 



404 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

across the hreast, a cream-buff stripe on either side of the throat; sides 
tinged with cream-buff. L., 5-75; W., 2-50; T., 2-40; B., 'U. 

Remarks. — The cream-buff band on the breast is distinctive of this 
species. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Boreal zones from Alaska and n. Ungava s. 
to n. Minn., cen. Ont., n. N. Y., N. B., and N. S. and s. in the Cascade, 
Sierra Nevada, and Rocky Mts. to s. Calif, and n. N. M.; winters from San 
Jacinto Mts., Calif., s. Okla., and n. Miss, to Guatemala; casual only e. of 
the Alleghany Mts. s. of Washington, D. C. 

Washington, rare T. V., May 8-21; Sept. 30-Oct. 1. Ossining, rare T. 
v., Sept. 29-Oct. 16. Cambridge, not uncommon. T. V., May 15-May 25; 
Sept. 14-Oct. 10. N. Ohio, tolerably common T. V., Apl. 25-May 25. Glen 
Ellyn, not common T. V., fall records only, Sept. 11-Oct. 9. SE. Minn., 
common T. V., Apl. 17- ; Sept. 10-Oct. 30. 

Nest, generally similar to that of the Song Sparrow, on the ground. 
^''Eggs, 4-5, pale green or buffish, sometimes almost white, thickly spotted 
and blotched with reddish brown and lilac, "80 x '60" (Chamberlain). 
Date, Wilmurt, N. Y., June 10; Racine, Wise, June 6. 

The most striking characteristic about the Lincoln's Sparrow is its 
shyness, whether migrating in the lavish abundance of the West, stray- 
ing casually through the states of the Atlantic seaboard, or settled 
for the summer in a chosen spot of the northern evergreen woods. 
Scampering like a mouse along some tumble-down stone wall half 
buried in poison ivy, sumach, and all the tangled growth that goes to 
make up an old hedgerow, or peering out from a clump of low-spreading 
bushes, this little bird may sometimes be detected; but as he hurries 
northward late in the migration, when all the woods and fields are 
ringing with bird music, our attention is seldom directed toward the 
silent straggler, while in the autumn he is lost in the waves of Sparrows 
that flood the country. 

If we follow him northward, we find him irregularly distributed in 
small colonies or single pairs in damp clearings, perhaps along brooks 
or ponds, but avoiding almost entirely the wetter, more open localities, 
where the Swamp Sparrow is at home. Attracted by a sharp chirp 
which, at times reduplicated, resembles that of a young Chipping 
Sparrow, we may succeed in catching a glimpse of him as he lurka 
beneath a little spruce perhaps no bigger than an umbrella. 

Sometimes venturing timidly to the outer boughs of a spruce, he 
surprises the hearer with a most unsparrowlike song. It is not loud, 
and suggests the bubbling, guttural notes of the House Wren, com- 
bined with the sweet rippling music of the Purple Finch, and when 
you think the song is done there is an unexpected aftermath. The 
birds sing very little and at long intervals, and are seldom heard dur- 
ing the later hours of the day, ceasing at once if anybody approaches. 

J. DwiGHT, Jr. 

584. Melospiza georgiana {Lath.). Swamp Sparrow. Ads. in sum- 
mer. — Crown chestnut-rufous; forehead black; a grayish line over the 
eye; a blackish line behind the eye; nape slaty gray with a few black streaks; 
feathers of the back broadly streaked with black and margined with rufous 
and cream-buff or ashy buff; wing-coverts rufous, the greater ones with 
black spots at their tips; rump rufous grayish brown, sometimes streaked 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 405 

with black; tail rufous grayish brown, the middle feathers darker along their 
shafts; throat and middle of the bellj' white, breast grayish, sides washed 
with pale grayish brown. Ads. in winter and Im. — Similar, but the top of 
the head streaked with black, rufous-brown, and grajnsh; nape less gray; 
breast washed with brownish. L., o'SQ; W., 2-34; T., 2-32; B., '46. 

Remarks. — The underparts resemble those of some immature White- 
throated Sparrows, but the wing-bars and the yellow bend of the wing udll 
always distinguish the latter. 

Range. — N. A. e. of Great Plains. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and 
part of Upper Austral zones from w. cen. Alberta, cen. Mackenzie, cen. 
Keewatin, cen. Que., and N. F. s. to n. Nebr., n. Mo., n. Ills., W. Va. (mts.) 
and N. J. ; ranters from Nebr., Ohio Valley, and Mass. (rareljO s. to the Gulf 
coast from cen. Fla. to Mex. ; accidental in Utah and Colo. 

Washington, very common T. V., Apl. 12-May 19; Sept. 28-Oct. 29; 
a few winter. Ossining, tolerably common S. R., Apl. 4-Dec. 2; a few winter. 
Cambridge, abundant S. R., Apl. 12-Nov. 10; a few winter. N. Ohio, com- 
mon T. v., Mch. 23-May 20. Glen Ellyn, tolerably common T. V., Apl. 
2-May 26; Sept. 2-Oct. 24; possibly S. R. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 
5-Nov. 18. 

Nest, generally similar to that of the Song Sparrow, on the ground. Eggs, 
4^5, similar in color to those of the Song Sparrow, but the markings gener- 
allj^ more confluent, '76 x "o?. Date, Cambridge, May 13; New Canada, 
N. S., May 19; Pewaukee, Wise, May 23; se. Minn., May 25. 

WTiile wintering in the South, Swamp Sparrows frequently belie 
their name, and I have often found numbers of them in dry 'old fields' 
of broom sedge; but at the north they are more consistent, and one 
rarely sees them beyond the confines of a wet meadow, or, more prefer- 
ably, a large grassy marsh with reed-bordered streams. 

Swamp Sparrows may be distinguished from their cousins, the Song 
Sparrows, by their unstreaked breast, much darker upperparts, and 
totally different notes. Their usual call-note is a sharp cheep, not unlike 
that of the White-throated Sparrow, and quite different from the 
rather nasal chimp of the Song Sparrow. Their song is a simple, sweet, 
but somewhat monotonous tweet-tweet-tweet, repeated many times, all 
on one note, and sometimes running into a trUl. 

585. Passerella iliaca iliaca (Merr.). Fox Sparrow. Ads. — Upper- 
parts rufous-brown, the feathers margined by cinnamon-brown and without 
black; upper tail-coverts and tail bright rufous; wings margined with rufous; 
underparts heavily streaked and spotted with rufous-brown and blackish; 
middle of the belly white; lower mandible yellowish. L., 7"2G; W., 3"39; 
T., 2-85; B., -50. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Boreal 
zones from tree limit in ne. Alaska, 
and n. Ungava s. to cen. Alberta, n. 
Man., s. Keewatin, Magdalen Lslanrls, 
and N. F. ; winters from lower Ohio ;: 
and Potomac valleys (occasionally '"' 
further n.) to cen. Tex. and n. P1a.; 
casual on the coast of s. Alaska and in 
Cahf. 

Washington, very abundant T. V., 
Mch. 13-May 11; Oct. 23-Nov. 15; 
a few winter. Ossining, tolerably com- 
mon T. v., Mch. 4-Apl. 20; Oct. 14- 
Nov. 28. Cambridge, abundant T. v., Fia. 108. Fox 6parrow. (Natural aizc.) 




406 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

Mch. 15-Apl. 12; Oct. 20-Nov. 15; occasional in winter. N. Ohio, common 
T. v., Mch. 12-Apl. 23; Oct. 1-Nov. 16. Glen Ellyn, fairly common T. V., 
Mch. 11-Apl. 28; Sept. 22-Nov. 8. SE. Minn., common T. V., Mch. 12- ; 
Sept. 17-Nov. 12. 

Nest, of coarse grasses, lined with finer grasses, hair, moss, and feathers, 
on the ground, and in low trees and bushes. Eggs, 4-5, pale bluish, evenly 
speckled or heavily blotched with umber or vinaceous-brown, '80 x "63 (see 
Bendire, Auk, VI, 1889, 108). Date, Ft. Resolution, Mack., Jime 1. 

In the early spring the Fox Sparrow is seen mostly about damp 
thickets and roadside shrubbery; later it takes more to woodsides, 
foraging on leaf-strewn slopes where there is little or no undergrowth, 
often associated with small parties of Juncos. On its return in the 
autumn it again becomes a common denizen of hedgerows and thickets, 
and also invades the weedy grainfields, rarely, however, straying far 
from some thickety cover. Sometimes large numbers congregate 
among withered growths of tall weeds, whence they emerge with a 
loud whirring of wings as their retreat is invaded, and hie away in 
tawny clouds, flock after flock. It is a great scratcher among dead 
leaves, and can make the wood rubbish fly in a way which, in propor- 
tion to its size, a barnyard fowl could scarcely excel. 

The usual note of the Fox Sparrow is a feeble tseep. A note of 
excitement is louder and sharper in tone. Its song is not surpassed 
by that of any of our Sparrows. It is a revelation to hear it at sun- 
down on some vernally softened evening of early springtime; little 
swarms of gnats hover in the balmy air; from the twilight meadows 
comes the welcome, half-doubtful piping of the first hylas — no other 
sound. Then perhaps from some dusky thicket a bird's song! An 
emotional outburst rising full-toned and clear, and passing all too 
quickly to a closing cadence, which seems to linger in the silent air. 
It is the song of the Fox Sparrow with that fuller power and richness 
of tone which come into it, or seem to, at the sunset hour. It breaks 
forth as if inspired from pure joy in the awakened season, though with 
some vague undertone, scarcely of sadness, rather of some lower tone 
of joy. Eugene P. Bicknell, 

1889. Bendiee, C. E., Auk, VI, 107-116 (nesting). 

587. Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus {Linn.). 
TowHEE. Ad. cf. — Upperparts black, sometimes margined wath rufous; 
throat and breast black, belly white, sides rufous; outer web of primaries 
with white; tail black, the three outer feathers tipped with white; outer web 
of the outer feather entirely white; iris red. Ad. 9. — Upperparts, wings, 
throat, and breast bright grayish brown; tail fuscous-brown the three outer 
feathers tipped with white; sides rufous, middle of the belly white. Nestlings 
have the back and underparts streaked ^dth black. L., 8'35; W., 3 "34; T., 
3-68; B., -55. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Alleghanian and Carolinian faunas from 
se. Sask., s. Man., s. Ont., and s. Maine s. to cen. Kans. and n. Ga. ; winters 
from se. Nebr., the Ohio and Potomac valleys (casually New England) to 
cen. Tex., the Gulf coast, and s. Fla. 

Washington, common S. R., very common T. V., Apl. 5-Oct. 21; a few 
winter. Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 21-Oct. 31. Cambridge, common 
S. R., Apl. 25-Oct. 15. N. Ohio, common S. R., Mch. 10-Oct. 25. Glen 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 407 

Ellyn, not common S. R., Mch. 30-Xov. 18. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
Apl. 11-Xov. 8. 

Xest, externally of dead leaves and strips of bark, lined with fine grasses, 
on or near the ground. Eggs, 4-5, white, finelj- and evenly speckled with 
shades of rufous, sometimes blotched at the larger end, '96 x '71. Date, 
Fairfax Co., Va., May 8; Montgomery Co., Pa., May 17; Cambridge, May 
20; Rosetta, 111., May 2; Wheatland, Ind., May 6. 

There is a \'igorousness about the Towhee's notes and actions which 
suggests both a bustling, energetic disposition and a good constitu- 
tion. He entirely dominates the thicket or bushy undergrowth in 
which he makes his home. The dead leaves fly before his attack; his 
white-tipped tail-feathers flash in the gloom of his haunts. He greets 
aU passers -^ith a brisk, inquiring chewink, towhee, and if you pause 
to reply, \sith sl fluff-fluff of his short, rounded wings he flies to a nearby 
limb to better inspect you. 

It is onl}' when singing that the Towhee is fully at rest. Then a 
change comes over hirn; he is in love, and, mounting a low branch, 
he gives voice to his passion in song. I have long tried to express the 
Towhee's song in words, but never succeeded as well as Ernest Thomp- 
son Seton when he wrote it chuck-burr, pill-a-will-a-will-a. 

587a. P. e. alleni Coues. White -eyed Towhee. Similar to the pre- 
ceding, but with less white on the wings and tail; only two outer tail-feath- 
ers tipped with white; iris vellowish or white. L., 8*60; W., 3*20; T., 3'60; 
B., -52. 

Range. — Coast region from about Charleston, S. C, s. through Fla. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 18. 

This southern race of the Towhee does not associate with the 
northern bird, which is abundant in the south in the winter. 

The latter selects haunts of much the same nature as those in 
which it passes the summer, while the southern bird lives in heavy 
growths of scrub palmetto. The notes of alleni differ from those of 
erythrophthalmus; its towhee is much higher, and its song, as Dr. Allen 
pointed out years ago, is shorter. It is also a shyer bird than its northern 
cousin. 

The Arctic Towhee (o88. Pipilo maculatus ardicus) of the Great 
Plains and Rocky Mountain region, is of casual occurrence in Illinois and 
Wisconsin. It bears a general resemblance to P. c. erythrophthalmus, hut lia.s 
more white in the tail and the scapulars and back are marked with white. 

The Green-tailed Towhee (592.1. Orcospiza chlorura) of the western 
United States is of accidental occurrence in Virginia. 

593. Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis (Linn.). Cardinal. Ad. cf. — 
Throat and regions about the lja.se of the bill black; rest of the plumage 
bright rosy red, the upperparts tipped with grayish; a consF)icuou3 crest; 
bill red. Ad. 9. — Throat and region al)out the base of bill grayish Ijlack; 
crest, wings, and tail dull red; upperparts olive brownish ash; underparts 
huffy ochraceous, lighter on the bdlv, and sometimes tinged with red on the 
breast. L., 8-25; W.. 3-75; T.. 4-00; B., '64. 

Range. — Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas from se. S. D., s. Iowa, 
n. Ind., n. Ohio, s. Ont. (locally), se. and sw. Pa., and s. Hudson Valley 3. 



408 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

to the Gtilf States; casual in Minn., Wise, Mich., N. B., Mass., and Conn.; 
resident in Bermuda. 

Washington, common P. R. ; less common than formerly. Ossining, A. 
V. Cambridge, irregular but not very infrequent at all seasons. N. Ohio, 
common P. R. Glen Ellyn, rare S. R. SE. Minn., rare. 

Nest, of twigs, rootlets, and strips of bark, lined with grasses and rootlets, 
in bushes. Eggs, 3-4, white or bluish white, speckled or spotted with grayish 
brown, cinnamon-brown, or umber, 1"00 x "70. Date, D. C, Apl. 15; 
Chester Co., Pa,, Apl. 30; Central Park, New York City, May 5. 

- One's first impression of the Cardinal Grosbeak will usually be that 
he is rather a clumsy fellow. His body appears to be stiff, as if it were 
made of wood, different in every way from the pliant, lithe body of the 
Catbird, for example. He hops about on the ground with tail held well 
up out of harm's way, and comes heavily down upon his feet, 
as if his body were really very solid. In fact, he is not at all a 
graceful bird. 

He is a famous singer, his song being a loud, clear whistle, into 
which usually enters quite frequently the sound of q! q! q ! and a pecu- 
liar long-drawn-out e-e! sometimes syllabled as "three cheers!" He is a 
favorite cage-bird. The female Cardinal is herself a charming singer, 
more pleasing to many than her mate, her music being softer in tone 
and otherwise different from his. The common call-note of both is a 
sharp, abrupt tsip! easily recognized after being once heard. 

As the head of a family the Cardinal is admirable, not only in his 
attentions to his lovely dove-colored mate, but in singing to her by the 
hour, and in protecting her from intrusion or danger. To the young in 
the nest he is an untiring provider of worms and grubs, and thus most 
useful in a garden. Nothing can be more comical than his behavior 
when he first conducts his young family out into the world while his 
mate is engaged with her second sitting. He is as fussy as any young 
mother, hopping about in great excitement, and appearing to think 
the whole world thirsting for the life of his pretty little ones. 

The Cardinal mother shows the restless manners and anxious spirit 
of her mate, taking one's intrusion upon her domestic affairs greatly 
to heart, and being so much disturbed that there is more pain than 
pleasure in making acquaintance with her nestlings. 

Olive Thorne Miller. 

593d. C. c. floridanus Ridgw. Florida Cardinal. Similar to 
C. c. cardinalis but smaller, male averaging deeper red; female darker and 
richer in color, particularly on breast. W., 3"40, 

Range. — Florida. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 12. 

595. Zamelodia ludoviciana [Linn.). Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 
Ad. (?. in summer — Head, throat, and back black; breast and under wing- 
coverts bright rose-red, this color sometimes extending down the center of 
the white belly; rump white, tipped with black; wings black; primaries 
white at the base; tail black, the outer feathers tipped with white on the 
inner web. Ad. d' in winter. — Similar but uDperparts and breast margined 
with brown; throat rose; superciliary whitish, sides with black spots. Im. 
cf in winter. — Resembles the 9, but under wing-coverts rose-red; breast 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 409 

tinged with rose. Im. d" in summer. — Similar to ad. d' in summer but wing- 
quills and some tail-feathers brownish as in 9 . The ad. winter plumage is 
acquired at the next (first postnuptial) molt, and the ad. summer the follow- 
ing spring. Ad. 9. — Upperparts grayish brown, margined with cream- 
buff and pale grajdsh brown ; a buffy line through the center of the crown, 
and a conspicuous whitish line over the eye ; wings and tail dark grayish 
brown ; wing-coverts tipped with white ; under wing-coverts orange; under- 
parts buffv, streaked with dark grayish ,brown. L., 8*12; W., 4*02; T., 
2-99; B., -69. 

Range. — E. N. Am. and n. S. A. Breeds in lower Canadian and Transi- 
tion zones from s. cen. Mackenzie, n. Man., cen. Ont., s. Que. and Cape 
Breton Is. s. to cen. Kans., cen. Mo., cen. Ohio, cen. N. J., and in mts. to 
n. Ga.; winters from.s. Mex. to Ecuador; casual in migration in Cuba, 
Jamaica, and the Bahamas; accidental in Ariz., Colo., and Calif. 

Washington, rather common T. V., May 1-30; Aug. 29-Oct 6. Ossining, 
tolerably common S. R., May 3-Oct. 1. Cambridge, very common S. R., 
May 10-Sept. 10. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 27-Sept. 15. Glen Ellyn, 
fairly common S. R., common T. V., Apl. 27-Sept. 28. SE. Minn., common 
S. R., Apl. 27-Sept. 23. 

Nest, of fine twigs, weed stalks, and rootlets, in bushes or trees, 5-20 
feet up. Eggs, 4-5, pale blue, wath numerous olive-brown or rufous-brown 
markings, '90 x '69. Date, Carmel, N. J., May 20; Cambridge, May 25; 
se. Minn., May 21. 

Sometimes in passing through young second growths, and more 
rarely densely undergrown woodland, I hear a singular kind of ques- 
tioning call-note, not loud, but distinct — a steely peek, peek. It is a 
signal to me to pause and look for its author; even a glimpse of him 
is worth several minutes' waiting and watching. There is no mistaking 
his black, white, and rose costume; but the identity of his more modestly 
attired mate may long remain an open question. So Httle does she 
resemble him that she might pass for an overgrown Sparrow with a 
rather conspicuous whitish stripe over her eye. 

The song of the Rose-breasted Grosbeak is generally compared to 
that of the Robin, and musical annotation would doubtless show that 
the comparison is not misleading. But the similarity is largely one of 
form; in expression there is no more resemblance in their voices than 
there is between the birds themselves. There is an exquisite purity in 
the joyous carol of the Grosbeak; his song tells of all the gladness of 
a May morning; I have heard few happier strains of bird music. With 
those who are deaf to its message of goorl cheer I can only sympathize, 
pitying the man whose heart does not leap with enthusiasm at the sight 
of rival males dashing through the woods like winged meteors, leaving 
in their wake a train of sparkling notes. 

The Black-headed Grosbeak {596. Zamelodia melanocephala) , a 
western species, has been recorded from Michigan. 

597. Guiraca carulea caerulea (Linn.). Blue Grosbeak. Ad. cT. 
—Deep purplish blue; lores and chin black; back blackish; wings and tail 
black, slightly edged with blue; middle wing-coverts widely, and greater 
coverts narrowly tipped with chestnut-rufous. Ad. <f in u'ln^r.— Similar, 
but widely margined with rusty brown, particularly on back. Im. d in 
winter. — Resembles the 9 . Im. d" in summer. — Plumage mottled brown and 
blue. The ad. winter plumage is acquired at the next (first postnuptial) 



410 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

molt, and the ad. summer by wearing off of brown margins the following 
spring. Ad. 9. — Upperparts grayish brown; in some specimens more or less 
blue about the head and rump and lesser wing-coverts; rump inclined to 
ashy; wings fuscous, the greater and middle coverts tipped with ochraceous- 
buff; tail fuscous, slightly margined with bluish gray; underparts brownish 
cream-buff, the feathers of the breast sometimes blue at the base. L., 7'00; 
W., 3-50; T., 2-75; B., '65. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas 
from Mo., s. Ills., and Md. s. to e. Tex., and n. Fla. ; mnters in Yucatan and 
Honduras; casual in s. Ind. and s. Pa.; accidental in Wise, New England* 
the Maritime Provinces, and Cuba. 

Washington, very uncommon S. R., May 1-Sept. 20. Cambridge, A. V., 
one instance. May. 

Nest, of grasses, in bushes or high weedy growths. Eggs, 3-4, pale bluish 
white, -84 x "65. Date, Chatham Co., Ga., May 14; Raleigh, N. C, June 8. 

"Unless seen under the most favorable circumstances the adult 
male does not appear to be blue, but of an ill-defined, dusky color, and 
may easily be mistaken for a Cow Blackbird {Molothrus ater), unless 
most carefully watched; besides, they usually sit motionless, in a 
watchful attitude, for a considerable length of time, and thus easily 
escape observation. 

"The Blue Grosbeak frequents much the same locahties as those 
selected by the Indigo Bird and Field Sparrow, viz., the thickets of 
shrubs, briers, and tall weeds lining a stream flowing across a meadow 
or bordering a field, or the similar growth which has sprung up in an 
old clearing. The usual note is a strong, harsh ptchick, and the song 
of the male is a very beautiful, though rather feeble, warble, somewhat 
like that of the Purple Finch, but bearing a slight resemblance also to 
that of the Rose-breasted Grosbeak" (Ridgway). 

598. Passerina cyanea (Linn.). Indigo Bunting. Ad. cT in summer. — 
Rich blue, deeper on the head, brighter on the back; lores blackish; wings 
and tail black, margined with blue. Ad. cf in winter. — Resembles the 9 , but 
has more or less blue in the plumage. Ad. 9 . — Upperparts uniform grayish 
brown without streaks; wings and tail fuscous, sometimes lightly margined 
with bluish; wing-coverts margined with grayish brown; underparts whitish, 
washed with grayish brown and indistinctly streaked mth darker; belly 
whiter. Im. — Resembles the 9, but is darker. L., 5*59; W., 2*58; T., 2-11; 
B., -41. 

Remarks. — The female of this species is rather a puzzling bird, and may 
be mistaken for a Sparrow. Its unstreaked back and the slight tinge of blue 
generally present on the outer web of the wing- and tail-feathers should 
serve to distinguish it. 

Range-. — E. N. Am. Breeds chiefly in Alleghanian and Carolinian 
faunas c. of the Great Plains from e. cen. N. D., cen. Minn., nw. Mich., 
s. Ont., s. Que., and s. N. B. s. to cen. Tex., s. La., cen. Ala., and cen. Ga.; 
winters from s. Mex., and Cuba to Panama; casual in e. Colo., s. Sask., and 
s. Man. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 29-Oct. 9. Ossining, common S. R., 
May 4-Oct. 17. Cambridge, common S. R., May 15-Oct. 1. N. Ohio, com- 
mon S. R., Apl. 26-Oct. 10. Glen Ellyn, fairly common S. R., May 1- 
Sept. 22. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 28-Oct. 2. 

Nest, of grasses, bits of dead leaves, and strips of bark, lined with fine 
grasses, rootlets, and long hairs, generally in the crotch of a bush. Eggs, 
3-4, pale bluish white, "73 x -57. Date, Richmond, Va., May 28; Chester 
Co., Pa., May 26; Cambridge, June 4; Brooklyn, Ind., May 21. 



FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 411 

In walking among clumps of bushes in clearings or old pastures, 
look sharp if a small bro^Ti bird flies before j^ou, especially if she calls 
cheep and twdtches her tail nervously from side to side. Though she 
be a sparrowjMooking bird, look well to her shoulders and tail. If you 
discover a glint of blue and her cries call her mate, 3^ou will ever after 
be a more trustworthy observer — for his brilliant coat is unmistakable. 

Ha\'ing made sure of your birds, watch them to their nest — a com- 
pactly made cup — too cleverly hidden in the dense green thicket to be 
easily discovered. The color of the eggs will again test your accuracy 
of obser^^ation ; in varying lights they look green, blue, and white. 

The female Indigo is so suspicious that it is not hard to be vexed 
with her, but the primary wtues of an observer are conscientiousness 
and patience; so take your hard cases as a means of grace. 

However distrustful the poor mother bird is, her mate's cheery song 
makes up for it all. After most birds have stopped singing for the year, 
his merry voice stiU gladdens the long August days. 

I well remember watching one Indigo-bird, who, day after day, used 
to fly to the lowest limb of a high tree and sing liis way up from branch 
to branch, bursting into jubilant song when he reached the topmost 
bough. I watched him climb as high into the air as he could, when, 
against a background of blue sky and rolling white clouds, the blessed 
little songster broke out into the bhthest round that ever bubbled up 
from a glad heart. Florence Merriam Bailey. 

The Varied Bunting {600. Passerina versicolor versicolor), a species of 
our Mexican border, has been once recorded from Michigan. 

601. Passerina ciris (Linn.). Painted Bunting; Nonpareil. Ad. cf. 
— Head and sides of the neck indigo-blue; back golden green; rump dull red; 
underparts bright red; wings and tail tinged with dull red; greater wing- 
coverts green. Im. cf. — Resembles the 9. Ad. 9. — Upperparts bright olive- 
green; underparts white, washed with greenish yellow; wings and tail fuscous, 
margined with olive-green. L., 5'25; W., 2'70; T., 2" 1.5; B., '42. 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from s. Kans., cen. 
Ark., n. Miss., and se. N. C. s. to se. N. M., Tex., and the Gulf coast; casual 
in s. Ariz., and s. Ills.; winters in the Bahamas, Cuba, and from cen. Mex. to 
Panama; occasional in winter in s. La. and cen. Fla. 

Nest, similar to that of P. cyanea, in bushes or low trees. Eggs, 3-4, 
white or bluish white, with numerous chestnut or rufous-brown markings, 
•78 X "56. Date, Chatham Co., Ga., May 16. 

Mr. Maynard found this species in southern Florida in January, but 
it does not migrate northward until about May 1. He writes that it 
''is always shy and retiring, seldom appearing in the open, but remain- 
ing in the dense, thorny undergrowth which covers all waste places in 
Florida, especially if the soil has been cultivated. Whenever the birds 
perceive an intruder they retire into the depths of these fastnesses, and 
it requires considerable beating to drive them out, when they at once 
dart into the nearest cover. The adult males are especially shy, and 
seldom show themselves. Even while singing they nunained concealed, 
and, although we were thus furnished with a clew to their whereabouts, 
it was with the utmost difficulty that we caught sight of the authors 



412 FINCHES, SPARROWS, ETC. 

of the harmonious strains which nearly always greeted our ears when 
we were in the vicinity of their homes" (' Birds of Eastern North 
America"). 

"Their notes very much resemble those of the Indigo-bird, but 
lack their energy and are more feeble and concise" (B., B., and R.). 

The Grassquit {603. Tiaris hicolor) of the Bahamas has been once 
recorded from Miami, Florida. 

The Melodious Grassquit {603.1. Tiaris canora) of Cuba, has been 
once recorded from Sombrero Key, Florida. 

604. Spiza americana (GmeZ.). Dickcissel. Ad. d' in summer. — Head 
and sides of the neck ashy gray; forehead tinged with yellow; a yellow line 
over the eye and one on the side of the throat; a black patch on the throat; 
chin white; breast yellow, spreading down on to the white belly; back 
streaked with black and pale grayish brown ; rump brownish ash ; lesser wing- 
coverts rufous; ^vings and tail fuscous. Ad. cf in winter. — Has less yellow 
and a more or less concealed throat-patch. Im. d' — Resembles 9 . Ad. 9 . — 
Similar, but the head grayish brown, streaked with blackish, and with no 
black patch on the throat and less yellow on the breast, which is sometimes 
lightly streaked with black. L., 6-00; W., 3-20; T., 2-35; B., -55. 

Range. — E. N. Am., and n. S. 
Am. Breeds chiefly in Austral zones 
from ne. Wyo., nw. N. D., nw. 
Minn., s. Mich., and s. Ont., s. to s. 
Tex., and s. Miss.; formerly bred on 
the Atlantic coastal plain from 
Mass. (casually wandering to Maine), 
to S. C., but now extremely rare e. 
of the Alleghanies; winters in n. S. 
A.; accidental in L. Calif., Ariz., 
Man., N. S., and Jamaica. 

Washington, formerly "very 
abundant," now seen only occasion- 
FiG. 109. Dickcisael. (Natural size.) ally, May-Aug. Cambridge, casual, 

found nesting at Medford, June 9, 
1877, where several birds were observed; not uncommon in 1833-34 (see 
Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, III, 1878, 45, 190). N. Ohio, rare S. R., May 1. 
Glen EUyn, rather rare and local S. R., formerly common. May 3-Sept. 5. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., May 11-Aug. 20. 

Nest, bulky, of coarse grasses and leaves, lined with finer grasses and 
sometimes long hairs, on the ground or in low trees or bushes. Eggs, 4-5, 
pale blue, '80 x '60. Date, St. Louis, Mo., May 23; Avondale, Ohio, May 
14; Powesheik Co., Iowa, May 28. 

Prior to 1880 these birds were more or less common in the middle 
Atlantic States, but they are now pf rare occurrence east of the Alle- 
ghanies. In Texas I have seen them migrating in closely massed flocks 
of several hundred individuals, all silent, except for an occasional 
cack. They alight on the prairie to feed; birds in the rear are constantly 
arising and passing to the front; there is ceaseless motion. 

In the summer Dickcissel makes his home in grassy fields and 
pastures, and from a weed stalk or bordering fence, with uplifted head, 
he announces his presence as though life itself depended on his vocal 
exertions. It is a poor song from a musical standpoint, but pleasing 
because of the singer's earnestness. 




TANAGERS 413 

1903. Rhoads, S. N., Cassinia, 17-28 (historical).— 1904. Miller, 
W. De W., Auk, XXI, 487 (nesting in N. J.). 

The Lark Bunting {605. Calamospiza melanocorys), a western species, 
has been recorded from Massachusetts, Long Island, and South Carolina. 

53. Family Tangarid^. Tanagers. (Fig. 65.) 

Although a distinctively American family, the Tanagers are so 
closely related to the Finches that it is not clear to which family certain 
genera should be referred. About three hundred and fifty species are 
kno\\Ti, most of them being confined to the tropics, and only four species, 
all migratory, reach the United States. They are remarkable, as a 
whole, for the brilliancy of their plumage, as well as for their marked 
sexual differences in color, and our Scarlet Tanager is, therefore, no 
exception to the rule. 

They are arboreal and for the most part forest -inhabiting birds, 
feeding on flowers, fruit, and insects. The tropical species are of a 
roving disposition, and wander through the forests in search of certain 
trees bearing ripe fruit, near which they may always be found in num- 
bers. As a rule, they are not musical. A few species, including ours, 
have more or less pleasing songs, but the voices of the majority are 
weak and squeaky. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. With red in the plumage. 

a. Wings and tail black 608. Scarlet Tanager <?. 

h. Wings and tail like the body 610. Summer Tanager rf". 

B. Without red in the plumage. 

a. Underparts, including under wing-coverts, dull buffy yellow. 

610. Summer Tanager 9 
h. Underparts greenish yellow, under wing-coverts white. 

608. Scarlet Tanager 9- 

608. Piranga erythromelas Vieill. Scarlet Tanager. (Fig. 65.) 
Ad. cf in summer. — Bright scarlet, wings and tail black, under wing-cov- 
erts white. Ad. cf in winter. — Similar to the 9, but wings and tail black 
Im,. cf in winter. — Similar to 9, but wing-coverts black. Im. d' in tiummcr 
— Similar to ad. d" in summer, but primaries and secondaries as in winter 
The adult summer plumage is acquired at the second spring (prenuptial) molt 
Ad. 9. — Upperparts light olive-green; wings and tail fuscous, lightly mar 
gined with olive-green; underparts greenish yellow. L., 7"25; W., 3'75 
T., 2-09; B. from N., -46. 

Range. — E. N. Am. and n.S. Am. Breeds mainly in Alleghanian and 
Carolinian faunas from se. Sask., cen. Man., cen. Ont., s. (.}uv., N. B., and 
N. S. s. to s. Kans., n. Ark., Tenn., n. Ga., and nits, of \'a. and S. ('.; winters 
from Colombia to Peru; migrates through Cuba, Jamaica, and Yucatan, 
and along the e. coast of Cen. Am.; casual in migration in Wyo., Colo., the 
Bahamas, and Lesser Antilles. 

Washington, common T. V., less common S. R., Apl. 17-Oct. 15. Ossin- 
ing, common S. R., Mav 4-Oct. 9. Cambridge, rather common S. R., May 
12-Oct. 1. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 2S-Oct. 2. Clen p:ilyn. not com- 
mon S. R., Apl. 30-Sept. 29. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 29-Sept. 11. 

Nest, of fine twigs and weed-stalks, lined with vine tendrils and blossom 
stems, generally near the end of a horizontal limb, 7-20 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, 



414 TANAGERS 

pale bluish wliite or greenish blue, with numerous rufous or rufous-brown 
markings, '88 x '68. Date, Delaware Co., Pa., May 28; New London, Conn., 
May 31; Cambridge, June 7; Black Hawk Co., Iowa, May 23; se. Minn., 
May 21. 

In watching birds, there are certain sights and sounds that make a 
day memorable much as a beautiful sunset does. I say to myself, "I 
have seen a Scarlet Tanager today!" or, "I have hstened to a Hermit 
Thrush this evening." 

High among the tree-tops of the cool green woods the Tanager sings 
through the summer days. Hidden by the network of leaves above 
us, we often pass him by; but once discovered he seems to illuminate 
the forest. We marvel at his color. He is like a Bird of Paradise in 
our northern landscape. 

We are first guided to him by his call and song. They are pecuUar, 
and both have a rare woods flavor. The call is a distinctly uttered 
chip-chirr. The song is a loud, cheery, rhythmical carol, suggesting 
the song of the Robin. 

Inside the green woods the Tanager spends the summer, flying 
down to visit his nest in the fresh young undergrowth or to bathe in 
the still forest pools, and hunting and singing in the tree-tops high 
overhead. Florence Merriam Bailey. 

610. Piranga rubra rubra (Linn.). Summer Tanager. Ad. 9. — Rose- 
red, brighter below; wings fuscous, margined "v^dth rose-red. Im. d' in winter. 
■ — Similar to the 9 , but with more or less of a reddish tinge throughout the 
plumage. Im. d" in summer. — Variable ; sometimes a mixture of ad. d and 9 
plumages, at others like the ad. d, but wing-quills as in 9 . The ad. d plumage 
is acquired at the first postnuptial molt and retained thereafter at all seasons. 
Ad. 9 . — Upperparts orange olive-green ; underparts vello'\\dsh orange. 
L., 7-50; W., 3-75; T., 2-90; B. from N., '55. 

Range. — SE. U. S. and n. S. Am. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroripa- 
rian faunas from se. Nebr., s. Iowa, se. Wise., cen. Ind., s. Ohio, Md. (for- 
merly N. J.), and Del. s. to ne. Mex. and cen. Fla. ; winters from cen. 
Mex. to Peru and Guiana; straggles n. to N. B., Que., N. S., Maine, and 
Ont. ; migrant in w. Cuba. 

Washington, uncommon S. R., Apl. 18-Sept. 19. Cambridge, one 
record. 

Nest, of leaves, strips of bark, etc., generally near the extremity of a 
limb, about 20 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, bluish white or greenish blue, with nu- 
merous cinnamon- or olive-brown markings, '96 x "68. Date, San Mateo, 
Fla., May 9; Mt. Pleasant, S. C, May 12; Mt. Carmel, Ills., May 28. 

This is a common summer resident of our Southern States, arriving 
in Florida early in April. It frequents open, rather than dense woods, 
and is particularly numerous in pineries having an undergrowth of 
oaks. It may be easily identified, not alone by its color but by its 
unique call-note — a clearly enunciated chicky-tucky-tuck. Its song 
bears a general resemblance to that of the Scarlet Tanager, but to 
my ear is much sweeter and less forced. 

The Western Tanager (607. Piranga ludoviciana), a species of our 
Western States, has been recorded from Wisconsin, Maine, Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, New York, Louisiana and Wisconsin. 



SWALLOWS 



415 



54. Family Hiruxdixid^e. Swallows. (Fig. 66.) 

The some one hundred known species of Swallows are distributed 
throughout the world, but are most poorly represented in the Australian 
region, where only three species occur. About thirty-five species are 
American, and nine of these are found north of Mexico. In their long, 
powerful wings and small, weak feet. Swallows present an excellent 
illustration of the effects of use and disuse. The greater part of their 
day is passed on the ^\ing, and in aUghting they select a perch which 
they can grasp with ease. Swallows live almost exclusively upon insects, 
which they capture on the wing, their large mouths, as in the case of 
the Swifts and Goatsuckers, being especially adapted to this mode of 
feeding. 

They nest both in pairs and colonies, and during their migrations, 
associate, in countless numbers, at regularly frequented roosting-places 




Fro. no. Barn Swallow. 



Cliff Swallow. 



Tree Swallow. 
Bank Swallow. 



or migration stations. These are sometimes in trees, but more often 
in marshes, and to them the Swallows n^gularly njturn each night. 'I'hcy 
migrate, as far as known, entirely by day, their wonderful power of 
flight enabhng them to escape the dangers which beset less rapid fliers, 
and to make journeys of great extent. Swallows' nests are remarkable 
for their wide diversity of architect uns as well a.s for the skill shown by 
these small-billed, weak-footed birds in their construction, and compar- 
ison of the mud dwelling of the Cliff Swallow with the tunnelled home 
of the Bank Swallow, illustrates how small the relation may be between 
the structure of the bird and the character of its nest. 



416 SWALLOWS 



KEY TO THE SPECIES 

1. Upperparts with metallic reflections. 

A. Underparts steel-blue. 

a. Feathers on the belly fuscous at the base 611. Purple Martin d'. 

b. Feathers on the belly white at the base . 611.1. Cuban Martin d^. 

B. Underparts not steel-blue. 

a. Throat chestnut, rufous, or brownish. 

a^. Upper tail-coverts the same as the back; tail with white spots. 

613. Barn Swallow. 
a^. Upper tail-coverts rufous or buffy; no white in the tail. 

612. Cliff Swallow. 

b. Throat gray or white. 

61. Entire underparts white 614. Tree Swallow. 

62. Throat and breast brownish gray . . 611. Purple Martin 9. 
b^. Throat, breast, and sides sooty brownish gray. 

611.1 Cuban Martin 9. 

2. Upperparts without metallic reflections. 

a. Underparts entirely white 614. Tree Swallow. 

b. Throat and breast brownish gray . _ 617. Rough-winged Swallow. 

c. Throat and belly white; a brownish gray band across the breast. 

616. Bank Swallow. 

611. Progne subis subis (Linn.). Purple Martin. Ad. d", — Shining 
blue-black; wings and tail duller. Im. cf in winter. — Resembles the 9. Im. d 
in summer. — Similar to 9, but bluer above and with a number of adult blue 
feathers scattered through underparts. The ad. d plumage is acquired at 
the first postnuptial molt. Ad. 9. — Upperparts glossy bluish black, duller 
than in the d; wings and tail black; throat, breast, and sides brownish graj% 
more or less tipped with white; belly white. L., S'OO; W., 5-80; T., 2-90; 
B. from N., -32. 

Range. — N. and S. A., except the Pacific coast region. Breeds from w. 
cen. Alberta, s. Sask., cen. Man., nw. Ont., N. B., and N. S., w. to Mont- 
and Idaho, and s. to the Gulf coast, Fla., Vera Cruz and Jalisco; win- 
ters in Brazil; accidental in Bermuda and the British Isles. 

Washington, rather common S. R., Apl. 1-Sept. 14. Ossining, tolerably 
common S. R., Apl. 27-Sept. 11. Cambridge, formerly locallv common S. R., 
Apl. 20-Aug. 25. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 1-Sept. 5. Glen Ellyn, local 
S. R., Mch. 23-Sept. 10. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 1-Sept. 9. 

Nest, of straws, twigs, etc., in houses or gourds erected for the purpose. 
Eggs, 4-5, white, 1*00 x 73. Date, Tarboro, N. C, May 19; Cambridge, 
May 30; St. Louis, Mo., May 21. 

The Purple Martin is very common throughout the *south, and 
breeds wherever gourds or boxes are erected for its occupation. In 
the Northern States it is a comparatively rare bird of local distribution. 

In Forest and Stream, Vol. XXII, 1884, p. 484, Mr. Otto Widmann, of 
Old Orchard, Missouri, presents an interesting table showing how often 
young Martins are fed. He watched a colony of sixteen pairs of birds 
from 4 A.M. to 8 p.m., during which time the parents visited their off- 
spring 3,277 times, or an average of 205 times for each pair. The males 
made 1,454, the females 1,823 visits. 

1903. Jacobs, J. W. (Waynesburg, Pa.), The Story of a Martin Colony 
(methods of attracting, etc.).— 1906. Taverner, P. A., Wilson Bull., 
XVIII, 87-92 (roost). 

611.1. Progne cryptoleuca Baird. Cuban Martin. Ad. d. — "Similar 
to P. subis, but feathers of ventral region marked beneath surface, with 



SWALLOWS 417 

a broad spot or bar of white." Ad. 9 and im. <?. — Similar to those of P. 
subis, but "whole under portion and sides of head and neck, chest, sides 
and flanks uniform sooty grayish brown, in marked contrast with pure 
white of bellv, anal region, and under tail-coverts. L., 7'60; W., 5'50; 
T., 3-10" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Cuba; occasional or accidental in s. Florida. 

612. Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons {Say). Cliff Swallow. 
(Fig. 110.) Ads. — Forehead whitish, crown steel-blue, throat and sides of 
the head chestnut; a brownish gray ring around the neck; breast brownish 
gray, tinged with rufous and with a steel-blue patch in its center; belly 
white; back steel-blue, Hghtly streaked with white; shorter upper tail- 
coverts pale rufous; tail fuscous, the feathers of nearly equal length. Im. — 
Similar, but upperparts duller; throat black, sometimes mottled with white. 
L., 6-01; W., 4-34; T., 2-01; B. from N., '20. 

Remarks. — The Cliff Swallow may be known from our other Swallows 
by its rufous upper tail-coverts. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from lower edge of the Arctic to Lower Austral 
Zone from cen. Alaska, n. cen. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, n. Ont., cen. Que., 
Anticosti Island, and Cape Breton Is. s. over nearly all of the U. S. except 
Fla. and the Rio Grande Valley (casual as a breeder s. of lat. 38°, e. of long. 
97°); probably winters in Brazil and Argentina. 

Washington, rare S. R., Apl. 10-Sept.-? Ossining, common S. R., 
Mav 1-Sept. 12. Cambridge, S. R., much less common than formerly, Apl. 
28-Aug. 25. N. Ohio, tolerably common S. R., Apl. 6-Sept. 25. Glen 
EUyn, not common, local, S. R., Apl. 25-Sept. 16. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
Apl. 1.3-Sept. 12. 

Nest, of mud, generally retort- or pocket-shaped, beneath cliffs or the 
eaves of a barn or other building. Eggs, 4-5, white, with numerous spots 
of cinnamon-, olive-, or rufous-brown, "81 x "55. Date, Shelter Is., N. Y., 
May 29; Cambridge, June 5; se. Minn., May 19. 

During the nesting season these Swallows are of very local distri- 
bution. They will return year after year to their rows of mud tene- 
ments beneath the eaves of some barn or outbuilding, and, although 
familiar birds to residents of the immediate vicinit}^, they may be 
entire strangers to those who have never had a colony of these birds 
settled near them. Like Barn Swallows, they are masons, and they may 
be seen on muddy shores rolling the little pellets of clay which enter 
into the construction of their nest. In the fall they are found in flociks 
with other Swallows, but at all times they may be readily identified 
by their pale rufous upper tail-coverts, which make a conspicuous 
field-mark. 

The Cuban Cliff Swallow {612.1. Petrochdiflon fnhn) has been once 
recorded from the Dry Tortugas, Florida (Scott, Auk, VII, 1S9(). 2(i5). It 
resembles lunifrons but has the forehead and rump (^hcstruit and no l)lack on 
the throat. 

613. Hirundo erythrogaster {Bodd.). Barn Swallow. (Fig. 110.) 
Ad. cf — Forehead, throat, and up])(T hrcuist chestniit-nifous; rest of the iiiidcr- 
parts washed with the same color; uprxTparts stccl-hluc; t;iil deeply forkcfl, 
all but the middle feathers with white si)f)ts on their inner webs. Ad. *— Simi- 
lar, but underparts usually paler and outer tail-fe:ithers shorter, hn. — Upper- 
parts mixed with dusky, forehead and throat paler; outer tail-feathers 
shorter. L., 6-95; W., 4-"67; T., 3-30; B. from N.. -24. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from nw. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, .m. Man., and 9. 
Ungava s. to s. Calif., s. Tex. (w. of long. 97°), n. Ark., and N. C, and in 



418 SWALLOWS 

Mex. s. to Tepic; winters from s. Mex. to n. Argentina, and cen. Chile; 
accidental in the Galapagos, Bermuda, and Greenland. 

Washington, common S. R., more abundant T. V., Mch. 30-Sept. 17. 
Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 15-Sept. 22. Cambridge, common S. R., but 
fast decreasing, Apl, 20-Sept. 10. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Mch. 30-Sept. 
22. Glen Ellyn, S. R., fairly common and increasing, Apl. 7-Sept. 1. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 28- Aug. 31. 

Nest, of mud and grasses, lined with grasses and feathers, generally on 
the rafter of a barn or other building. Eggs, 4-6, white, with numerous spots 
of cinnamon-, olive-, or rufous-brown, generally smaller than those on the 
eggs of P. lunifrons, *77 x "54. Date, Chester Co., Pa., May 19; Portsmouth, 
R. I., May 18; Cambridge, May 25. 

Barn Swallows nest both in pairs and colonies, and during the breed- 
ing season are more generally distributed than any other of our 
Swallows.. Almost every old-fashioned barn with its great doors hos- 
pitably opened is cheered by their sweet call-notes and happy twitter- 
ing song as they dart in and out on their errands of love. 

Barn Swallows take first rank among a family of birds famous for 
their power of flight. While their relatives are circling about feeding 
on insects in the air above, they capture their prey nearer the ground, 
skimming low over the fields, turning quickly to right or left, up or 
down, and pursuing their erratic course with marvelous ease and grace. 

The European Swallow {613.1. Hirundo rustica) is of accidental 
occurrence in Greenland. 

614. Iridoprocne bicolor (VieilL). Tree Sw^allow. (Figs. 13, 110.) 
Ads. — Upperparts steel-blue or steel-green; underparts pure white; outer 
tail-feathers somewhat longer than the middle ones. Nestling. — Upperparts 
dull brownish gray; underparts pure white, with sometimes a dusky breast- 
band. L., 5-90; W., 4-70; T., 2-35; B. from N., '22. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral 
zones from nw. Alaska, s. and w. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, and n. Ungava to 
s. Calif., Colo., Kans., Mo., and Va.; winters from cen. Calif., s. Tex., s. 
parts of the Gulf States, and se. N. C. (casually N. J.) s. over the greater 
part of Mex. to Guatemala and Cuba; occasional in Bermuda in migration; 
accidental in the British Isles. 

Washington, common T. V., Mch. 26-May 26; July 8-Oct. 14. Ossining, 
common T. V., Apl. 4-May 26; Aug. 4-Oct. 16. Cambridge, S. R., formerly 
common, now common only as a migrant, Apl. 5-Oct. 8. N. Ohio, common 
S. R., Apl. 10-Sept. 20. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., rare S. R., Apl. 
21-Sept. 8. SE. Minn., common S. R., Mch. 30-Aug. 31. 

Nest, of coarse grasses and feathers, in a hollow tree or bird-box. Eggs, 
4-7, white, "74 x "55. Date, Saybrook, Conn., May 13; Cambridge, May 
20; Jackson Co., Mich., May 15; se. Minn., May 26. 

While our eastern Barn and ClifT Swallows have abandoned their 
primitive methods of nesting in caves or beneath cliffs, and the Bank 
Swallows still adhere to the customs of their ancestors, Tree Swallows 
are passing through a transition period in their history. Some accept 
the houses or boxes erected by man as substitutes for the holes in trees 
or stumps which others still use. 

Near New York City they are the first birds to flock after the nest- 
ing season, and they begin to gather in our marshes as early as July 
1. Their numbers rapidly increase, and the maximum of abundance 



SWALLOWS 419 

is reached about August 15, when they outnumber all other Swallows 
together by at least three to one. They return to their roosts in the 
reeds with great regularity every night, and early in the morning fly 
out over the country to feed. Their flight in the evening is compara- 
tively low, at an average height of thirty to forty feet. They sail about 
in circles more than other Swallows, and many pause to rest on tele- 
graph wires, where their pure white breasts easily distinguish them from 
the Swallows which may be associated with them. In the morning 
their flight is much higher and more direct. They migrate by day, 
leaving their roosting-ground in flocks, which sometimes contain myriads, 
and, after attaining a great height, pursue their journey to the south. 
When migrating along the coast they sometimes collect in large 
numbers in bayberry bushes (Myrica) and feed on their fruit. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 89-105 (roosting). 

The Bahama Swallow {615.1. Callichelidon cyaneoviridis) has been once 
recorded from the Dry Tortugas and Tarpon Springs, Florida, and may 
occur more or less regularly in the Keys off southeastern Florida (Scott, 
Auk, VII, 1890, 265). It is satiny white below, dull bottle-green above; 
wings and tail bluer, the outer tail-feathers an inch longer than the 
middle ones. 

The European Martin {615.2. Chelidonai^ urhica) is of accidental 
occurrence in Greenland. 

616. Riparia riparia {Linn.). Bank Swallow. (Fig. 110.) Ads. — 
Upperparts brownish gray; throat white; a brownish gray hand on the 
breast; outer vane of first primary without recurved hooklets; a small tuft of 
feathers above the hind-toe. L., 5-20; W., 3-95; T., 2-00; B. from N., '18. 

Range. — N. Hemisphere. In N. A. breeds in Boreal, Transition, and 
Austral zones from near limit of trees in n. Alaska and n. Ungava s. to s. 
Calif., Ariz., Tex., La., and Va.; migrates through Mex. and Cen. Am. (cas- 
ually West Indies), and probably winters in S. A. to Brazil and Peru. 

Washington, common S. R., more common T. V., Apl. l.'i-S(>i)t. 19. 
Ossining, common S. R., Apl. IH-Oct. 1. Cambridge, formerly common S. 
R., Apl. 28-Sept. 1; common T. V. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl, 0-Sept. 20. 
Glen EUyn, fairly common T. V.; a few S. R., Apl. 22-Scpt. 3. SE. Minn., 
common S. R., Apl. 10-Sept. 25. 

Nest, of grasses and feathers, in a hole in a sand-bank, 2-3 feet from the 
entrance. Eggs, 4-f3, white, -68 x "48. Date, Chester Co., Pa., May 10; 
Ossining, N. Y., May 20; Cambridge, May 28; se. Minn., June 1. 

This js a locally distributed species, breeding in colonies only where 
sand-banks offer it a favorable nesting-sit o. Probably for the reason 
that such banks are more frequently found bordering streams than 
inland, the birds are more numerous in the vicinity of water. 

Bank Swallows may be readily known from other Swallows, except- 
ing the Rough-winged, by their nesting habits, small size, and absence 
of metallic coloring. 

From the Rough-wing they differ in having the underparts white, 
with a conspicuous band across the breast, and in their somewhat 
quicker movements. 

617. Stelgidopteryx serripennis (And.). Roucni-wiNOED Swal- 
low. Ads. — Upperparts brownish gray; throat and breast pale brownish 

29 



420 WAXWINGS 

gray; belly white; outer web of first primary with a series of recurved hooklets 
(sometimes absent in $) ; no tuft of feathers above the hind-toe. 7m. — Simi- 
lar, but without recurved hooklets on the first primary; throat and breast 
more or less washed and wing-coverts edged with rufous. L., 5'75; W., 
4-35; T., 2-10; B. from N., -19. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Transition, Austral, and Tropical zones from 
s. B. C, Mont., N. D., Minn., s. Wise, Ont., s. N. Y., cen. w. Mass., and 

Conn. s. to s. U. S. from s. Calif, to n. Fla., 
and to Vera Cruz and Jalisco; winters from 
cen. Mex. s. to Costa Rica; casual in Man. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 2-Sept. 

3. Ossining, common S. R,, Apl. 17- Aug. 12. 

Fig. 111. Section of outer pri- N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 15-Sept. 20. 

mary of adult Rough-winged SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 14- Aug. 26. 

Swallow. (Enlarged.) Nest, of coarse grasses and feathers, under 

bridges, in stone walls, or in a hole in a bank. 
Eggs, 4-8, white, '72 x '51. Date, D. C, May 17; se. Minn., May 21. 

Rough-winged Swallows resemble Bank Swallows both in habits 
and appearance. They do not, however, always nest in holes in banks, 
but are sometimes found nesting about bridges, railway trestles and 
their abutments. 

With the Bank Swallow this bird differs from our other Swallows 
in the absence of metallic colors, while from the Bank Swallow it is to 
be distinguished by its plain, pale brownish gray, uniformly colored 
throat and breast, and somewhat slower, less erratic flight. 

55. Family Bombycillid^. Waxwings. (Fig. 67.) 

Of the three known species of Waxwings, one (Bomhycilla garrula) is 
common to the northern parts of both the Old and New Worlds; one 
{B. cedrorum) is found only in America, and one (B. japonica) is 
restricted to eastern Asia. Our Waxwings are notable for the irregu- 
larity of their migrations or wanderings, and B. cedrorum for the lateness 
of its nesting season. Their voice is doubtless the least developed in the 
group of so-called singing-birds. 

618. Bombycilla garrula (Linn.). Bohemian Waxwing. Ads.^ 
Forehead, chin, and line through the eye velvety black; a conspicuous crest; 
front of crown chestnut-rufous; upperparts rich grajdsh brown; upper tail- 
coverts, wings, and tail grayish; primary coverts and secondaries tipped with 
white, the latter with small, red, seed-shaped sealing-wax-like tips; all but 
the outer primaries tipped with yellow or white on the outer web ; end of tail 
with a yellow band; breast like the back, grayer on the belly; under tail- 
coverts chestnut-rufous. L., S'OO; W., 4-60; T., 2-60; B. from N., "29. 

Range. — Boreal zones of N. Hemisphere. In N. A. breeds from n. Alaska, 
n. Mackenzie, and cen. Keewatin s. to s. B. C. and s. Alberta; winters e. 
to N. S. and s. irregularly to e. Calif., Colo., Kans., s. Ills., Ind., Ohio, Pa., 
and Conn.; casual in Ariz. 

Glen EUyn, one record, Jan. 22, 1908. SE. Minn., irregular W. V., 
until Apl. 1. 

Nest, of twigs, roots, moss, etc., in trees. Eggs, similar in color to those 
Of B. cedrorum, "92 x 'Q5. Date, Cariboo, B. C, June 15. 

The distribution of this bird in the United States is not unlike that 
of the Evening Grosbeak. It is exceedingly rare and irregular in the 



WAXWINGS 421 

Atlantic States, but occurs with some frequency in the northern Mis- 
sissippi Valley. In notes and habits it is said to resemble its small 
cousin, the Cedar Wax^ing. 

1909. Anderson, R. M., Auk, XXVI, 10-12 (nesting). 

619. Bombycilla cedrorum Vieill. Cedar Waxwing. (Fig. 67.) 
Ads. — Forehead, chin, and a line through the ej-e velvety black; a conspicu- 
ous crest; upperparts rich graj-ish brown; upper tail-coverts, ■v\'ings, and tail 
gray; secondaries often, tail rarely, u-ith small, red, seed-shaped, sealing- 
wax-like tips; tail with a yellow band at its end; breast like the back, chang- 
ing gradually into yellowish on the belly; under taU-coverts white. The 
absence of the red tips is doubtless an indication of immaturity. The nest- 
ling is streaked below. L., 7-19; W., 3-70; T., 2-37; B. from N., '26. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral 
zones from cen. B. C, cen. Alberta, s. Keewatin, n. Ont., nw. Que., and 
Cape Breton Is. s. to s. Ore., n. N. M., Kans., n. Ark., and N. C; winters 
throughout nearly all of the U. S. and s. to Cuba, Mex., and Panama; acci- 
dental in the Bahamas, Bermuda, Jamaica, and British Isles. 

Washington, very common P. R., less so in winter. Ossining, common 
P. R. Cambridge, not common P. R., common S. R., abundant T. V. in 
spring, Feb. 1-Apl. 25. N. Ohio, irregularly common in summer. Glen 
Ellyn, S. R., Jan. 21-Sept. 24; occasional W. V. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
Feb. 2o-Sept. 28. 

Nest, bulky, of strips of bark, leaves, grasses, twigs, rootlets, moss and 
sometimes mud, lined with finer materials of the same nature, often in fruit 
or shade trees, 5-20 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, pale bluish gray or putty color, dis- 
tinctly and obscurely spotted with black or umber, '88 x '62. Date, Weaver- 
viUe, N. C, May 30; Cambridge, June 6; se. Minn., June 10. 

When the spring migration is over and the home birds have gone 
to nest-building, small flocks of Goldfinches and Waxwings — two 
pecuhariy gentle, attractive birds — may still be seen wandering about 
the country. The squads of Cedar-birds fly evenly, on a level with the 
tree-tops, in close ranks, often of five, seven, or nine. Frequently, 
when under full headway, they suddenly wheel and dive down to an 
apple tree for a meal of canker-worms. 

In following the beautiful Wax%vings about one listens in vain for 
a song, but soon comes to relish their two^ecuHar calls — a hushed 
whistle and the subdued call Thorcau descriOTs as th(dr "beady note," 
a succession of short notes strung together — for they both seem to 
harmonize with the quiet reserve of the delicately tinted birds. 

In July, when the wandering flocks are no longer .seen, a walk 
through the neighboring orchards may show where both tardy build- 
ers have at last gone to nesting, and few bird homes aff"or(l pictures of 
such human tenderness and devotion. If there is an evergreen in the 
vicinity, the Cedar-bird mounts guard upon its tip, but occa-sionally 
reUeves the monotony of his watch by flying up in the air for light 
luncheons of passing insects. 

The strong individuality of the Waxwings makes them interesting 
birds to the field student. The use of their crests in expressing emotion, 
and the protective attitudes they assume when watched at their nesta, 
throw much light upon bird psychology. 

To the bird-lover, however, the Cedar-birds have their own attrac- 



422 SHRIKES 

tion; their proverbially gentle, refined ways make them seem superior 
creatures of the air to whom he can but yield his affection. 

I shall never forget a pair that I once found by a clear mountain 
lake. They were perched upon two evergreen spires that guarded a 
silent bay, whose dark water was gilded by the lingering hght of the 
setting sun. Florence Merriam Bailey. 

1905. Herrick, F. H., Home Life of Wild Birds, 36-38; 86-102.— 1911. 
Saunders, A. A., Auk, XXVIII, 323-329 (nesting). 



56. Family Laniid^e Shrikes. (Fig. 68.) 

The number of species ascribed to this family by different authors 
varies widely, few agreeing as to exactly what subfamilies should be 
admitted. The true Shrikes, however, of the subfamily Laniince, num- 
bering seventy-seven species, are a well-defined group, of which only 
two occur in the New World. Their habits, in the main, conform to 
those of our species. 

621. Lanius borealis Vieill. _ Northern Shrike. Ads. — Upperparts 
gray; wings and tail black; primaries white at the base, secondaries tipped 
with white or grayish; outer, sometimes all, the tail-feathers tipped with 
white, the outer feather mostly white; forehead whitish; lores grayish black; 
ear-coverts black; underparts white, generally finely barred with black; bill 
hooked and hawkUke. Im. — Similar, but entire plumage more or less 
heavily barred or washed with grayish brown. L., 10"32; W., 4*55; T., 4*00; 
B. from N., -55. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds in the Hudsonian zone and locally in the 
Canadian from NW. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, and n. Ungava to the 
base of the Alaska Peninsula, cen. Sask., s. Ont,, and s. Que.; winters s. to 
cen. Calif., Ariz., N. M., Tex., Ky., and Va. 

Washington, rare and irregular W. V., Oct.-Feb. Ossining, tolerably 
common W. V., Oct. 26-Apl. 17. Cambridge, common W. V., Nov. 1-Apl. 
1. N. Ohio, not common W. V., Nov. 6-Apl. 3. Glen Ellyn, not common 
W. v., Oct. 24.- June 5. SE. Minn., common W. V., Oct. 17-Mch. 28. 

Nest, of twigs, grasses, etc., in low trees or bushes. Eggs, similar in color 
to those of L. ludovicianus, 1'05 x '76. Date, Ft. Anderson, Mack., June 11. 

This bird may be known at once by his colors — gray, black, and 
white, — by the consternation his appearance causes among the Spar- 
rows, and by his peculiar flight, which is steady and straightforward, 
with much flapping, and close to the ground till he nears his intended 
perch, which is reached at the last moment by a sudden upward 
turn. 

He is so well known as a bird of hawklike, sanguinary character 
that most students are astonished when they find out that toward 
springtime he develops into a vocalist of no mean powers. Often in 
the warm days of March he may be heard singing on the top of some 
tall tree, a song that would do credit to a Catbird — indeed, it recalls 
strongly that loquacious songster. He is, I think, a better singer than 
his southern cousin, but resembles him in habitually impaling his prey 
on a thorn, a fence barb, or a forked twig. His food consists chiefly 



SHRIKES 423 

of mice, noxious insects, and the equally noxious English Sparrow, so 
that the Shrike is a bird worthy of all protection. 

Ernest Thompson Seton. 

622. Lanius ludovicianus ludovicianus Linn. Loggerhead Shrike. 
(Fig. 68.) Ads. — Upperparts gray, wings and tail black, primaries white at 
the base, secondaries tipped with white; outer, sometimes all, the tail- 
feathers tipped with white; the outer feather mostly white; lores black, 
connected by a narrow black line on the forehead at the base of the bill; 
ear-coverts black; underparts white, sometimes tinged with graj\ L., 9'00; 
W., 3-82; T., 3-87; B. from N., "48; depth of B. at N., '35 (average of nine 
Florida specimens). 

Range. — Austroriparian fauna from s. N. C. to s. Fla., and w. to La. 

Nest,_ of strips of bark, small twigs, and vegetable fibers, lined with 
grasses, in thorny hedges or low trees, about 7 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, dull white 
or creamy white, thicklv marked with cinnamon-brown and lavender, 
•98 X -78. Date, Archer, Fla., Mch. 10. 

Like some of the Hawks and Flycatchers, the Loggerhead does 
not search for his prey, but waits for it to come within striking dis- 
tance. It is of importance, therefore, that his perch should command 
an uninterrupted view of his surroundings. For this reason one rarely 
or never sees a Shrike in a tree, but always on its outermost or highest 
branches. He will fly directly toward its center, but just as he reaches 
it swing up and light on its top. He also selects telegraph wires, peaks 
of houses, and especially the apex of a lightning-rod or weather-vane. 

From his point of vantage he maintains a constant outlook for any 
unsuspecting grasshopper, small snake, or lizard which may appear 
below. The distance at which he can detect these gives evidence of 
his power of sight. I have seen Shrikes fly fifty yards with the evi- 
dent object of capturing a grasshopper which they undoubtedly saw 
before starting. 

Like the Butcher-bird, the Loggerhead frequently impales its prey 
on a convenient thorn or spike. Doubtless this habit aids him in dis- 
secting his food, but I do not think that he does it for this roiuson alone. 
The bird's vigilance, like that of the waiting Hawk, is probaljly attcndtnl 
by varying results. One hour may yif^ld excellent returns, the next 
may be fruitless. But under any circumstance's he cannot resist taking 
advantage of an opportunity to secure food. Sometimes the opportun- 
ities exceed the demands of his stomach, and then, after (uipturirig liis 
unfortunate victim, he simply impalc^s and leaves it. 

If perservance deserved success, th(; Loggerhead would take iiigh 
rank as a songster. But his notes are harsh and unmusical. They con- 
sist of a series of guttural gurgles, squeaky whistles, and shrill pipes, 
some of which might be attributed to the creaking weather-vanes he 
so often chooses as a perch. 

622e. L. 1. migrans Palmer. Migrant Shrike. Similar to L. I. 
ludovicianus but paler above and somewhat grayer below; the bill smaller, 
the wing longer, 3'90. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds chiefly in Transition and Upper Au.stral 
zones from n. Minn., Wise, Mich., s. Ont., s. Que., Maine, and N. B. s. to 



424 VIREOS 

e. Kans., s. Ills., Ky., w. N. C, and interior of Va. (locally in the East); 
mnters from the Middle States and s. New England to Tex., La., and Miss. 

Washington, rare W. V., Aug. 11-Apl. 6; may summer. Ossining, casual. 
Cambridge, one record, (Nov. 9, 1892). N, Ohio, tolerably common S. R., 
Mch. 10-Nov. 1. Glen EUj^n, fairly common S. R., Mch. 2-Sept. 29. SE. 
Minn., common S. R. Mch. 15-Oct. 28. 

Nesting date, Auburn, N. Y., May 11; se. Minn., Apl. 7. 



57. Family Vireonid^. Vireos. (Fig. 69.) 

The Vireos, numbering about one hundred species and subspecies, 
are peculiar to America. Most of them are confined to tropical America, 
only eleven species reaching the United States where, except along our 
southern boundaries, they are migratory. 

Vireos are for the most part arboreal, though several species haunt 
the lower, rather than the higher growth. For small, insect-eating birds 
they are rather slow in their movements. We do not see them darting 
out after insects as do the Flycatchers, nor do they flit through the 
foUage after the manner of many Warblers, but patiently glean their 
food from the under surfaces of leaves, crevices in the bark, etc. They 
are more musical than the small Warblers; all our species have pleasing 
songs, and some of them are especially gifted. Their nests are neatly 
constructed cups suspended from the arms of a forked branch. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. With distinct white or yellowish white wing-bars. 
a. Eye-ring, or line from eye to bill, yellow. 

o}. Throat and breast bright yellow; rump gray. 

628. Yellow-throated Vireo. 
a2. Underparts white or whitish; sides and sometimes breast washed 
with greenish yellow; rump olive-green. 

631. White-eyed Vireo. 631a. Key West Vireo. 
h. Eye-ring and line from ej'e to bill white. 
h^. Head lead-blue; wing over 2'50. 

629. Blue-headed Vireo. 629a. Mountain Vireo. 
h-. Head grayish, nearly like back; wing under 2*50. 

633. Bell's Vireo (Illinois). 

B. Without white -wdng-bars. 

o. Underparts yellowish; first primary as long as fifth. 

626. Philadelphia Vireo. 
6. Underparts white; sides washed with yellowish; first primary '75 long. 

627. Warbling Vireo. 
c. Underparts white, with little if any yellowish on sides; head with a 
lead-gray cap, bordered by narrow black lines over the eye. 

624. Red-eyed Vireo. 623. Black-whiskered Vireo. 

623. Vireosylva calidris barbatula (Cab.). Black-whiskered 
Vireo. Ads. — Similar to the next species, but somewhat duller above and 
with a fuscous streak on either side of the throat. 

Range. — S. Fla. (as far n. as Anclote Keys), Key West, Dry Tortugas, 
Cuba, Little Cayman, and the Bahamas. 

Nest, pensile, of dry grasses shreds of bark, cotton, lichens, and spiders' 
webs, lined with soft, cottonlike fibers, suspended from a forked branch, 
5-20 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, white, with a pinkish hue, speckled and spotted, 



VIREOS 425 

chiefly at the larger end, with reddish brown, "78 x '55. Date, British 
Honduras, Apl. 23 (Thayer CoU.). 

This is a not uncommon summer resident in southern Florida, 
arriving from its winter home in Central America early in May. Its 
song resembles that of the Red-eyed Vireo, but is somewhat more hesi- 
tating and emphatic. 

624. Vireosylva olivacea {Linn.). Red-eyed Vieeo. Ads. — Crown 
slaty gray, bordered on either side by blackish; a conspicuous white line over 
the eye; rest of the upperparts, wings, and tail light oUve-green; no wing- 
bars; underparts pure white. Iris red in ad., brown in im. L., 6"23; W., 3'20; 
T., 2-20; B. from N., '40. 

Remarks. — The well-defined slaty gray cap, bordered by narrow black 
lines, are the best distinguishing marks of this species. 

Range. — N. and S. Am. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Austral 
zones from cen. B. C, s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, n. Ont., Anticosti Is., and 
Cape Breton Is. s. to se. Wash., s. 
Mont., e. Wyo., e. Colo., w. Tex., n. 
Coahuila, and cen. Fla.; winters in 
S. A. 

Washington, very common S. R., 
Apl. 21-Oct. 17. Ossining, common S 
R., Apl. 29-0 ct. 19. Cambridge, 
abundant S. R., May 10-Sept. 10. N. 
Ohio, abundant S. R., Apl. 27-Oct. 1. 
Glen EUyn, common S. R., May 5- 
Oct. 5. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
May 5-Sept. 15. 

Nest, pensile, of strips of bark, bits p^^ 112. Red-eyed Vireo. 

of dead wood, paper, and plant-down, (Natural size.) 

firmly and smoothly interwoven, lined 

with finer strips of bark and vine tendrils, suspended from a forked branch, 
5-40 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, white, with a few black or umber specks or spots 
about the larger end, "85 x '55. Date, D. C, May 26; Cambridge, May 28; 
Mt. Carmel, Ills., May 23; se. Minn., May 29. 

This, the most common and generally distributed of our Vireos, is 
found alike in the shade trees of our lawns, in orchards, or woodlands. 
The conspicuous white line over the eye, with its black border, and the 
bird's red eye, and its frequently uttered, complaining note, a nasal 
whang, are good characters by which to distinguish it from its relatives. 

Wilson Flagg's description of the Red-eye to my mind exactly 
reflects the character of the bird and its song: "The Preacher is more 
generally known by his note, because he is incessant in his song, and 
particularly vocal during the heat of our long summer days, when only 
a few birds are singing. His style of preaching is not declamation. 
Though constantly talking, he takes the part of a deliberative orator, 
who explains his subject in a few words and then makes a pause for 
his hearers to reflect upon it. We might suppose him to })c r(^peating 
moderately, with a pause between each sentence, 'You see it — you 
know it — do you hear me? — do you believe it?' All these strains are 
dehvered with a Rising inflection at the close, and with a pause, as if 
waiting for an answer." 

1905. Herrick, F. H., Home-Life of Wild Birds, 103-114. 




426 . VIREOS 

The Yellow-green Vireo {625. Vireosylva jiavoviridis flavoviridis) , a 
Mexican and Central American species, has been once recorded from God- 
bout, Province of Quebec. 

626. Vireosylva philadelpMca Cass. Philadelphia Vireo. Ads. — • 
Upperparts light olive-green; the crown sometimes grayish; a whitish line 
over the eye; wings and tail edged with ohve-green; no wing-bars; first 
primary nearly as long as second; entire underparts nearly uniform pale, 
greenish yeUow. L., 4-75; W., 2*60; T., 1-95; B. from N., '2Q. 

Remarks. — The pale, greenish yellow color spread almost uniformly over 
the entire underparts distinguishes this bird from our other Vireos. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian zone from n. and cen. Alberta, 
n. Man., n. Ont., N. B., and Maine, to n. Mich, and N. H. ; winters from 
Cozumel Is. and Guatemala to Veragua. 

Washington, very rare T. V., May; Sept. Ossining, rare T. V., Sept. 
20-Oct. 20. Cambridge, rare T. V. ' Glen EUyn, rather rare T. V., May 14, 
15; Aug. 21-Sept. 30. SE, Minn., uncommon T. V., May 9. 

N'est, pensile, of fine grass and birch bark,~ suspended from a forked branch 
about eight feet from the ground. Eggs, 4, similar in color to those of V. 
olivacea (Seton). Date, Duck Mt., Man., June 4. 

This species resembles the Red-eyed Vireo in habits, and Mr. Brew- 
ster writes that its song is so nearly identical with the song of that spe- 
cies "that the most critical ear will, in many cases, find great difficulty 
in distinguishing between the two. The notes of philadelphicus are 
generally pitched a Httle higher in the scale, while many of the utter- 
ances are feebler and the whole strain is a trifle more disconnected. 
But these differences are of a very subtile character, and, like most 
comparative ones, they are not to be depended upon imless the two 
species can be heard together. The Philadelphia Vireo has, however, 
one note which seems to be peculiarly its own, a very abrupt, double- 
syllabled utterance with a rising inflection, which comes in with the 
general song at irregular but not infrequent intervals. I have also on 
one or two occasions heard the male when in pursuit of his mate utter 
a soft pseuo, similar to that sometimes used by Vireo olivaceus, and 
both sexes when excited or angry have a harsh, petulant note exactly 
like that of V. gilvus'' (Bull. NutL Orn. Club., V, 1880, p. 5). 

1897. D WIGHT, J. D., Jr., Auk, XIV, 259-272 (biography). 

627. Vireosylva gilva gUva {Vieill.). Warbling Vireo. Ads. — Upper- 
parts ashy olive-green ; no wing-bars ; wings and tail edged with the color of the 
back; first primary very short, not more than I'OO in length; underparts white 
slightly washed with yellowish. L., 5-80; W., 2*85; T., 2'14; B. from N., 'SO. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition and Austral zones from se. 
Alberta, n. Man., cen. Ont., and N. S. s. to mv. Tex., s. La., N. C, and Va.; 
winter home unknown, but s. of the U. S. 

Washington, rather common S. R., Apl. 21-Sept. 12. Ossining, tolerably 

common, S. R., May 3- 
Sopt. 18. Cambridge, lo- 
cally common S. R., May 
5-Sept. 15. N. Ohio, abun- 
dant S. R., Apl. 17-Oct. 10. 
Glen Ellyn, not common S. 
^ R., May 1-Sept. 15. SE. 

FiQ. 113. Wing of Warbling Vireo, to show Minn., common S. R., May 

short first primary. 3-Sept. 15, 




VIREOS 427 

Nest, pensile, of grasses and plant fibers, firmly and smoothly inter- 
woven, lined with fine grasses, suspended from a forked branch 8-40 feet up. 
Eggs, 3-4, white, with a few specks or spots of black, umber, or rufous- 
brown, chiefly about the larger end, '76 x '55. Date, Cambridge, May 30; 
Holland Patent, N. Y., May 27; se. Minn., May 24. 

Unlike its cousin,- the Preacher, the Warbling Vireo is not gen- 
erally distributed, but shows a decided preference for rows of shade 
trees, particularly rows of elms. It passes the greater part of its time 
in the upper branches, and is more often heard than seen. 

Although resembhng the Red-eye in general appearance, its song 
is so different that singing birds need never be mistaken for that species. 
Instead of the Red-eye's broken, rambling recitative, the song of the 
Warbling Vireo is a firm, rich, continuous warble with a singular alto 
undertone. 

628. Lanivireo flavifron (FieiVZ.). Yellow-throated Vireo. Ads. — 
Upperparts bright olive-green, changing to gray on the rump and upper tail- 
coverts; greater and middle wing-coverts tipped wdth white, forming two 
distinct wing-bars; outer web of tertials edged with white; eye-ring, throat 
and breast bright yellow; belly white. L., 5*95; W., 3-05; T., 2'10; B. from 
N., -36. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition and Austral zones from se. 
Sask., s. Man., s. Ont., s. Que., and Maine s. to cen. Tex,, cen. La., and cen. 
Fla. ; winters from Yucatan and s. Mex. to Colombia; casual in winter in 
Cuba and the Bahamas. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 19-Sept. 29. Ossining, tolerably 
common S. R., Apl. 30-Sept. 7. Cambridge, common S. R., May 6-Sept. 
10. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 25-Sept. 25. Glen Ellyn, not common S. R., 
May 2-Sept. 26. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 27-Sept. 15. 

Nest, pensile, of strips of bark, plant fibers, etc., interwoven, lined with 
fi l j ie grasse s and covered externally with lichens, suspended from a forked 
branch 10^30 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, white, with a few specks or spots of black, 
umber, or rufous-brown, chiefly about the larger ends, '80 x '60. Date, 
New London, Conn., May 21; Cambridge, May 26; Holland Patent, N. Y., 
May 24. 

The Yellow-throated Vireo is a dweller in tree tops, and whether 
in woodland, orchard, or lawn, he seldom comes below the upper story 
of his home. But even at a distance his bright yellow breast is a con- 
spicuous mark, at once distinguishing him from other members of his 
family. 

If the Red-eyed Vireo is a soprano, the Yellow-throat is a con- 
tralto. He sings much the same tune, but his notes are deeper and 
richer, while they are uttered more deliberately and with greater expres- 
sion than those of his somewhat too voluble cousin. "See me; I'm 
here; where are you?" he calls, and at intervals repeats his question 
in varying forms. Sometimes he astoni.shes us by an intricate liquid 
trill which suggests the wonderful song of the Ruby Kinglet, but which 
unfortunately is sometimes marred by the scolding notes that precede 
or follow it. 

629. Lanivireo solitarius solitarius {Wils.). Blue-headed Vireo. 
Ads. — Top and sides of the head bluish gray; eye-ring and lores white; hark 
olive-green; greater and middle wing-coverts tipped with white, forming 



428 VIREOS 

two distinct wing-bars; outer web of tertials edged with whitish; underparts 
white; sides washed with greenish yellow. L., 5*61; W., 2'96; T., 2"15; 
B. from N., -28. 

Remarks. ^This species may be known by its white lores and eye-ring, 
and bluish gray cheeks and crown. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from cen. 
Alberta, s. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, cen. Ont., s. Que., and Cape Breton 
Is. s. to n. N. D., cen. Minn., Mich., mts. of s. Pa. and R. I.; winters from 
Gulf States to Guatemala. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 6-May 18; Sept. 6-Nov. 3. Ossining, 
tolerably common T. V., Apl. 23-May 14; Sept. 8-Oct. 20. Cambridge, com- 
mon T. v., rare S. R., Apl. 20-May 8; Sept. 15-Oct. 5. N. Ohio, common 
T. v., Apl. 17-May 20; Sept. 1-30. Glen EUyn, not common T. V., May 9- 
19; Aug. 11-Opt. 9. S_E. Minn., common T. V., May 3-Sept. 28. 

Nest, pensile, of pine needles, plant-down, etc., firmly interwoven, sus- 
pended from a forked branch 5-10 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, white, with a few 
specks or spots of black, umber, or rufous-brown, chiefly at the larger end, 
•80 X -53. Date, Taunton, Mass., May 21; Cambridge, May 28; Webster, 
N. H., May 29. 

This large and handsome Vireo — a bird of the woods — ^is the first 
of its family to reach the Northern States in the spring and the last 
to depart in the autumn. Like its congeners, but unlike birds in gen- 
eral, it sings at its work. In form its music resembles the Red-eye's, 
the Philadelphia's, and the Yellow-throat's; but to me it is more varied 
and beautiful than any of these, though some Hsteners may prefer the 
Yellow-throat for the richness and fullness of its "organ tone." The 
Solitary's song is matchless for the tenderness of its cadence, while in 
peculiarly happy moments the bird indulges in a continuous warble 
that is really enchanting. It has, too, in common with the Yellow- 
throat, a musical chatter — suggestive of the Baltimore Oriole's — and a 
pretty trilled whistle. Its most winning trait is its tameness. Wood 
bird as it is, it wiU sometimes permit the greatest familiarities. Two 
birds I have seen which allowed themselves to be stroked in the freest 
manner while sitting on the eggs, and which ate from my hand as 
readily as any pet canary; but I have seen others that complained 
loudly whenever I approached their tree. Perhaps they had had sad 
experiences. Beadfokd Toreey. 

629c. L. s. alticola Brewst. Mothsttain Solitaky Vikeo. Similar to 
the preceding, but with a much larger bill, and the back generally with 
more or less slaty blue. W., 3*15: T., 2*25: B. from N., '35: depth of B. at 
N., -20. 

Range. — Breeds in Canadian and Alleghanian faunas in the Alleghanies 
from w. Md. to e. Tenn. and n. Ga. ; winters in lowlands from S. Car. to Fla. 

Nesting date, Iredell Co., N. C, Apl. 9. 

This race of the Blue-headed Vireo is a common summer resident 
in the southern Alleghanies (see Loomis, Auk, 1891, p. 329). 

A single specimen of the Plumbeous Vireo {629h. L. s. plumheus), a 
western species, has been taken at Peterboro, N. Y. (Miller, Auk, XI, 1894, 
79). 

631. Vireo griseus griseus {Bodd.). White-eyed Vireo. Ads. — 
Upperparts, including upper tail-coverts, bright olive-green, more or lesa 



VIREOS 429 

washed with grayish; greater and middle wing-coverts tipped with yellowish 
white, forming two distinct wing-bars; outer web of tertials edged with 
whitish; lores and eye-ring yellow; throat white or whitish; belly white; 
breast and sides washed with greenish yellow; iris white, hazel in the young. 
L., 5-27; W., 2-37; T., 1-95; B. from N., -29. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds chiefly in Austral zones from se. Nebr., s. Wise, 
N. Y., and Mass. to cen. Tex. and cen. Fla. ; winters from Tex., Ga., Fla., 
and S. C. through e. Mex. to Yucatan and Guatemala; casual n. to Vt., 
Ont., N. B., and in Cuba. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl, 18-Oct. 19. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 29-Oct. 3. Cambridge, rare S. R., May 8-Sept. 20; formerly common. 
Glen EUyn, rare, spring only. May 24- June 5. 

Nest, generally similar to that of V. olivaceus, suspended from 'a forked 
branch in thickets. Eggs, 3-4, white, with a few specks of black, lunber, 
or rufous-brown at the larger end, '75 x "SS. Date, Chatham Co., Ga., 
Apl. 22; Ossining, N. Y., May 27; Cambridge, June 1; Mt. Carmel, Ills., 
May 11. 

If birds are ever impertinent, I believe this term might with truth 
be apphed to that most original, independent dweller in thickety imder- 
growths, the White-eyed Vireo. Both his voice and manner say that 
he doesn't in the least care what you think of him; and, if attracted 
by his peculiar notes or actions, you pause near his haunts, he jerks 
out an abrupt "Who are you, eh?" in a way which plainly indicates 
that your presence can be dispensed with. If this hint is insufficient, 
he follows it by a harsh scolding, and one can fancy that in his singular 
white eye there is an unmistakable gleam of disapproval. 

I have always regretted that the manners of this Vireo have been a 
bar to our better acquaintance, for he is a bird of marked character and 
with unusual vocal talents. He is a capital mimic, and in the retire- 
ment of his home sometimes amuses himself by combining the songs 
of other birds in an intricate potpourri. 

631a. V. g. maynardi Brewst. Key West_ Vireo. Scarcely dis- 
tinguishable in color from the preceding, but averaging somewhat paler and 
less yellow below, and with a larger bill. L., 5-12; W., 2-40; T., 2-12; 
B,. from N., -35. 

Range. — Fla., from Tarpon Springs and Anastasia Is. s. on the coast and 
keys to Key West. 

631b. V. g. bermudianus {Bangs and Bradlee). Bermuda White- 
eyed Vireo. Similar to V. g. griseus but wing averaging shorter, tarsus 
longer, general coloration grayer, less yellow and olivaceous. {The Auk, 
1901, 252). 

Range. — Bermuda. 

"Not a very satisfactory subspecies" (Ridgway). 

633. Vireo belli belli Aud. Bell's Vireo. Ads. — Crown ashy gray, 
changing to olive-green on the rump; greater and middle wing-cov(!rts nar- 
rowly tipped with white; lores and eye-ring whitish; undorparts white, 
breast and sides washed with greenish yellow. L., 4"75; W., 2'20; T., 1*80; 
B. from N., '28. 

Range. — Breeds in Austral zones from ne. Colo., s. S. D., n. Ills., and nw. 
Ind. to e. Tex. and Tamaulipas; winters in Mex. and Guatemala; accidental 
in N. H. 

Nest, pensile, of strips of bark and plant fibers firmly and smoothly inter- 
woven, lined with finer grasses, etc., in bushes or low trees. Eggs, 4-6, white, 



430 WOOD WARBLERS 

with a few specks of black, umber, or rufous-brown at the larger end, "66 X 
•50. Date, Corpus Christi, Tex., Apl. 24; Mercer Co., Ills., May 25. 

This is a common bird in its range, and is locally not uncommon 
as far east as Illinois. "In their food, habits, and actions they are very 
similar to the ^^^lite-eyed. Their call- and alarm-notes are not quite 
so harsh, and their song is delivered in a less emphatic manner; an 
indescribable sputtering, that does not rank it high in the musical 
scale" (Goss). 

1901. Cary, M., Proc. Neb. Orn. Un., 46-48 (habits). 

The Bahama Honey Creeper {635. Ccereba hahamensis) was found by 
Dr. Wtirdemann in January, 1858, on Indian Key, southeastern Florida, but 
has not, to my knowledge, been taken by subsequent observers. The upper 
parts are sooty black, the rump and middle of the underparts yellow, and a 
line over the eye, the throat, and the lower belly are white or whitish; length 
about 4"50. 

58. Family Mniotiltid^. Wood Warblees. (Fig. 70.) 

The Wood Warblers are found only in America. About one hundred 
and fifty-five species are known, of which fifty-five visit the United 
States, there being nearly twice as many in the Eastern as in the Western 
States. With three or four exceptions, they are inhabitants of wood- 
land, but, during their migrations, may be found in the trees of lawns 
or orchards. They feed almost exclusively upon insects, and are thus 
highly migratory, thousands of miles frequently separating their sum- 
mer and winter homes. 

The majority are among the last of the spring arrivals; their coming 
caps the climax of the migration, and the first severe frost leaves but 
few with us. They migrate by night, and are chief among the \'ictims 
of Hghthouses and electric-fight towers. When migrating, they are 
generally found in straggling companies composed of a number of species, 
which during the day travel slowly through the woods from tree to tree. 

They capture their insect food in a variety of ways. Some species 
flit actively from branch to branch, taking their prey from the more 
exposed parts of the twigs and leaves; others are gleaners, and care- 
fully explore the under surfaces of leaves or crevices in the bark; while 
several, Hke Flycatchers, capture a large part of their food on the wing. 
As a rule, they are arboreal, but many are thicket-haunting, and some 
are terrestrial. 

Several species have remarkable vocal ability, but, generally speak- 
ing, they have rather weak voices, and take low rank as songsters. 

Warblers are at once the delight and the despair of field students. 
To the uninitiated, their existence is unknown, and when search reveals 
the before unsuspected fact that our woods are thronged with birds as 
exquisitely colored as the daintiest tropical forms, we feel as though a 
new world were opened to us. Entering an apparently deserted bit of 
woods, we hear faint voices, lisping tseeps, and soon discover that the 
tree tops are animated with flitting forms. What limitless possibilities 



II 



WOOD WARBLERS 431 

there are in a flock of Warblers! Who can say what rare species may be 
among them? — perhaps the bird we have long vainly looked for; per- 
haps a stranger from another cUme! 

1907, Chapman, F. M., and others. The Warblers of North America, 
8vo., col. plls. 24; pp. 306 (Appleton). 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

First Group. — Throat yellow, yellowish, or orange. 

I. Underparts without streaks or spots. 
II. With black or brown streaks on the breast or sides, or (in one species) a 
blackish brown band across the throat, or (in one species) a black 
patch on the breast. 

Second Group. — Throat black, gray, ashy, white, whitish, brown, 
or buflEy. 

I. Throat and upper breast one color, black, gray, ashy, or brown, very 
different from the white or yellow belly. 
II. Throat white or whitish, with or without streaks or spots; rest of under- 
parts streaked or spotted with black, bluish, chestnut, or yellow. 
III. Underparts white, whitish, or buffy, without streaks, spots, or patches. 

FIRST GROUP 
I. Underparts without streaks or spots. 

1. Tail with conspicuous white spots or patches. 

A. Wings with white wing-bars. 

a. Underparts entirely pure yellow. 

a^. Forehead yellow; a black line through the eye; rump same as 

back 641. Blue-winged Warbler. 

a2. Crown ashy; rump yellow . 657. Magnolia Warbler (Im.). 
h. Underparts not entirely pure yellow. 

h^. Throat bright yellow; belly white or whitish. 

h'^. Back olive-greenish 671. Pine Warbler. 

6^. Back bluish, with a yellowish patch in the middle. 

648. Parula Warbler (Im.). 
&. Underparts pale yellowish white or buffy; throat not brighter 
than belly. • 
c^. Back olive-green, slightly streaked with black. 

c^. Underparts pale cream-buff, stronger on the flanks. 

660. Bay-breasted Warbler (Im.). 
c^. Underparts pale yellowish white. 

661. Black-poll Warbler (Im.). 
d^. Back not streaked. 

d^. Back olive-green, without streaks . 671. Pine Warbler 9. 
d"*. Back with a bluish tinge and without streaks. 

658. Cerulean Warbler (Im.). 

B. Without white wing-bars. 

a. Underparts bright orange or orange-yellow; wings, tail-coverts, 
and tail bluish gray .... 637. Prothonotary Warbler. 

h. Underparts pure yellow; wings, rump, and tail greenish; head 
sometimes blackish; inner web of outer tail-feathers white. 

684. Hooded Warbler (9 and im.). 

c. Underparts pale yellowish; head ashy; rump olive-green; small 

white tail-spots, not reaching to ends of feathers. 

640. Bachman's Warbler (9 and im.). 

d. Underparts pale yellowish; entire upperparts olive-green; a 

white spot at the base of the primaries. 

654. Black-throated Blue Warbler 9. 



432 WOOD WARBLERS 

2. Tail without white spots or patches; wings without white wing-bars. 

A. Cap, or forehead, or cheeks black or blackish. 

a. Cap black; forehead and cheeks yellow. 

685. Wilson's Warbler. 

b. Band on the forehead and cheeks black or blackish; no yellow 

line over the eye . .681. Maryland Yellow-throat cf, 
6816. Florida Yellow-throat cf. 

c. Forehead or crown and cheeks black or blackish; a clear yel- 

low line over the eye 677. Kentucky Warbler. 

B. No black on forehead. 

a. Crown ashy, of a very different color from the olive-green back, or 

with the bases of the crown feathers rufous-brown or chocolate. 
a^. Crown plain ashy; under tail-coverts white. 

640. Bachman's Warbler. 

a2. Crown ashy; bases of feathers chestnut; eye-ring distinctly 

white; most of underparts and under tail-coverts bright 

yellow 645. Nashville Warbler. 

a^. Crown of nearly the same color as the back; the feathers with 
rufous-brown bases; underparts dull greenish j^ellow. 

646. Orange-crowned Warbler. 

b. Crown of the same color as the back; forehead the same, or yellow- 

ish, or brownish, 
foi. Underparts uniform yellow or yellowish. 
62. Underparts bright yellow. 

6^. Upperparts bright olive-green; forehead yellowish; short 
bristles at base of bill; tail greenish brown. 

685. Wilson's Warbler (Im.). 
6^. Upperparts bright greenish yellow; inner web of tail- 
feathers yellow .... 652. Yellow Warbler 9. 
6^. Upperparts ashy greenish; eye-ring white. 

645. Nashville Warbler (Im.). 
c^. Underparts dull yellow or yellowish. 

c^. Underparts dull greenish yellow, obscurely streaked with 
dusky; back ashy greenish. 

646. Orange-crowned Warbler (Im.). 
c*. Underparts yellowish or buffy yellowish ; outer tail-feathers 
decidedly shortest; legs flesh-color. 

681. Maryland Yellow-throat 9. 

6816. Florida Yellow-throat 9. 

c^. Breast somewhat yellower than rest of underparts; flanks 

brownish; legs blackish; tail-feathers of same length. 

645. Nashville Warbler (Im.). 

c^. Inner margins of tail-feathers yellow. 

652. Yellow Warbler 9. 
c'. Back bright olive-green; under tail-coverts white. 

647. Tennessee Warbler (Im.). 
c®. A small white spot at the base of the primaries. 

654. Black-throated Blue Warbler 9. 
ci. Throat and breast yellow; belly white or whitish. 

c^. A black spot before the eye and a white line over it; wing 3"00. 

683. Yellow-breasted Chat. 
cK Legs flesh-color; outer tail-feathers shortest; forehead some- 
times brownish . . 681. Maryland Yellow-throat 9. 
6816. Florida Yellow-throat 9. 
c^ Legs blackish; tail-feathers even; wing under 3"00, 

645. Nashville Warbler (Im.), 



WOOD WARBLERS 433 

II. With black or brown streaks on the breast or sides, or (in one 
species) a blackish brown band across the throat, or (in one 
species) a black patch on the breast. 

I. Underparts streaked or spotted. 

1. Underparts streaked with rufous-brown. 

A. Crown chestnut. 

a. Entire underparts rich yellow 672a. Yellow Palm Warbler. 

b. Throat and breast bright yellow; belly yellowish white. 

672. Palm Warbler. 

B. No chestnut crown-cap. 

a. Underparts yellowish white; eye-ring yellowish. 

672. Palm Warbler (Im.). 

b. Underparts yellow, washed with brownish; eye-ring yellowish. 

672a. Yellow Palm Warbler (Im.). 

c. Underparts bright yellow; forehead yellow; inner webs of tail- 

feathers yellow .... 652. Yellow Warbler (Ad.). 

2. Underparts streaked or spotted with black. 

a. Back unspotted, the same as the head, olive-green or olive-brown, 
ai. Underparts pale sulphur-yellow, streaked with black; no wing- 
bars; wing 3'00 or over. 

675. Water-Thrush. 675a. Grinnell's Water-Thrush. 

a^. Underparts bright yellow; no black streaks on the flanks; wing 
nearly 3*00 671. Pine Warbler. 

a^. Underparts bright yellow; sides streaked with black; wing 
about 2'00 .... 673. Prairie Warbler (9 and im.). 

a'*. Throat pale yellow, indistinctly spotted or streaked; belly 
whitish; cheeks bright yellow; outer web of outer tail-feather 
white at the base. 

667. Black-throated Green Warbler (Im.). 

a^. Throat and breast yellow, distinctly spotted; median wing- 
coverts white . . . 650. Cape May Warbler (9 and im.). 

b. Head not olive-green or olive-brown. 

¥. Back black or streaked with black, or center of crown orange. 

b^. Underparts pale yellow; black spots confined to sides; no 

w^hite wing-bars .... 670. Kirtland's Warbler. 

b^. Underparts pale yellow, indistinctly streaked with blackish; 

two white or whitish wing-bars. 

661. Black-poll Warbler (Im.), 
b*. Throat orange or yellow, without streaks ; ear-coverts gray or 
black; center of crown yellowish or orange. 

662. Blackburnian Warbler. 
6^. Underparts streaked with black; ear-fo verts rufous; cap black. 

650. Cape May Warbler. 
b^. Head bluish gray or ashy; rump bright yellow; eye-ring white; 
white tail-spots not reaching to ends of f(\'ithers. 

657. Magnolia Warbler. 
c^ Back not black, 
c^. Back ashy gray. 

c^. Throat yellow; belly white; wing-bars and tail-spots white, 
c^. A yellow line from the l^ill to the eye. 

663. Yellow-throated Warbler. 
c^. A white line from the bill to and over the eye. 

663a. Sycamore Warbler. 
(P. Entire underparts yellow; breast with a necklace of black 
spots ; no wing-bars or tail-spots 

686. Canadian Warbler. 

d^. Center of back brick-red; underparts yellow; sides streaked 

with black 673. Prairie Warbler. 



434 WOOD WARBLERS 

II. Underparts not streaked. 

A. Throat yellow; breast with a band of copper or blackish chestnut; 

upperparts blue; center of back greenish yellow. 

648. Pakula Warbleb. 

B. Throat and forehead yellow; breast and crown-cap black. 

640. Bachiman's "Warbler. 

SECOND GROUP 

I. Throat and upper breast one color, black, gray, ashy, or brown, 
very diSerent from the white or yellow beUy. 

A. Belly white or whitish. 

a. Back gray or greenish gray, crown yellow, cheeks black or gray, 

wing-bars yellow 642. Goldex-wixged Warbler. 

b. Back and crown bright olive-green, cheeks yellow, wing-bars 

white 667. Black-throated Greex Warbler. 

c. Back and crown dark blue, a white spot at the base of the primaries. 

654. Black-throated Blue Warbler d". 

d. Back streaked "n-ith gray and black; cap, throat, and sides chestnut. 

660. Bay-breasted Warbler cf. 

e. Back streaked with black and white, a white Hne through the cen- 

ter of the cro^TL . . , 636. Black and White Warbler d". 

f. Back black; sides, center of wings, and base of tail salmon-red. 

687. Redstart cf. 

B. Belly yellow. 

a. Throat black. 

a^. Cheeks bright yellow, black crown-cap connected with black 
throat by a black line, end half of inner web of outer taU-feathers 
white . . 684. Hooded Warbler. 

a^. Cheeks duU greenish yellow, black crown-cap not connected 
w-ith black throat, white tail-spots not reaching to the ends of 
feathers 640. Bachman's Warbler. 

a^. A black streak through the eye, wing-bars white. 

641 -(-642. Lawrence's Warbler. 

b. Throat bluish gray, ashy, or brownish. 

61. A white eye-ring 678. Connecticut Warbler. 

6^. No white eye-ring 679. Mourning Warbler. 

II. Throat white or whitish, with or without streaks or spots; rest of 
the underparts spotted or streaked with black, bluish, chestnut, 
or yellow. 

A. Back streaked with black. 

a. With chestnut streaks on the sides, under tail-coverts white. 

fli. Wing over 2-50, head with chestnut or black streaks or spots, 
wdng-bars white .... 660. Bay-breasted Warbler 9. 
a2. Wing under 2*50, crown and wing-bars yellow or yellowish. 

659. Chestnut-sided Warbler. 

b. With black or bluish streaks on the sides or entire underparts. 

b^. Cap solid black 661. Black-poll Warbler d". 

52, Crown, rump, and sides of the breast with a yellow patch or spot. 

655. Myrtle Warbler. 
63. Cap black, wnth a white streak through the center. 

636. Black and White Warbler 9. 
b^. Crown olive-green, with small black streaks. 

661. Black-poll Warbler 9. 
b^. Crown blue, a bluish black band across the breast. 

658. Cerulean Warbler d". 
b\ Crown brownish, under tail-coverts yellow. 

672. Palm Warbler (Im.). 



WOOD WARBLERS 435 

B. Back without streaks or spots. 

a. With white or yellow spots in the tail. 

a}. Wing-bars white, cheeks yellow, back greenish. 

667. Black-throated Green Warbler (Im.). 
a^. Wing-bars, cheeks, and back grayish, under tail-coverts white. 
650. Cape May Warbler (9 and im.). 
a'. Back brownish, under tail-coverts yellow. 

672. Palm W^arbler (Im.). 
a^. ^ides of breast, band in wings, and base of tail yellow. 

687. Redstart (9 and im.). 
h. Without white or yellow spots in the tail. 

foi. A pale rufous streak bordered by black through the center of 

the crown 674. Oven-bird. 

62. A white line over the eye, throat generally without spots, wing 

over 3 '00, bill over '50 . . . 676. Louisiana Water-thrush. 

h^. A buffy line over the eye, throat with small black spots, wing 

under 3"00, bill under '50 675. Water-thrush. 

675a. Grinnell's Water-thrush. 
III. Underparts white, whitish, or huffy, without streaks, spots, or 
patches. 

A. Tail with white or yellow spots or patches 
a. Wing-bars white or grayish. 

ai. Underparts pure white, back greenish yellow, cheeks gray, wing 
under 2*50 . . . 659. Chestnut-sided Warbler (Im.). 
a2, Underparts tinged with buffy, back and cheeks olive-green, with 
generally distinct black streaks, wing over 2'50. 

660. Bay-breasted Warbler (Im.). 
a^. Underparts soiled whitish, back brownish or grayish green, eye- 
ring white, wing-bars grayish, wing over 2*50. 

671. Pine Warbler (9 and im.). 
a^. Underparts white, back streaked with pure black and white. 

636. Black and White Warbler 9. 
h. Wing-bars yellowish, greenish, or absent. 

fei. Back and head bright greenish yellow, cheeks gray, underparts 

pure white . . . 659. Chestnut-sided Warbler (Im.). 

62. Back, head, and cheeks yellowish green, underparts yellowish, inner 

margins of tail-feathers yellow . 652. Yellow Warbler (Im.). 

6'. Back gray or grayish, a black line through the eye. 

641 + 642. Brewster's Warbler. 
6^. Back and head brownish, wings and base of tail with a yellow 

band 687. Redstart (9 and im.). 

65. Back bright green, head and cheeks grayish, a small black spot 
in front of the eye 647. Tennessee Warbler <?. 

B. Tail without white or yellow spots or patches. 
a. Under tail-coverts yellow. 

a^. Back olive-green, outer tail-feathers shortest, legs flesh-color. 

681. Maryland Yellow-thro.vt (9 and im.). 

6816. Florida Yellow-throat. 

a^. Back grajdsh olive-green, tail-feathers of equal length, legs 

blackish 646. Orange-crowned Warbler. 

6. Under tail-coverts white or whitish. 

61. Head plain brown, a whitish line from the bill over the eye. 

638. Swainson's Warbler. 

62. Center of crown and line from the bill over the eye buffy, bor- 

dered by black stripes . . . 639. Worm-eating Warbler. 
6^ Crown greenish, a small white spot at the base of the primaries 
almost concealed by wing-coverts. 

654. Black-throated Blue Warbler (9 and im.). 
b*. Crown grayish, bend of the wing yellow. 

640. Bachman's Warbler 9. 
30 



436 WOOD WARBLERS 

A Field Key to the 

Adult Male Warblers of Eastern North America in 

Spring and Summer Plumage. 

I. Throat yellow, white, or whitish; underparts without streaks or patches. 
II. Throat black, brown, or slate-color. 

III. Throat yellow or orange, underparts with streaks. (In one species a 

blackish brown band across the breast.) 

IV. Throat white or whitish, with streaks or spots on the underparts. (In 

two species a yellow patch on the sides of the breast.) 

I. Throat yellow, white, or whitish; underparts without streaks 
or patches. 

1. Throat yellow. 

A. Length over 6*00, the largest of the Warblers; haunts dense thick- 

ets in second growth; song, a peculiar mixture of whistles, chucks, 
and crow-calls, delivered from the undergrowth, from the trees 
above, or on the wing, when the bird resembles a bunch of falling 
leaves 683. Yellow-breasted Chat. 

B. Length under 6-00. 

a. Head and neck bright golden yellow like the breast; tail-feathers 
white, except at the tip; haunts near the water; especially low 
bushes and willows hanging over streams and ponds; call, a 
sharp peek; range, from Virginia and s. Minnesota southward. 

637. Prothonotary Warbler. 
6. Forehead and cheeks black, a yellow line over the eye; song, a 
loud whistled call of five to seven notes; haunts near the ground; 
range from lower Hudson valley southward. 

677. Kentucky Warbler. 

c. Forehead and cheeks black, bordered by grajdsh; no line over 

the eye; haunts undergrowth; call, a frequently repeated chack; 
song, a loud, rapid I beseech you, I beseech you, I beseech you, or 
witch-e-wee-o, witch-e-wee-o, witch-e-wee-o; movements restless; 

abundant 681. Maryland Yellow-throat. 

6816. Florida Yellow-throat. 

d. Head and back olive-green; wings with two white bars; outer 

tail-feathers with white; haunts pine woods; song, a musical trill. 

671. Pine Warbler. 

e. Crown bluish ash, eye-ring white; call-note sometimes Uke the 

sound produced by striking two pebbles together. 

645. Nashville Warbler. 

/. Forehead yellow, a small black mark in front of the eye; wings 

with two white bars ; outer tail-feathers with' white ; song, swee-chee, 

the first note higher, and also wee, chl-chl-chl-chi, chur, chee-chiir. 

641. Blue-winged Warbler. 

g. Forehead yellow; crown-cap black; cheeks yellow; wings and 

tail unmarked; rather rare . . . 685. Wilson's Warbler. 

2. Throat white or whitish. 

A. Length 5'00; crown brown or -^dth blackish and buffy stripes. 
a. A conspicuous whitish line through the center of the crown, bor- 
dered by black lines; not common. 

639. Worm-eating Warbler. 
6. Crown plain brown; range, Virginia and southward. 

638. Swainson's Warbler. 

B. Length 4'50; crown ashy or forehead yellow. 
a. Forehead yellow. 

a*. Breast white, with a barely perceptible tinge of yellow; wing- 
bars white or yellow, a black mark in front of the eye; rare. 
641x642. Brewster's Warbler. 



WOOD WARBLERS 437 

b. Forehead not yellow. 

b^. Breast white, crown plain bluish ashy, clearly defined from 
the bright olive-green back . . 647. Tennessee Warbler. 
62. Breast whitish, tinged with yellow and indistinctly streaked 
with dusky; crown diill ashy, not clearly defined from the back 
and with a partly concealed patch of rufous-brown ; rare in the 
Atlantic States north of South Carolina. 

646. Orange-crowned Warbler. 

II. Throat black, brown, or slate- color. 

1. Belly white. 

a. Back blue, a white spot near the outer edge of the wing; common. 

654. Black-throated Blue Warbler. 

b. Back green, cheeks yellow; song, a buzzlike zee repeated five or six 

times, the next to last note the highest; common. 

667. Black-throated Green Warbler. 

c. Back grayish, forehead yellow, a black mark through the eye and 

a white line below it; a large patch of yellow on the wings; song, 
zee-zee-zee-zee, all on the same note; not common. 

642. Golden-winged Warbler. 

d. Back black; sides of the breast, middle of the wing, and base of the 

tail-feathers reddish orange; movements active, tail frequently 
spread, the reddish color showing conspicuously; abundant. 

687. Redstart. 

e. Back streaked with black and white; song fine and wiry; movements 

like those of a Creeper; common. 

636. Black and White Warbler. 

/. Back streaked with buffy and black; forehead and cheeks black; 

crown-cap, throat, upper part of the breast, and sides chestnut; 

rather rare 660. Bay-breasted Warbler. 

2. Belly yellow. 

A. Throat slate-color; haunts near the ground. 

a. Breast showing traces of black, no white eye-ring; rare in most 

places 679. Mourning Warbler. 

b. Breast with no traces of black, a white eye-ring; call a sharp peek; 

very rare in the spring . . . 678. Connecticut Warbler. 

B. Throat black. 

a. Forehead and crown yellow, wings with white bars, a black line 

through the eye; very rare. 

641x642. Lawrence's Warbler. 

b. Forehead and cheeks yellow, rest of the head and sides of the 

neck black; outer tail-feathers almost entirely white; haunts near 
the ground, generally in wet woods; movements active, the white 
tail-feathers showing conspicuously in flight; lower Hudson val- 
ley southward; common 684. Hooded Warbler. 

c. Forehead yellow, a small black patch on the crown, white patches 

on the tail not reaching to the ends of the feathers; range, South 
Carolina southward 640. Bachman's Warbler, 

III. Throat yellow or orange, underparts with streaks. (In one 

species a blackish brown band across the breast.) 

1. Belly white, with or without black streaks. 

a. Throat rich orange; back black, streaked with white; tolerably 

common 662. Blackburnian Warbler, 

b. Throat bright yellow, back grayish; range, Virginia and southern 

Wisconsin southward; abundant. 

663. Yellow-throated Warbler. 
663a. Sycamore Warbler. 

c. Throat yellow, with a blackish band crossing the upperpart of the 

breast; abundant 648-648a. Parula Warblers. 

2, Belly yellow, with streaks or spots on the breast or sides. 



438 WOOD WARBLERS 

A. With hlack streaks or spots on the underparts. 

a. Back grayish, unstreaked; a necklace of black spots on the breast; 
no streaks on the sides nor white on the wings or tail; common. 

686. Canadian Warbler. 

&. Back black, crown grayish, a black stripe through the eye; breast 
and sides streaked with black; end of tail black, a white band 
across its middle; common . . . 657. Magnolia Warbler. 

c. Back streaked with white, center of the crown and line over the 

eye orange . . . . . . 662. Blackburnian Warbler. 

d. Back greenish, streaked with black; crown black, a rufous ear- 

patch, a white patch on the wings, rump yellow; rather rare. 

650. Cape May Warbler. 

e. Back greenish, with a patch of rufous-brown; haunts second 

growths and old bush-grown pastures; common in some places. 

673. Prairie Warbler. 
/. Back grayish, streaked with black; crown bluish; no conspicuous 
white marking on the wings; very rare. 

670. Kirtland's Warbler. 

B. Underparts with rufous-brown streaks. 

a. Crown yellow, back greenish, inner border of tail-feathers yellow; 
general appearance that of a yellow bird; haunts lawns, orchards, 
and second growths; rarely seen in deep woods; abundant. 

652. Yellow Warbler. 

h. Crown chestnut, back brownish, outer tail-feathers tipped with 
white; haunts near the ground, frequently seen along roadsides 
and in old fields; movements leisurely, constantly wags its tail; 
common. 672. Palm Warbler. 672a. Yellow Palm Warbler, 

IV. Throat white or whitish, with streaks or spots on the underparts. 
(In two species a yellow patch on the sides of the breast.) 

1. A patch of yellow on the sides of the breast. 

a. Back grayish, streaked with black; rump and a partly concealed 
crown-patch yellow; note, a loud tchip, generally uttered during 
flight; abundant 655. Myrtle Warbler. 

6. Back brown, breast more or less spotted with black; a yellow band 
across the middle of wings and taU; movements active, tail fre- 
quently spread, the yellow band showing conspicuously; abundant. 

687. Redstart (Im.). 

2. No yellow patch on the sides of the breast. 

A. With wing-bars; back streaked with black; haunts in trees, 
a. Back bright blue; very rare near the Atlantic coast. 

658. Cerulean Warbler. 
h. Back grayish, crown black; movements slow; abundant. 

661. Black-poll Warbler. 
c. Back greenish yellow, crown bright yellow, sides chestnut; com- 
mon . _ 659. Chestnut-sided Warbler. 

B. Without wing-bars; back not streaked; haunts on or near the 

ground; walkers, not hoppers. 
a. Crown pale rufous, bordered by black streaks ; song, a loud teacher, 
repeated eight or nine times and increasing in volume; common. 

674. OVENBIRD. 

6. Crown like the back, breast with a tinge of sulphur-yellow, an 
inconspicuous buffy line over the eye; bill less than '50 in length; 
common 675. Water-Thrush. 

c. Crown like the back, breast and particularly flanks tinged with 
buffy, a conspicuous white line over the eye; bill nearly "75 in 
length; a far shyer bird than the preceding; song loud and ring- 
ing 676. Louisiana Water-Thrush. 

636. Mniotilta varia {Linn.). Black and White Warbler. (Fig. 
114.) Ad. cf. — No yellow anywhere; upperparts streaked with black and 



WOOD WARBLERS 439 

white; ear-coverts black; inner webs of outer tail-feathers with white patches; 
wing-coverts black, tipped with white; throat and upper breast black or 
black and white; sides streaked with black and white; middle of the belly 
white. Ad. 9.— Similar, but the underparts with fewer black streaks; sides 
washed with brownish. Im. d". — Similar to the 5, but with more streaks on 
the underparts. L., o'SO; W., 2-73; T., 2-02; B. from N., -37. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Austral 
zones from cen. Mackenzie, s. Keewatin, n. Ont., N. F., N. S., and N. B. to 
e. Tex., La., cen. Ala., and n. Ga., w. to S. D. and casually to Wyo., and 
Colo.; winters from Florida southward. 

Washington, abundant T. V., less common S. R., Apl. 8-Oct. 18. Ossin- 
ing, common S. R., Apl. 18-Oct. 1. Cambridge, verv common S. R., Apl. 
25-Sept. 5. N. Ohio, common T. V., a few S. R., Apl. 22-Sept. 26. Glen 
Ellvn, common T. V., Apl. 28-May 28; Aug. 11-Sept. 27. SE. Minn., com- 
mon T. v., uncommon S. R., Apl. 23-Oct. 12. 

Nest, of strips of bark, grasses, etc., lined with rootlets or long hairs, on 
the ground at the base of a stump, log, or rock. Eggs, 4-5, white, spotted 
and speckled with cinnamon-brown to umber, chiefly in a WTeath at the 
larger end, '66 x '54. Date, Iredell Co., N. C, Apl. 18; New York City, 
May 18; Cambridge, May 18. 

None of our Warblers can be more readily identified than this con- 
spicuously marked creeper. It is generally distributed throughout wood- 
land, and climbs with even more agility than a true Creeper, hanging 
from the the under surface of branches and twigs, and flitting actively 
from tree to tree after apparently the most superficial examination. 
Its alarm note is a sharp pit, sometimes rapidly repeated. The usual 
song is a thin, wiry, see-see-see-see. 

1910. Stanwood, C. J., Journ. Me. Orn. Soc, XII, 61-66 (nesting). 

637. Protonotaria citrea (Bodd.). Prothonotary Warbler. Ad. 
cT. — Whole head, neck, and underparts rich orange, lighter on the belly; 
back greenish yellow, changing to bluish gray on the rump; wings and tail 
ashy; inner webs of all but middle tail-feathers white, except at tip; no 
wing-bars. Ad. 9. — Similar, but yellow paler, belly with more white. L., 
5-50; W., 2-90; T., 1-85; B. from N., -42. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna and along river 
bottoms of Carolinian fauna from ne. Nebr., se. Minn., s. Wise, s. Mich., 
Ohio, cen. Del., and e. Md. s. to e. Tex., and n. Fla.; winters from Nicaragua 
to Colombia; casual n. to N. Y., New England, Ont., and N. B., and w. 
to Ariz. 

W^ashington, of irregular occurrence in May. N. Ohio, one record, 
May 9. Glen Ellyn, rare, spring only. May 13-15. SE. Minn., common 
S. R. of Mississippi bottoms. May 7-Aug. 16. 

N'est, of rootlets, fine twigs, and moss, plant-down or feathers, in a hole in 
a stub or stump, generally of a willow tree. Eggs, 5-7. white, thickly and 
rather coarsely marked distinctly and obscurely with cinnamon-brown, 
chestnut, or rufous-brown, "69 x '56. Date, Charleston, S. C, May 3; 
Lewis Co., Mo., May 20; Mt. Carmel, Ills., May 8; Pierce Co., Wise, May 
31; se. Minn., June 1. 

This exquisite Warbler frequents bushes and low trees — particu- 
larly willow trees — hanging over the water. Its call-note so closely 
resembles that of a Water-Thrush (Seiiiriis), I have sometimes mis- 
taken it for that species. Its usual song, as Mr. Brewster remarks in 
his admirable biography of this species, "sounds at a distance like 
the call of the Solitary Sandpiper, with a syllable or two added — a 



440 WOOD WARBLERS 

simple peet, tweet, tweet, tweet, given on the same key throughout. . . . 
Nearer at hand, however, the resemblance is lost, and a ringing, pene- 
trating quality becomes apparent in the Warbler's song." {Bull. Nutt. 
Orn. Club, III, 1878, pp. 153-162.) 

Thoroughly to appreciate the Prothonotary's radiant beauty, one 
should float quietly in a canoe past its haunts. Its color shows to best 
advantage against the dark background of its home, and its every 
movement is a delight to the eye. 

638. Helinaia swainsoni (Aud.). Swainson's Warbler. Ads. — 
Crown cinnamon-brown; a whitish line over the eye; back, rump, wings, and 
tail olive grayish brown without white; underparts soiled yellowish white, 
grayer on the sides. L., 5*00; W., 2-75; T., I'QO; B. from N., '46. 

Range. — S. E. U. S. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from se. Mo., s. Ills., 
s. Ind., and se. Va. (Warwick Co.), s. to La. and n. Fla. ; winters in Jamaica; 
migrates through Cuba and Bahamas; casual in Nebr., Tex., and Vera Cruz. 

Nest, externally of leaves, lined with pine needles and rootlets, in bushes, 
canes, palmettos, and clumps of vines, from three to ten feet above the 
ground or surface of the water. Eggs, 3-4, white, with a faint bluish tinge, 
•75X'54. Date, Charleston, S. C, May 7. 

The history of Swainson's Warbler is very similar to that of Bach- 
man's Warbler. It was discovered by Dr. Bachman near Charleston, 
South Carolina, in 1832, and for somewhat over fifty years was prac- 
tically a lost species, but proves now to be a common bird in some 
parts of its range. Its rediscovery near Charleston by Mr. A. T. Wayne 
and Mr. Brewster is recounted by the latter in an article which ade- 
quately portrays the bird, its habits and haunts. It lives on and near 
the ground, and, according to Mr. Brewster's experience, four things 
seem indispensable to its existence — "water, tangled thickets, patches 
of cane, and a rank growth of semi-aquatic plants." Its song, which 
is highly ventriloquial, is described by the same author as "a series of 
clear, ringing whistles, the first four uttered rather slowly, and in the 
same key, the remaining five or six given more rapidly, and in an 
evenly descending scale. ... In general effect it recalls the song of 
the Water Thrush (Seiurus novehoracensis) . It is very loud, very rich, 
very beautiful, while it has an indescribable tender quality that thrills 
the senses after the sound has ceased." The Auk, 1885, pp. 65-80; see also 
Ibid., pp. 346-348, and also Perry, Orn. and OoL, 1886, p.l88; 1887, p. 141. 

639. Helmitheros vermivorus (Gmel.). Worm-eating Warbler. 
(Fig. 115.) Ads. — A black line from the eye to the nape, and two on the 
crown from either nostril; an olive-buffy line over either eye, and a third 
through tne center of the crown; back, wings, and tail olive-green without 
white; underparts whitish cream-buff, whiter on the throat and belly. 
L., 5-51; W., 2-78; T., 2-05; B. from N., -,39. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in the Carolinian fauna from s. 
Iowa, n. Ills., e. and w. Penn., and the Hudson and Conn. River valleys 
s. to s. Mo., Tenn., Va., and mts. of S. C. (casually further south); winters 
from Chiapas to Panama, in Cuba and the Bahamas, and casually in Fla.; 
in migration casually to Mass., Vt., w. N. Y., s. Ont., and s. Wise. 

Washington, quite common S. R., Apl. 28-Sept. 15. Ossining, common 
S. R., May 7-Aug. 23. Cambridge, A. V., one instance, Sept. 



Plate XXIII 




1, 2, 3. Bachman's Warbler 

5. Swainson's Warbler 4. Worm-eating Warbler 

(From "Warblers of North America.") 



WOOD WARBLERS 441 

Nest, of rootlets, leaves, and bark, on the ground. Eggs, 4-6, white, 
speckled, spotted, or blotched with cinnamon- or rufous-brown, "68 x "54. 
Date, Iredell Co., N. C, May 10; Waynesburg, Pa., May 16; New Haven, 
Conn., May 25. 

This comparatively rare, retiring Warbler may be found on dry 
wooded slopes, hillsides, and ravines, generally where there is a rather 
dense undergrowth, but occasionally where the ground is quite clear 
and open. It lives on or near the ground, and in its slow, deliberate 
actions resembles a Vireo more than the usually active Warblers. Its 
call-note is a sharp chip, while its song, as all observers agree, closely 
resembles that of the Chipping Sparrow, but is somewhat weaker. 

640. Vermivora bachmani (Aud.). Bachman's Warbler. Ad. <f. — 
Forehead yellow, bordered by a black patch on the crown; back of the head 
bluish gray; back and rump bright olive-green; lesser wing-coverts yellow; 
tail grayish, all but the middle feathers with white patches on their inner 
web near the tip; throat and belly yellow, a large black patch on the breast. 
Im. d'. — Throat-patch smaller than in ad. cf; less black or none on head. 
Ad. 9. — Crown grayish; forehead yellowish; back, wings, and tail as in the 
cf ; underparts whitish, washed with yellow on the throat and breast; bend 
of the wing yellow. Im. 9. — Similar, but with less yellow; back grayer. 
L., 4-25; W., 2-40; T., 1-80; B. from N., -.32. 

Range.— S. E. U. S. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna in se. Mo., ne. Ark., 
w. Ky., and near Charleston, S. C, and probably in s. Ind. and N. C; 
winters in Cuba; in migration occurs in La., Miss., Ala., and Fla.; casual in 
Va. and the Bahamas. 

Nest, chiefly of fine grasses, cane leaves, skeletonized leaves and occa- 
sionally Tillandsia (Wayne); in low bushes, 1-3 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, pure, 
glossy white, '63 x '49. Date, Charleston, S. C, Apl. 17; Dunklin Co., Mo., 
May 13; Logan Co., Ky., May 14. 

Bachman's Warbler was described by Audubon from a pair of birds 
taken by Dr. Bachman at Charleston, South Carolina, in July, 1S83. 
Several specimens were subsequently taken in the West Indies during 
the winter, but over fifty years passed before the species was again 
found in the United States. It proves now to be a common bird in 
parts of its range, and has been found in large numbers near New 
Orleans, and on the Suwanee River in Florida in March and April, 
and at Key West in late July and August. The nest remained undi.s- 
covered until 1897, when it was found by Widmann in Missouri, and 
it has since been found by Embody in Kentucky and Wayne in South 
Carolina. 

Mr. Brewster and myself had excellent opportunities to study its 
habits on the Suwanee River, and in The Auk for 1891, pp. 149-157, 
will be found a detailed account of our ob.servations written by Mr. 
Brewster. It was migrating with other Warblers, and kept to the tops 
of the highest trees, but in its breeding haunts it proves to be a low- 
ranging bird like most of the m(>mbers of tliis genus. Its movements 
are rather leisurely, and reseml)le those of V. pinna or V . crUitn. Its 
song is described by Brewster as resembling that of the Panila Warbler. 

641. Vermivora pinus {Linn.). Blue-winged Warbler. (Fig. 116.) 
Ad. d'. — Crown and entire underparts bright yellow, a black line through the 



442 WOOD WARBLERS 

eye; back and rump bright olive-green; wings and tail bluish gray; greater 
and middle wing-coverts tipped with white or yellowish white; outer three 
tail-feathers with large white patches on their inner webs, fourth feather with 
a much smaller patch. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but yellow on the head confined to 
the forehead; underparts duller. L., 4-80; W., 2-40; T., I'SO; B. from N., '33. 

Remarks. — The only variation of note in the plumage of otherwise typical 
specimens of this species occurs in the color of the wing-bars, which in some 
specimens are tinged with yellow. A specimen in Mr. Brewster's collection 
(No. 25,511, Seymour, Conn., June 11, 1889, E. A. Eames) shows this varia- 
tion carried to an extreme, and has the wing-bars as broadly yellow as in V. 
chrysoptera, though in every other respect it is typical pinus. Between this 
species and V. chrysoptera there exists a complete set of intergrades, which are 
variously called V. leucobronchialis and V. lawrencei. They are generally 
considered to be hybrids, and it has also been suggested that dichromatism 
may aid in producing their coloration. Their relationships will be found dis- 
cussed under the following references: Brewster, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, 1881, 
218; Ridgway, Auk, 1885, 359; Manual N. A. Birds, 486; Chapman, Warb- 
lers of N. A., 74; Faxon, Memoirs Mus. Camp. ZooL, 1911, No. 2. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from se. Minn., s. Mich., w. N. Y., Mass. 
(rarely), and s. Conn. s. to ne. Kans., cen. Mo., Ky. Md., and Del. (casually 
further s.); winters from s. Mex. casually to Colombia; very rare migrant in 
se. U. S. s. of Va. and e. of La. ; occasional in s. Ont. 

Washington, rather uncommon T. V., Apl. 26-May 22; Aug. 13-Sept. 
2; a few breed. Ossining, common S. R., May 4-Sept. 7. N. Ohio, common 
S. R., Apl. 27-Sept. 15. Glen EUyn, irregular, possibly S. R., May l-Sept- 
15. SE. Minn., uncommon S. R., Apl. 30-Sept. 1. 

Nest, of bark and leaves, lined with fine strips of bark and tendrils, and 
firmly wrapped with numerous leaves, whose stems point upward, on the 
ground, generally in or at the border of second growth. Eggs, 4-6, white, 
thinly speckled with rufous, cinnamon-brown, or rufous-brown, '62 x '50. 
Date, Chester Co., Pa., May 22; New Haven, Conn., May 20; Oberlin, Ohio, 
May 10; se. Minn., May 16 (nest finished). 

This species may be found in scrubby second growths, woodland 
borders, or even the lower trees of dense woods. Its movements are 
rather slow and leisurely, and, like a Chickadee, it may sometimes be 
seen hanging head downward while searching for food. 

It is at times a rather persistent songster, and its peculiar song is 
not likely to be mistaken for that of any other Warbler. As a rule, 
it consists of the two drawled, wheezy notes swee-chee; the first inhaled, 
the second exhaled. A less common song, uttered later in the season, 
is wee, chi-chl-chi-cht, chur, chee-chur, and is sometimes accompanied 
by peculiar kik notes. 

1909. Wright, H. W., Auk, XXVI, 337-345 (nesting in Mass.). 

Vermivora leucobronchialis {Brewst.). Brewster's Warbler. 
Ad. (f. — Forehead and forepart of the crown yellow, a black line from the 
bill through the eye; rest of the upperparts bluish gray; wing-bars broadly 
yellow; tail like the back, three to four outer feathers marked with white; 
underparts pure white, faintly washed with yellow on the breast. Fall 
specimens are more heavily washed with yellow, and the upperparts are 
margined with olive-green. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but wing-bars white, and crown 
not so bright. 

Remarks. — The descriptions are from typical specimens of the puzzling 
bird known as Vermivora leucobronchialis. Between it and V. pinus there are 
specimens showing every degree of intergradation. Typical examples are 
comparatively rare, and the most common form has the breast heavily 
washed with yellow, the back tinged with olive-green, and. the white wing- 



WOOD WARBLERS 443 

bars washed with yellow; in other words, about intermediate between typi- 
cal leucohronchialis and typical pinus. 

This hybrid between pinus and chrysoptera or color phase of pinus, 
has been found in Louisiana, from Virginia northward to Connecticut, 
and as far west as Michigan, Its breeding range apparently coincides 
with the northern portion of that of pinus. Upward of one hundred 
and fifty specimens, representing typical leucohronchialis and various 
phases of its intergradation with pinus are known, and in the Connect- 
icut River Valley the bird is stated to be more frequent than chrysoptera. 
In general habits it resembles both pinus and chrysoptera. Some in- 
di\dduals sing like the former, some hke the latter, while others 
have notes of their own. The significant facts in the bird's interest- 
ing and puzzling history are given in the Warblers of North America, 
pp. 72-77, and by Faxon in the Memoirs Mus. Comp. Zool., 1910, XL, 
pp. 57-78. 

Vermivora lawrencei (Herrick). Lawrence's Warblek. Ad. (f. — 
Forehead and forepart of the crown yellow, rest of the upperparts bright 
olive-green; wing-bars white; tail bluish gray, the three to four outer feathers 
marked with white; a black patch on the cheek divided by a yellow line 
from the black patch on the throat and upper breast ; lower breast and belly 
yellow, under tail-coverts white. Ad. 9. — Forehead dingy yellow, rest of 
the upperparts bright olive-green; wing-bars white, tinged with yellow; tail 
as in the cf, black patches of the cf replaced by dusky olive-green. 

Remarks. — This bird combines the characters of pinus and chrysoptera; 
it has the black cheek-patches and breast-patch of the latter, but in other 
respects resembles the former, and is doubtless a hybrid between the two. 
Its history and a discussion of its relationships will be found under the refer- 
ences given above. It is a much rarer bird than Brewster's Warbler, and 
less than a score of specimens have been recorded. 

The bird resembles Brewster's Warbler in haunts and habits, and, 
like that puzzling bird, it sings like both pinu^ and chrysoptera. 

642. Vermivora chrysoptera (Linn.). Golden-winged Warbler. 
(Fig. 117.) Ad. (f. — Crown bright yellow; rest of the upperparts bluish gray, 
sometimes washed with greenish; a large black patch about the eye, sci)a- 
rated from another on the throat by a white stripe; a white line over the eye; 
wings and tail bluish gray; tips of middle wing-coverts and outer webs of 
greater ones bright yellow, forming a largo yellow patch on the wing; outer 
three tail-feathers with large white patches on their inner webs at the tip, 
fourth feather with a smaller patch; lower breast and l)elly white; sith^s 
grayish. Ad. 9. — Similar, but the crown and upperparts duller, the patch 
on the sides of the head and throat grayish instead of black. L., 5' 1(3; W., 
2-46; T., 1-94; B. from N., -34. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in AUeghanian fauna from cen. Minn., s. 
Ont., and Mass. s. to s. Iowa, n. Ills., n. Ind., n. N. J., and n. Ga.; winters 
from Guatemala to Colombia, and casually in s. Mex.; very rare in Fla., 
and s. Ga. ; accidental in Man. 

Washington, uncommon T. V., May 1-30; Aug. S-21. Ossining, rare 
S. R., May 8-Ang. 25. Cambridge, rather common S. R., May 12 .\ug. 25. 
N. Ohio, rare T. V. Glen EUyn, irregular, not common T. V., May 4-18; 
Aug. 16-Sept. 24. SE. Minn., common S. R., May .5 S(>pt. 9. 

Nest, much like that of V. pinus, on or near the ground, in second 
growths or bushy fields. Eggs, 4-5, white, speckled and spotted, chiefly 
about the larger end, with cinnamon-brown, chestnut, or umber, '62 x '50. 



444 WOOD WARBLERS 

Date, Buncombe Co., N, C, May 16; Bethel, Conn., May 29; Monroe Co., 
Mich., May 17. 

In their actions and choice of haunts the Golden-winged resemble 
the Blue-winged Warblers. Their song is of much the same quality, 
but the notes are all of the same kind and length, and the bird utters 
a rather lazy zee-zee-zee-zee, at once distinguishable from the song of 
jyinus. 

645. Vermivora rubricapilla rubricapilla (Wils.). Nashville War- 
bler. Ads. — Top and sides of the head bluish gray, a partially concealed 
chestnut patch in the center of the crown; back and rump bright olive-green; 
wings and tail edged with the same and without white; underparts bright 
yellow, whiter on the belly. Im. — ^Upperparts dull olive-green, more or less 
washed with brownish; crown-patch often absent; rump brighter; wings and 
tail as in the ad.; sides of the head brownish ashy, eye-ring white; under- 
parts yellowish, brighter on the breast; sides brownish. L., 4'77; W., 2'33; 
T., 1-81; B. from N., '28. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones from 
s. Sask., n. Ont., cen. Que., and Cape Breton Is. s. to Nebr., n. Ills., n. Pa., 
n. N. J., and Conn.; winters from Vera Cruz to Guatemala; very rare on the 
Atlantic slope s. of Chesapeake Bay. 

Washington, uncommon T. V., Apl. 28-May 19; Sept. 5-Oct. 2. Ossin- 
ing, tolerably common T. V., May 7-27; Aug. 11-Oct. 4; may breed. Cam- 
bridge, rather common S. R., May 5-Sept. 15; abundant T. V. N. Ohio, 
common T. V., Apl. 28-Mav 27; Sept. 1-Oct. 16. Glen EUyn, regular T. V., 
Apl. 27-May 25; Aug. 20-Oct. 19. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 1- 
Sept. 29. 

Nest, of grasses and moss, lined with finer grasses and fine, hairlike root- 
lets, on the ground, in partial clearings or tree-grown pastures. Eggs, 4-5, 
white, thickly speckled, chiefly at the larger end, vnXh. rufous or cinnamon- 
brown, -61 X '48. Date, Cambridge, May 25; Lancaster, N. H., May 25; 
Bangor, Maine, June 3; Detroit, Minn., May 30. 

This Warbler is an inhabitant of rather open woodland, young 
second growth, or tree-bordered fields. In addition to the usual chip, 
it has a sharp, characteristic call-note, while its song is about as likely 
to attract attention as that of the Chestnut-sided Warbler. Thayer 
(''Warblers of North America") writes: "The Nashville has at least two 
perch-songs and a flight-song, all subject to a good deal of variation. 
. . . Its commoner perch-song consists of a string of six or eight or 
more, hvely, rapid notes suddenly congested into a pleasant, rolling 
twitter. ... In the other perch-song, the notes of what correspond 
to the rolling twitter are separate and richer, and the second part of the 
song is longer and more noticeable than the first whose notes are few 
and slurred, while the whole is more languidly delivered. . . . The 
flight-song, a fairly common performance in late summer, is sung from 
the height of five to forty feet above the (usually low) tree tops. It is 
like the commoner perch-songs, but more hurried, and slightly elabora- 
ated, — often with a few chippings added at both ends." 

1910. Stanwood, C. J., Jour. Me. Orn. Soc. XII, 28-33 (nesting). 

646. Vermivora celata celata {Say). Orange-crowned Warbler. 
Ads. — Upperparts rather ashy olive-green; feathers of the crown orange- 
rufous at the base ; wings and tail edged with olive-green and without white ; 



WOOD WARBLERS 



445 




Fig. 114. Black and White Warbler. 




Fig. lis. Parula Warbler. 




Fig. 115. Worm-eating Warbler. 




Fig. 119. IMyrtle Warbler. 







Fig. 116. Blue-winged Warbler. 




Fig. 120. Magnolia Warbler. 





Fig. 117. Golden-winged Warbler. Kio. 121. Che.stnut-.-sided Warbler. 

Figs. 114-121. Heads of Warbierb. (Natural size.) 



446 WOOD WARBLERS 

eye-ring yellow; underparts greenish yellow, obscurely streaked with dusky 
on the breast. Im. — Similar, but without orange-rufous in the crown; 
upperparts more ashy; underparts duller; eye-ring white. L., 5'00; W., 2'50; 
T., 1-95; B., from N., 'SI. 

Range. — Cen. N. Am. Breeds in lower Hudsonian and Canadian zones 
from Kowak River, Alaska, se. to cen. Keewatin and Man., and s. locally 
in the Rocky Mts. to N. M.; winters in the Gulf and S. Atlantic States to 
S. C, and s. through Mex. to Mt. Orizaba; rare in migration along the 
Atlantic slope from New Hampshire southward. 

Washington, casual T. V., two records, Oct. Ossining, A. V. Cam- 
bridge, rare T. V., in fall, Oct. 5-Nov. 15. N. Ohio, rare T. V., Apl. 27- 
May 21. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., May 1-21; July 28-Oct. 7. SE. 
Minn., common T. V., Apl. 25- ; Aug. 18-Oct. 16. 

Nest, of leaves and fine grasses, on or near the ground. Eggs, 4-5, white, 
with specks or spots of cinnamon-brown or rufous, more numerous at the 
larger end, -63 x -49. Date, St. John's, N. B., June 9 (Thayer Coll.). 

Orange-crowned Warblers are rare in the Atlantic States north of 
South Carolina. In Florida, where they are common in the winter, they 
evidently prefer the densely foliaged hve and water oaks. Their sharp 
chi-p is sufficiently characteristic to be recognized after one has become 
thoroughly familiar with it. Their song, which I have never heard, is 
described by Colonel Goss as consisting of "a few sweet trills uttered in a 
spirited manner, and abruptly ending on a rising scale." 

647. Vermivora peregrina {Wils.). Tennessee Warbler. (Fig. 
70a.) Ad. c?. — Top and sides of the head bluish gray, sharply defined from 
the bright olive-green back and rump; wings and tail edged with olive- 
green; no white wing-bars; inner margin of inner vane of outer tail-feathers 
generally white at the tip; underparts white, sometimes tinged with yellow. 
Ad. 9. — Similar, but crown tinged with greenish and underparts washed 
with yellowish. Im. — Upperparts uniform olive-green; underparts washed 
with yellowish; under tail-coverts white. L., 5-00; W., 2-63; T., 1-69; 
B. from N., '32. 

Remarks. — The adults of this and the two preceding species may be dis- 
tinguished with ease; immature birds, however, are frequently confused. 
The Nashville is distinctly yellow on the breast and under tail-coverts; the 
Orange-crowned is pale greenish yellow, with dusky streaks and yellow 
under tail-coverts; the Tennessee is pale greenish yellow, without streaks, and 
with the under tail-coverts white. 

Range.— ^. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian zone from upper Yukon Valley, 
s. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, s. Ungava, and Anticosti Is. s. to s. B. C, s. 
Alberta, Man., n. Minn., Ont., N. Y. (Adirondacks), n. Maine, and N. H.; 
winters from Oaxaca to Venezuela; in migration occurs mainly in the Miss. 
Valley, rare on the Atlantic slope; occasional in Fla. and Cuba. 

Washington, T. V., rare in May; occasionally common, Aug. 31-Nov. 
30. Ossining, rare T. V., May 22-27; Aug. 22-Oct. 2. Cambridge, rare T. 
v., May 15-25; Sept. N. Ohio, common T. V., May 4-25; Sept. 10-Oct. 10. 
Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Apl. 30- June 6; July 29-Oct. 9. SE. Minn., 
common T. V., Apl. 30- ; Sept. 30- . 

Nest, of fine hempen fibers, grasses, and moss, lined with hair, in low 
bushes near the ground. Eggs, pearly white, with a circle of brown and pur- 
plish spots about the larger end, "60 x "50 (B., B., and R.). Date, S. Lewis- 
ton, Maine, June 4. 

"The Tennessee is easily discovered and identified by its peculiar 
song — a twittering, semi-trilled, rather prolonged utterance of three 
parts, not very unlike the weaker and buzzier strains of the American 



WOOD WARBLERS 447 

Goldfinch's song" (Thayer in "Warblers of North America"). Bradford 
Torrey says the Tennessee's song "is more suggestive of the Nashville's 
than of any other, but so decidedly different as never for a moment to 
be confounded i^ith it," and adds a detailed description ("The Foot- 
path Way," p. 8). 

648. Compsothlypis americana americana (Linn.). Parula War- 
bler. Similar to C. a. usne<2 but with less black about the lores, throat in 
cT ^\dth more yellow, the blackish throat band very narrow or poorly defined. 
9 not distinguishable from 9 of usnecB. Smaller than specimens oiusnecB from 
the northern Atlantic States; larger than specimens of usneoe from the lower 
Mississippi valley. W., 2-25; T., 1-60; B., -38 ("Warblers of North 
America"). 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Austral zones from the Dist. of Col. s. to 
Ala. and Fla.; winters probably in Fla. and n. West Indies. 

Washington, T. V., and a few breed, Apl. 19-Oct. 16. 

Xest, generally in bunches of Tillandsia. Eggs, 4-5, white, with rufous 
markings, chieflv in a wTeath about the larger end, "66 x '47. Date, Mt. 
Pleasant, S. C, Apl. 15; IredeU Co., N. C, May 11. 

In Florida the Parula's notes mark the beginning of a new ornith- 
ological year, and its song is associated in my mind with the beauties 
of a southern spring when the cypresses are enveloped in a haze of lace- 
like blossoms, and the woods are fragrant with the delicious odor of 
yellow jasmine. Then the dreamy softness of the air is voiced by the 
Parula's quaint, drowsy, little gurgling sizzle, chip-er, chip-er, chip-er, 
chee-ee-ee-ee. The abundance of the Tillandsia 'moss' furnishes the 
Parula with unlimited nesting-sites, and the bird is proportionately 
common. 

648a. C. a. usneae Brewst. Northern Parula Warbler. (Fig. 118.) 
Ad. cf. — Upperparts grayish blue; a greeni'ih yellow patch in the middle of 
the hack; greater and les.ser wing-coverts tipped with white; outer tail- 
feathers with a white patch near the end; throat and breast yellow, more 
or less marked with pale rufous, a black, or bluish black, or rufous band 
across thebreast; belly white; sides sometimes marked with rufous. Ad. 9. — 
Similar, but the rufous color and band on the breast sometimes absent, 
/m.— Resembling the 9. L., 4-73; W., 2-40; T., 1-70; B. from N.. "32. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds mainly in Transition and Austral zones from 
e. Nebr., n. Minn., cen. Ont., Anticosti Is. and Cape Breton Is. s. to cen. s. 
Tex., s. La., Ala., Va., and Md.; winters probably in the Bahamas and 
West Indies, and from Vera Cruz to Nicaragua. 

Washington, T. V., but dates not distinguishable from those of ameri- 
cana. Ossining, common T. V., May 2-28; Sept. 21 -Oct. 7. Cambridge, 
common T. V., May 1-28; Sept. 10-30. N. Ohio, not common T. V., May 
1-18. Glen Ellyn. not common T. V., May 3-28; Aug. 25-Oct. 1. SE. Minn., 
common T. V., May 5-Sf'pt. 9. 

Nest, in a bunch of Usnea 'moss.' Eggs, similar to tho.sc of the preceding. 
Date, New Haven, May 18; Lancaster, N. H., May 31; .\nn .\rlK)r, Mich., 
May 12. 

This slightly difTerentiated form of the Panila Warbler resembles 
the southern race in song and habits. During its migrations it is gener- 
ally distributed, preferring, however, deciduous to coniferous growths, 
but when nesting it selects only localities where is found the Usnea moss 
in which it builds. 



448 WOOD WARBLEKS 

650. Dendroica tigrina {Gmel.). Cape May Warbler. (Fig. 4.) 
Ad. cf. — Crown black, slightly tipped with greenish; ear-coverts rufous, 
bounded behind by a large yellow patch on the side of the neck; back olive- 
green, broadly streaked wit-h black; rump yellow or greenish yellow; a large 
white patch on the wing-coverts; outer tail-feathers with a large white patch 
on their inner webs, near the tip; underparts yellow, heavily streaked with 
black; lower belly and under tail-coverts whitish. Ad. 9. — Upperparts 
grayish olive-green; crown with more or less concealed black; rump yellowish; 
a yellow line over the eye; middle wing-coverts with narrow white tips; 
outer tail-feathers with a white patch on their inner webs near the tip; 
underparts yellow, streaked with black; belly and under tail-coverts whiter. 
Im. cf. — Resembles the 9, but the wing-coverts have more white. Im. 9. — 
Similar to ad. 9, but with little or no yellow on the underparts; upperparts 
duller, and more uniform in color. L., S'OO; W., 2*61; T., 1'88; B. from N., 
•30. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian zone from s. Mackenzie, n. 
Ont., N. B., and N. S. s. to Man., n. Maine, and N. H., and in Jamaica (?); 
winters in the Bahamas and the West Indies to Tobago. 

Washington, sometimes very common, usually uncommon T. V.', May 1- 
20; Aug. 4-Oct. 17. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., Aug. 20-Oct. 1. 
Cambridge, rare T. V., May 15-25; Aug. 25. N. Ohio, not common T. V., 
May 4-18. Glen Ellyn, irregular T. V., Apl. 30-May 21; Sept. 8-15. SE. 
Minn., common T. V., May 8. _ 

Nest, partially pensile, of twigs and grass fastened with spiders' webbing, 
lined with horsehair, on a low branch of a small tree in pasture or open 
woodland. Eggs, 3-4, dull white or buffy, slightly speckled, and wreathed 
around the larger end with spots of brown and lilac, '70 x "50 (Chamberlain). 
Date, St. John's, N. B., June 16. 

During its migrations this generally rare Warbler may be found 
associated with its wood-inhabiting congeners and it also frequents the 
coniferous trees of our lawns. In the summer it haunts the higher 
branches of coniferous trees. Gerald Thayer (in "Warblers of North 
America") writes of its song: "The whole utterance, in tone phrasing and 
accentuation, strongly suggests the Black and White Warbler's shorter 
song. . . . On the other hand, the Cape May's singing is near akin 
to the Blackpoll's." 

652. Dendroica aestiva sestiva (Gmel.). Yellow Warbler. Ad. d'. — 
Upperparts bright greenish yellow, brighter on the crown; wings edged with 
yellow; tail fuscous, the inner vanes of the feathers yellow; underparts bright 
yellow, streaked with rufous. Ad. 9. — Upperparts uniform yellowish olive- 
green; tail as in the cf; wings fuscous, edged with yellow; underparts bright 
yellow, slightly, if at all, streaked with rufous on the breast and sides. Im. d". 
—Similar to the 9. Im. 9. — Upperparts light olive-green; tail fuscous, the 
inner margins of the inner vanes of the tail-feathers yellow; underparts uni- 
form dusky yellowish. L., 5-10; W., 2*40; T., 1-89; B. from N., '33. 

Remarks. — In any plumage this bird may be known by the yellow on the 
inner vanes of the tail-feathers. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from Hudsonian through Upper Austral zone in 
N. A. e. of Alaska and Pacific slope from tree limit s. to Nev., n. N. M., s. 
Mo., and n. S. C; winters from Yucatan to Guiana, Brazil, and Peru. 

Washington, common S. R., abundant T. V., Apl. 4-Sept. 28. Ossining, 
common S. R., Apl. 30-Sept. 27. Cambridge, abundant S. R., May 1-Sept. 
15. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Apl. 14-Sept. 10. Glen Ellyn, not very com- 
mon S. R., Apl. 30-Sept. 6. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 28-Sept. 10. 

Nest, of fine grasses and hempen fibers, with a conspicuous amount of 
plant-down, lined with plant-down, fine grasses, and sometimes long hairs, in 
the shrubs or trees of lawns or orchards, about water, etc. Eggs, 4-5, bluish 



WOOD WARBLERS 



449 



white, thickly marked with cinnamon- and olive-brown, with frequently a 
wreath about the larger end, "70 x '50. Date, Waynesburg, Pa., May 14; 
New Haven, Conn., May 20; Cambridge, May 23; Lancaster, N. H., 
June 7; Black Hawk Co., Iowa, May 19; se. Minn., May 24. 

When any one tells me he has seen a "Wild Canary," I feel reason- 
ably sure he refers to the Yellow Warbler, for the casual observer at 
once betrays his inexperience by entirely overlooking the bird's streaked 
breast and slender bill. It has, it is true, the general appearance of a 
yellow bird, and its bright colors and preference for gardens, orchards, 
the shrubbery of our lawTis or bushy brooksides, instead of the woods, 
frequently bring it to the attention of those to whom most birds are 
strangers. It is an active bird, and its song — wee-chee, chee, chee, cher- 
wee — though simple, has a pleasing, happy ring. 








Fig. 122. lJluck-throal(;<l VAw- Warhlcr. (R(;(lucfcl.) 

654. Dendroica cserulescens caerulescens (GwcL). liLACK-iiiiioATKi) 
Blue Warbler. Ad. rf. — Ui)peri)arts grayish l)lu(;, hack .soiiictiiiics Mack- 
ish; wings and tail cdgc^d with blue;; hanc of Ihr. primnrir.s white, f()nnin;.' ;i 
white spot on the wiu'^ at the end of the ijriinary coverts; inner vanes of 
outer tail-f(\'ithers with a white patch near their tip.s; sides of th(! head and 
throat black; sides mixed black and white; breast and belly white. Ad. 9. — 
Upperparts uniff)rm olive-green; tail generally with a faint i)luish tinge, the 
white patch on the outer feathers scarcely distingm'shahle; white at the 
base of the primaries much reduced and .sometimes concealed by the pri- 
mary coverts; ear-coverts dusky gray; tuiderparts soiled huffy yellowish. 
Im. d". — Similar to ad. ■:T, but the upperparts washed with gr(>enish, th(^ 
throat tipped with white, and less black on the sides. Im. -?. — Similar to 
ad. 9, but somewhat yellower. L., 5-28; W., 2-52; T., 200; B. from N., -29. 



450 WOOD WARBLERS 

Remarks. — The white spot at the base of the primaries is the distinguish- 
ing mark of this species. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones, from n. 
Minn., cen. Ont., and ne. Que. s. to cen. Minn., s. Mich., s. Ont., Pa. (mts.), 
and n. Conn.; winters from Key West, Fla., southward; in migration casually 
to N. D., Nebr., Kans., Colo., and N. M.; accidental on the Farallon Islands. 

Washington, very common T. V., Apl. 19-May 30; Aug. 4-Oct. 9. 
Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 25-May 28; Aug. 26-Oct. 10. Cambridge, 
rather common T. V., May 10-25; Sept. 20-Oct. 10. N. Ohio, common 
T. v., Apl. 27-May 29; Sept. 5-Oct. 16. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Apl. 
29-May 29; Aug. 25-Oct. 10. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., May 11. 

Nest, of strips of bark, fine grasses, and pine needles, lined with hairlike 
black rootlets, in the heavier undergrowth of dense woods, usually within 
two feet of the ground. Eggs, 3-5, grayish white, with distinct and obscure 
olive-brown markings, chiefly about the larger ends, *68 x *50. Date, Litch- 
field, Conn., June 8; Lancaster, N. H., June 19; Kalamazoo Co., Mich., 
May 29. 

Where the range of this species reaches the Canadian zone, it nests 
in coniferous forests, but southward its summer home is in deciduous 
woods, always, however, with a dense undergrowth. Its call-note is a 
sharp, recognizable chip, its common song may be written zwee-zwee- 
zwee, but it is subject to much variation, indeed Thayer (in "Warblers 
of North America") describes three additional songs. 

The male Black-throated Blue Warbler can be identified at sight, 
but his obscurely colored mate has been the cause of many a field 
student's neckache. When flitting about with other Warblers it is 
difficult to observe any positive character by which to distinguish her; 
but the white spot at the base of the primaries is an unmistakable 
mark, if one can see it clearly. 

654a. D. c. cairnsi Coues. Cairn's Warbler, Similar to D. c. 
ccerulescens but cf with the back always more or less spotted with black, 
sometimes the center of the back being entirely black. Ad. 9 generally 
darker than 9 of ccerulescens. While specimens of true ccerulescens not infre- 
quently show more or less black in the back, cairnsi is very rarely without 
this character. 

Range. — Breeds in Canadian and AUeghanian faunas in the Alleghanies 
from Md. to Ga. ; winters in the. West Indies. 

655. Dendroica coronata (Linn.). Myrtle Warbler. (Fig. 119.) 
Ad. (f. — A yellow patch on the crown, rump, and each side of the breast; 
upperparts bluish gray, streaked with black; two white wing-bars; outer 
tail-feathers with white spots on their inner vanes near the tip ; throat white ; 
breast and upper belly heavily marked with black; lower belly white. Ad. 
9. — Similar, but with less black below; breast simply streaked with black; 
upperparts browner. Im. and ads. in winter. — Yellow crown-patch more or 
less concealed by brownish tips to the feathers; rump bright yellow; yellow on 
the sides of the breast much reduced; upperparts grayish brown, streaked 
with black; wing-bars grayish; tail with white patches; underparts soiled 
white, streaked with black. L., 5-65; W., 2-85; T., 2*25; B. from N., '29. 

Remarks. — The yoUow patches on the crown, rump, and sides of the 
breast are characteristic of this species. 

Range. — N. A. except w. U. S. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian 
zones from tree limit in nw. Alaska, n. Mackenzie, cen. Keewatin, and cen. 
Ungava s. to n. B. C, s. Alberta, n. Minn., n. Mich., cen. Ont., N. H., and 
Maine, and mts. of N. Y., Vt. and Mass.; winters from Kans., Ohio Val- 



WOOD WARBLERS 451 

ley, and N. J. (locally s. New England) s. to the Greater Antilles, Mex., 
and Panama, and on the Pacific coast from cen. Ore. to s. Calif.; acciden- 
tal in Greenland and e. Siberia. 

Washington, abundant W. V., Aug. 7-May 2.3. Ossining, common T. 
v., Apl. 1.3-May 28; Aug. 16-Nov. 11; a few winter. Cambridge, abundant 
T. v.; Apl. 12-May 20; Sept. 1-Xov. 1; a few winter. X. Ohio, common 
T. v., Apl. 12-May 20; Sept. 15-Nov. 3. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Apl. 
8-May 28; Sept. 25-Dec. 29. SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 6- ; Sept. 
9-Oct. 28. 

Nest, of vegetable fibers lined with grasses, in coniferous trees 5-10 feet 
up. Eggs, 4-5, white or graj-ish white, distinctly and obscurely spotted and 
speckled or blotched -v^dth olive-brown or rufous-brown, "70 x "52. Date, 
Bangor, Maine, May 30; KentvUle, N. S., May 29. 

These strong, hardy Warblers leave their cousins of the woods and 
in loose companies forage in old fields and scrubby growths among 
the bayberry or myrtle (Myrica) bushes, which bear their favor- 
ite food. So fond are they of these berries that their moyements 
are largely governed by the success or failure of the bayberry crop. 
Near my home at Englewood, N. J., Myrtle Warblers are always com- 
mon during the winter if there is an abundance of bayberries and always 
absent when the berries are wanting. 

No Warbler is more easily identified than this bird with its four 
distinct patches of yellow. The yellow rump is conspicuous in life, 
and, in connection with the bird's characteristic tchep, forms an excel- 
lent field-mark. It begins to sing on its spring migrations a bright, 
cheery trill suggesting the song of the Junco. 

Audubon's Warbler {666. Dendroica auduhoni auduhoni), a species of 
the Western States, has been recorded once from Massachusetts and once 
from Pennsylvania. 

657. Dendroica magnolia [Wils.). Magnolia Warbler. (Fig. 120.) 
Ad. cf. — Crown bluish gray, cheeks and forehead black, a white line behind 
the eye; back black, bordered with olive-green, a large white patch on the 
wing-coverts; rump yellow, tail black, inner vanes of all but the central 
feathers with white patches on their middle, the end third of the featlier 
being entirely black; throat yellow, breast and sides heavily streaked with 
black. Ad. 9. — Similar, but with the colors duller and less sharply defined; 
back greener. Ads. fall and im. cT — Top and sides of the head ashy; back 
olive-green, with nearly concealed black spots; two narrow wing-bars; 
rump yellow, tail as in the adults; underparts yellow; whiter on the belly; 
sides with black streaks. Im. 9. — Similar, but no black streaks above, those 
on sides barely evident. L., 5-12; W., 2-30; T., 2-()0; B. from X., -.30. 

Remarks. — In any iilumage this bird may be known by the white patches 
on the tail being near the middle instead of at the tip of the feathars. 

Range. — E. X. Am. Breeds in Canadian and upjxT Transition zones 
from sw. Mackenzie (casually Great Bear Lake), s. Keewatin, n. Que., and 
X. F. s. to cen. Alberta, s. Sask., Minn., n. Mich., and n. Mass., and in the 
mts. of W. Va., Md., Pa., and N. Y.; winters from s. Mex. to Panama. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 22-Mav 30; .\ug. 15-Oct. G. Ossining, 
common T. V., May 9-28; Aug. 1.3-Oct. 11. Cambridge, T. V., rather 
common, May 12-25; not uncommon, Sept. 10-25. X. Ohio, common T. V 
Apl. 28-May 27; Sept. 1-Oct. 10. Glen Ellyn. common T. V., May 3-June 
5; Aug. 12-Oct. 9. -SE. Minn., common T. V., May 0- ; Aug. 12-Sept. 9. 

Nest, of fine twigs, leaf stems, etc., lined with hairlike rootlets, in conifer- 
ous trees, usually 3-6 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, white, marked with cinnamon- and 
31 



452 WOOD WARBLER8 

olive-brown, chiefly in a wreath about the larger end, '66 x '48. Date, 
Branchport, N. Y., June 2; Lancaster, N. H., May 24. 

Adult Magnolia Warblers are so distinctly marked that ordinarily 
they may be identified at sight. Immature birds are less strikingly 
colored, but in any plumage the species may be known by having the 
white tail-spots nearer the middle than the ends of the feathers. Seen 
from below, the birds thus appear to have a white tail broadly banded 
with black. 

The Magnolia's summer home is among the spruces and hemlocks. 
Its typical song, which is of somewhat the same character as that of the 
Yellow Warbler, is described by Thayer (in "Warblers of North Amer- 
ica") as a "peculiar and easily remembered :• lyee^o weeto weeeetee-eet, — • 
or witchi, witchi, whichi tit, — the first four notes deliberate and even and 
comparatively low in tone, the last three hurried and higher pitched, 
with decided emphasis on the antepenult weet or witch." 

1910. Stanwood, C. J., Auk, XXVII, 384-389 (nesting). 

658. Dendroica cerulea (Wils.). Cerulean Warbler. Ad. cf. — - 
Upperparts bright ceriilean blue, the sides of head and back streaked with 
black; wings and tail edged with blue; two white wing-bars; inner vanes 
of all but the central tail-feathers with white patches at their tips; under- 
parts white, a bluish black band across the breast; sides streaked with bluish 
black. Ad. 9. — Upperparts bluish olive-green; wings and tail much as in 
the d", underparts white, generally more or less tinged with pale yellow. 
7m.— Similar to ad. 9, but yellower. L., 4-50; W., 2-65; B. from N., '31. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in Austral zones from se. Nebr., se. 
Minn., s. Mich., s. Ont., w. N. Y., w. Pa., and W. Va. s. to ne. Tex., La., 
and cen. Ala. and locally in w. N. C., w. Va., e. Md., and cen. Del.; winters 
from Panama to Peru; in migration straggles to N. Mex.; Colo., R. I., Conn., 
N. J., and e. Pa. 

Washington, several records in May, one in fall. N. Ohio, common S. 
R., Apl. 29-Sept. 20. Glen EUyn, not common, local S. R., May 8- Aug. 19. 
SE. Minn., rare S. R. 

Nest, of fine grasses bound with spiders' silk, lined with strips of bark 
and fine grasses and with a few lichens attached to its outer surface, in a tree, 
25-50 feet from the ground. Eggs, 3-4, creamy white, thickly covered with 
rather heavy blotches of reddish brown, "60 x '47 (Allen, Bull. Nutt. Orn. 
Club, IV, 1879, 26). Date, Oberlin, Ohio, May 15; Ann Arbor, Mich., May 
20. 

In writing of this species as observed by him in Ritchie County, 
West Virginia, Mr. Brewster says: 

"Decidedly the most abundant of the genus here. The first speci- 
men taken May 5. They inhabit exclusively the tops of the highest 
forest trees, in this respect showing an affinity with D. blackburnice. 
In actions they most resemble D. pensylvanica, carrying the tail rather 
high and having the same 'smart bantamlike appearance.' Were it 
not for these prominent characteristics they would be very difficult 
to distinguish in the tree tops from Parula [= Compsothlypis] ameri- 
cana, the songs are so precisely alike. That of the latter bird has, how- 
ever, at least two regular variations: in one, beginning low down, he 
rolls his guttural little trill quickly and evenly up the scale, ending 
apparently only when he can get no higher; in the other the commence- 



WOOD WARBLERS 453 

ment of this trill is broken or divided into syllables, like zee, zee, zee, 
ze-ee-ee-ee-p. This latter variation is the one used by D. coBrulea, and I 
could detect little or no difference in the songs of dozens of individuals. 
At best it is a modest little strain and far from deserving the encomium 
bestowed upon it by Audubon, who describes it as 'extremely sweet and 
mellow;' decidedly it is neither of these, and he must have confounded 
with it some other species. In addition to the song they utter the almost 
universal Dendroicine lisp and also the characteristic tchep of D. cor- 
onata, which I had previously supposed entirely peculiar to that bird." 

659. Dendroica pensylvanica (Linn.). Chestnut-sided War- 
bler. (Fig. 121.) Ad. cf. — Crown bright yellow, a black line behind the 
eye; front part of the cheeks black; ear-coverts white; back streaked with 
black and margined with bright olive-green; wing-bars yellowish white; 
tail black, the outer feathers with white patches on their inner vanes at the 
tip; underparts white, the sides chestnut. Ad. 9. — Similar, but somewhat 
duller in color. Ad. in fall and im. — Very different; upperparts bright yellow- 
ish olive-green, back sometimes streaked with black; wing-bars yellowish 
white; underparts pure, silky white, the sides in ads. with spots or patches of 
chestnut. L., S'U; W., 2-45; T., 2*00; B. from N., '29. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in the Transition zone from cen. 
Sask., nw. Man., cen. Ont., and N. F., s. to e. Nebr., Ills., Ind., n. Ohio, 
n. N. J., and R. I., and s. in the Alleghanies to Tenn., and S. C, and cas- 
ually in s. Mo. and the Wabash Valley; winters from Guatemala to Panama; 
in migration casual in Fla.. the Bahamas, and s. Mex. 

Washington, abundant T. V., Apl. 19-May 30; Aug. 10-Oct. 14. Ossin- 
ing, tolerably common S. R., May 2-Sept. 24. Cambridge, abundant S. R., 
May 5-Sept. 10. N. Ohio, T. V., May 2-25. Glen EUyn, rare S. R., com- 
mon T. v.. May 1-Sept. 26. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 3-Scpt. 15. 

Nest, of strips of bark, leaf stems, etc., lined with tendrils and rootlets, in 
bushes, about 3 feet up. Eggs, 4-5, white, with numerous distinct and 
obscure cinnamon- and olive-brown markings, chiefly in a wreath about 
the larger end, '69 x "50. Date, New Haven, Conn., May 23; Cambridge, 
May 26; Ann Arbor, Mich., May 20; se. Minn., May 29. 

When settled for the summer. Chestnut-sided Warblers may be 
found in second growths, scrubby clearings, or the bushy borders of 
woodlands. There is a suggestion in their movements of the restless 
activity of the Redstart, as with drooped wings and slightly raised 
tail they flit among the lower growth. They have two songs, both of 
which closely resemble those of the Yellow Warbler, though a practiced 
ear can at once recognize the song of either. 

Adults of this species are too conspicuously marked to be mistaken 
for any other Warbler, but in the fall have a care in identifying the 
very differently colored young. 

f 660. Dendroica castanea (Wils.). Bay-breasted Warbler. Ad. d<. 
— Forehead and cheeks black, a cream-buff patch on the sides of the neck; 
crown chestnut; throat, upper breast, and sides chestnut-rufous; back brownish 
ashy, streaked with black; two white wing-bars, inner vanes of outer tail- 
feathers with white patches at their tips; lower breast and belly huffy white. 
Ad. 9. — Crown olive-green, streaked with black and with generally some 
chestnut; rest of upperparts as in the d"; underparts huffy white; l)roast and 
sides more or less stained with rufous. Ad. in fall and im. — Uppcrijarts 
bright oHve-green, indistinctly streaked with black; wings and tail much as 



454 WOOD WARBLERS 

in the ads. ; underparts white, tinged with cream-huff, especially on the flanks; 
ads. usually have some concealed chestnut in crown and traces of chestnut 
on sides. L., 5-63; W., 2-95; T., 2-12; B. from N., 'SO. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian zone from nw. Alberta, s. 
Keewatin, s. Ungava, and N. F. s. to s. Man., n. Maine, and mts. of N. H.; 
winters in Panama and Colombia; casual in migrations to Mont., S. D., and 
Tex. ; irregular on the Atlantic slope and rare s. of Va. 

Washington, sometimes abundant, usually uncommon T. V., May 2- 
27; Aug. 29-Nov. Ossining, tolerably common T. V., May 14-28; Aug. 5- 
Sept. 26. Cambridge, rather rare T. V., May 15-25; Sept. 12-28. N. Ohio, 
common T. V., May 4-23; Sept. 7-Oct. 10. Glen Ellyn, tolerably common 
T. v.. May 8- June 5; Aug. 13-Oct. 4. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., Mav 
13- ; Aug. 18-Sept. 15. 

Nest, of grasses and plant fibers, lined with plant-down and long hairs, 
in coniferous trees, 5-20 feet up. Eggs, 4-5, white, finely marked, chiefly at 
the larger end, distinctly and obscurely with cinnamon-, olive-, or rufous- 
brown, "72 X "52. Date, Bangor, Maine, June 15. 

During its migrations this tastefully marked Warbler is generally 
uncommon enough to be considered somewhat of a prize, though at 
irregular intervals it becomes comparatively common. It is said to be 
much rarer in fall than in spring, but at this season Bay-breasts so 
closely resemble Black-polls, that it is sometimes difficult to determine 
specimens, while, in immature plumage, many birds cannot possibly 
be distinguished in nature. 

In the summer the Bay-breasts inhabit the northern coniferous 
forests, living, it is said, in the tree tops. ''In a grouping based on songs, 
the Bay-breast should stand in a quintette with the Blackburnian, the 
Black-poll, the Black and White, and the Cape May. . . . The Bay- 
breast's singing, in the spring at least, is the most liquid and inarticulate 
of the lot and sometimes the loudest" (Thayer in "Warblers of North 
America"). 

1900. Stanwood, C. J., Journ. Me. Orn. Soc, 103-110 (nesting). 

061. Dendroica striata {Forst.). Black-poll Warblkr. (Fig. 123.) 
Ad. cf. — Crown black; ear-coverts white; nape streaked, black and white; 
back and rump ashy, streaked with black; two white wing-bars; inner vanes 
of outer tail-feathers with white patches at their tips; underparts white, 
streaked with black, the streaks most numerous on the sides, and wanting 
on the middle of the breast and belly. Ad. 9. — Upperparts olive-green, 
distinctly streaked with black; wings and tail as in the d^; underparts white, 
tinged with yellow, the breast and sides distinctly streaked with black. 
Ads. fall and im. — Similar to 9, but the upperparts are brighter and not 
distinctly streaked, the underparts yellower and not distinctly streaked. 
L., 5-56; W., 2-92; T., 2*05; B. from N., "30. • 

Remarks. — No two of our Warblers more closely resemble each other than 
do immature and fall examples of this and the preceding species. There is 
no difference in the color of the upperparts, but castanea has the underparts 
tinged with delicate cream-buff, strongest on the flanks, while striata is dis- 
tinctly yellowish below. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian zones from limit 
of trees in nw. Alaska, to N. F., s. to cen. B. C, Man., Mich., n. Maine, 
and mts. of Vt. and N. H.; winters from Venezuela to Brazil; migrates 
through the Bahamas and West Indies. (See Fig. 5.) 

Washington, abundant T. V., Apl. 28- June 16; Aug. 31-Oct. 20. Ossin- 
ing, common T. V., May 7-June 6; Aug. 30-Oct. 16. Cambridge, abundant 



WOOD WARBLERS 455 

T. v., May 12-June 5; Sept. 8-Oct. 20. N. Ohio, common T. V., May 6- 
June 2; Sept. 1-Oct. 16. Glen EUyn, common T. V., May 2-June 8; Aug. 
23-Sept. 27. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 8- ; Aug. 27- . 

Nest, of twigs, moss, rootlets, etc., lined with fine grasses and tendrils, 
generally in spruce trees, about 6 feet up. Eggs, 4-5, white, more or less 
speckled and spotted, and generally hea^dly blotched at the larger end with 
cinnamon-, olive-, or rufous-brown, '70 x "54. Date, Grand Menan, N. B., 
June 11. 

The Black-poll is not the last Warbler to reach us in the spring, but 
it is usually the last of the transients to leave us, the length of its stay 
and its abundance making its passage one of the features of the spring 
migration. In the fall it is even more abundant. Adults and young are 
now alike in plumage, but they are to be confused only with the much 
rarer Bay-breasts. 

Gerald Thayer (in "Warblers of North America") describes the 
Black-poll's main song, from which there are many variations, as "a 
string of six to twelve or more, short, equal and equally - divided sibi- 
lant notes, cobweb-thin and glassy-clear, — uttered rather fast; the whole 
song smoothly swelling in volume to the middle, or the second third, 
and then smoothly faUing ofT." 

662. Dendroica fusca (Mull.). Blackburnian Warbler. Ad. cf. — 
Center of the black crown, a line over the eye, patch behind the black 
ear-coverts, throat, and breast beautiful rich orange; back black, streaked 
with whitish; wing-coverts white, forming a large white patch on the wing; 
inner vane of most of the tail-feathers almost entirely white, except at the 
tip; the outer vane of the outer feather white at the base; belly tinged with 
orange, sides streaked with black. Ad. 9. — Resembles the cf, but the orange 
markings are paler, the upperparts are ashy olive-green streaked with 
black and whitish; the white on the wings and tail is less extensive. Im. d". — 
Resembles the 9 , but has the orange markings dull yellow, the crown-patch 
nearly absent. Im. 9. — Similar to the im. <f, but the yellow markings much 
paler, nearly buffy, the back browner. L., 5-25; W., 2-71; T., 1-96; B. from 
N., -31. 

Remarks. — In connection with other markings, the large amount of 
white in the tail, appearing on even the outer vane of the outer feather, is 
characteristic of this species. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in lower Canadian and upper Transition 
zones from Man. and Cape Breton Is. to cen. Minn., Wise, n. Mich., Mass., 
and Conn., and in the AUeghanies from Pa. to Ga. ; winters from Colombia 
to cen. Peru. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 30-June 3; Aug. 14-Oct. 7. Ossining, 
common T. V., May 10-29; Aug. 15-Oct. 15. Caml)ridgo, T. V., uncommon. 
May 12-22; rare, Sept. 15-30. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 27-Mav 25; 
Sept. 1-25. Glen Ellyn, fairlv common T. V., May 4-Junc 8; Aug. 12-Sept. 
22. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 3- ; Sept. 4. 

Nest, of fine twigs and grasses, lined with grasses and tendrils, in conifer- 
ous trees, 10-40 feet up. Eggs, 4, grayish white or bluish white, distinctly 
and obscurely spotted, speckhnl, and blotched with cinnainon-l)r()wn or 
olive-brown, "68 x '50. Date, Branchjiort, N. Y., May 24; Lancaster, N. H., 
June 4; Kalamazoo Co., Mich., June 2. 

The Blackburnian is uncommon enough to make us appreciate his 
unusual beauty. Coming in May, before the woods are fully clad, he 
seems like some bright-plumaged tropical bird who has lost his way 
and wandered to northern climes. The summer is passed among the 



456 WOOD WARBLERS 

higher branches in coniferous forests, and in the early fall the bird 
returns to surroundings which seem more in keeping with its attire. 
Mr. Minot describes its summer song as resembhng the syllables 
wee-see -wee-see-wee-see (wee-see-ick) , while in the spring its notes may 
be likened to wee-see-wee-see, tsee-tsee, tsee, tsee, tsee-tsee, tsee, tsee, 
the latter syllables being on ascending scale, the very last shriU and fine. 

663. Dendroica dominica dominica (Linn.). Yellow-throated 
Warbler. Ad. d'.—A yellow line in front of the eye and a white line over it; 
upperparts gray, forehead blackish; wings and tail edged with grayish, two 
white wing-bars; outer tail-feathers with white patches near their tips; 
cheeks and sides of the throat black; a white patch on the side of the neck; 
throat and breast yellow, belly white, sides streaked with black. Ad. 9. — 
Similar, but with less black on the head, throat and neck. L., 5*25; W., 2*60 ; 
T., 2-01; B., -49. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in Austroriparian fauna from s. Md. 
and cen. Del. to middle Fla.; winters in s. Fla., Bahamas, and Greater 
Antilles, and also casually n. to S. C. and in the Lesser Antilles; in migration 
casually to N. Y., Mass., and Conn. 

Washington, rare S. R., rather common in late July and Aug.; Apl. 
19-Sept. 4. 

Nest, of twigs, strips of bark, and Tillandsia 'moss,' lined with vegetable 
down, 30-40 feet from the ground, in pines or live-oaks, sometimes in a 
bunch of Tillandsia 'moss.' Eggs, 4-5, white or grayish white, with numerous 
distinct and obscure cinnamon- or olive-brown markings, sometimes evenly 
distributed, sometimes in a wreath at the larger end, "74 x "52. Date, 
Charleston, S. C, Apl. 2; Raleigh, N. C, Apl. 22. 

Some birds are so characteristic of certain places that wherever 
heard or seen they recall their accustomed haunts. I have only to 
remember the song of the Yellow-throated Warbler to give form to a 
mental picture of some tree-bordered stream or bayou in the South. 
The song bears some resemblance to that of the Indigo Bunting, but has 
a wilder, more ringing quality. In this respect it suggests the song of 
Seiurus motacilla. It may be written ching-ching-ching, chicker, cher- 
wee. It is to some extent ventriloquial, and this in connection with 
the rather deliberate movements of the birds, and the fact that they 
resort to the upper branches, makes it sometimes difficult to locate the 
singer. 

663a. D. d. albilora Ridgw. Sycamore Warbler. Similar to the 
preceding, but with a smaller bill and the line in front of the eye white 
instead of yellow. W., 2-60; T., 2-00; B., '45. 

Range. — E. cen. U. S. Breeds in Upper and Lower Austral zones of 
Miss. Valley from se. Nebr., s. Wise, s. Mich., Ohio, W. Va., and s. N. C. 
s. to e. Tex. and La.; winters from Puebla, Mex., to Costa Rica; in migra- 
tion occasional e. to S. C. 

"The Sycamore Warbler is a common summer resident in the bot- 
tom-lands [of Illinois], where, according to the writer's experience, it 
lives chiefly in the large sycamore trees along or near the water-courses. 
On this account it is a difficult bird to obtain during the breeding 
season, the male usually keeping in the topmost branches of the tallest 
trees, out of gunshot and often, practically, out of sight, although its 
presence is betrayed by its loud, very unwarblerlike song" (Ridgway). 



WOOD WARBLERS 457 

667. Dendroica virens (Gmel.). Black-throated Green War- 
bler. Ad. d'. — Upperparts bright olive-green, back sometimes spotted with 
black; line over the eye and cheeks bright yellow, ear-coverts dusky; two 
white wing-bars; inner vanes of outer tail-feathers entirely white, outer web 
white at the base; throat and breast black; belly white, sometimes tinged 
with yellow; sides streaked with black. Ad. 9. — Similar, but the black of 
throat and breast more or less mixed with yellowish. Ad. d' in fall and im.d'. 
— Similar to the 9 , but with more yellow on the chest, the black sometimes 
being almost entirely hidden or wanting. Im. 9. — Similar to ad 9, but 
duller above, black on chest sometimes entirely absent. L., 5' 10; W., 2*46; 
T., 1-99; B. from N., -25. 

Remarks. — The bright yellow cheeks of this species, in connection with 
the large amount of white in the tail, will serve to distinguish it in any 
plumage. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in lower Canadian and Transition zones from 
w. cen. and ne. Alberta, s. Man., cen. Ont., ne. Que., and N. F., s. to s. 
Minn., s. Wise, n. Ohio, n. N. J., Conn., and L. I., N. Y., and in the Alle- 
ghanies s. to S. C. and Ga. ; in migration w. to e. Tex.; winters from Mex. 
to Panama. 

Washington, very common T. V., Apl. 22-May 30; Aug. 26-Oct. 21. 
Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 30- June 3; Sept. 1-Oct. 26; a few breed. 
Cambridge, abundant, S. R., May 1-Oct. 15. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 
25-May 24; Sept. 1-Oct. 16; a few breed. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Apl. 
29- June 6; Aug. 22-Oct. 12. SE. Minn., common T. V., uncommon S. R., 
Apl. 29-Sept. 22. 

Nest, of small twigs and moss, lined with rootlets, fine grasses, and ten- 
drils, in coniferous trees, 15-50 feet from the ground. Eggs, 4, white, dis- 
tinctly and obscurely spotted and speckled with olive-brown or umber, 
chiefly at the larger end, "65 x "46. Date, New Haven, Conn., May 21; 
Cambridge, June 5; Grand Menan, N. B., June 14. 

WTien migrating this species joins the ranks of the Warbler army 
and visits wooded land of almost any kind. When nesting it prefers 
coniferous forests, where it is a dweller among the tree-tops. 

While resembling its congeners in general habits, the song of the 
Black-throated Green is so unlike their generally humble ditties that 
the bird seems possessed of more character than they impress us with 
having. Mr. Burroughs graphically represents its notes by straight 

lines: V ; a novel method of musical annotation, but 

which nevertheless will aid one in recognizing the bird's song. There 
is a quality about it like the droning of bees; it seems to voice the 
restfulness of a midsummer day. 

1910. Stanwood, C. J., Auk, XXVII, 289-294 (nesting). 

Townsend's Warbler {668. Dendroica townsendi), a species of western 
North America, has been once recorded from Pennsylvania. 

670. Dendroica kirtlandi (Baird). Kirtland's Warbler. Ad. cf. — 
Head bluish gray, somctinics spotted with black; lores and sides of the throat 
black; back brownish ashy, spotted with black; no whit(> wing-bars; out(>r 
tail-feathers with wliitc p:itch(>s on their inner wel)s at th(! tips; underparts 
pale yellow; sides streaked and spotted with black. Ad. v. — Similar, but 
lores and cheeks grayish, black streaks less pronounced. Fall specimens 
of both sexes are much browner. L., 5*75; W.. 2*75; T., 2-30; B. from N., -32. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition zone in Oscoda, Crawford, 
and Ptoscommon counties, Mich.; winters in the liahanias as far s. at least 
as the Caicos Islands; in migration recorded from Minn., Wise, Ont., Ohio, 
Ills., Ind., Mo., Va., S. C, Ga., and Fla. 



458 WOOD WARBLERS 

Washington, one record, Sept. 25, 1887. N. Ohio, rare T. V., May 9 
and 11. Glen EUyn, one record. May 7, 1894. SE. Minn., one record, Min- 
neapolis, May 13. 

Nest, on the ground at the foot of a pine or oak, of soft bark, strips of 
vegetable fiber, grass, etc., lined with fine grass, pine needles, and hair. 
Eggs, 3-5, white, speckled Tvdth umber, wreathed at the larger end. '71 x '54. 
Date, Oscoda Co., Mich., June 6. (See Wood, Warblers of N. A., 206-209.) 

During the summer this, the rarest of North American Warblers, 
is known only from north central Michigan, while during the winter it 
appears to be restricted to the Bahamas. In the intervening region it has 
been reported about thirty-five times; it reaches Florida about April 20 
and Michigan about May 15. The return journey is made between 
August and November. 

Aside from its size and color, Kirtland's Warbler may be known by 
its habit of tail-wagging in which it rivals the Palm Warbler. When 
migrating it frequents the lower growth and when nesting lives only 
in high, sandy jack-pine plains. According to Wood (in ''Warblers of 
North America") this Warbler has several distinct songs, "all of which 
belong to the whistling type and have the clear, ringing quality of the 
Oriole's." 

671. Dendroica vigorsi vigors! {Aud.). Pine Warbler, (Fig. 706.) 
Ad. (f. — Upperparts bright olive-green, sometimes washed with ashy; two 
whitish wing-bars; outer tail-feathers with white patches on their inner 
vanes near the tip; underparts bright yellow, more or less washed "nith 
ashy, turning to white on the lower belly and under tail-coverts ; sides some- 
times with a few black streaks. Ad. 9. — Similar, but upperparts brownish 
olive-green; underparts soiled whitish; breast tinged wdth yellow. L., 5*52; 
W., 2-81; T., 2-25; B. from N., -33. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition and Austral zones from n. 
Man., n. Mich., s. Ont., s. Que., and N. B. s. to e. cen. Tex., the Gulf States, 
and Fla. ; winters from s. Ills, and coast of Va. to Fla., e. Tex., and Tamaulipas, 
and casually n. to Mass. 

Washington, quite uncommon S. R., Mch. 20-Oct. 29; abundant in 
fall. Ossining, casual. Cambridge, locally common S. R., Apl. 10-Oct. 20; 
occasional W. V. N. Ohio, rare T. V.; Apl. 29-May 15. Glen Ellyn, not 
common T. V., spring records only, Apl. 17-May 24. SE. Minn., common 
T. v., Apl. 26- . 

Nest, of strips of bark, leaves, plant fibers, etc., in pines 10-80 feet up. 
Eggs, 4-5, white or grayish white, wath numerous distinct and obscure 
cinnamon-brown to umber markings, chiefly in a wreath or band at the larger 
end, -70 x -52. Date, Raleigh, N. C, Mch. 24; Cambridge, May 20. 

True to its name, the Pine Warbler is rarely found outside of pine 
woods. In the South, where pineries may extend over half a state, it 
is an abundant and generally distributed bird; in the more northern 
part of its range it is, from force of circumstances, a local species, 
occurring only with the pines. 

In the winter it is found in small flocks, which may contain a few 
Myrtle or Palm W^arblers, and at this season it lives on or near the 
ground. In the summer it is more arboreal. Its habit of clinging to 
the trunk of a tree, or hopping along a limb while searching for insects 
in crevices in the bark, has given it the misnomer of Pine Creeping 



WOOD WARBLERS 459 

Warbler. Its song which, in Florida, is often heard in the winter, is a 
clear, sweet, even trill. 

672. Dendroica palxnarum palmarum (Gmel). Palm Warbler. 
Ads. — Crown chestnut; back olive grajish brown, indistinctly streaked; 
rump olive-green; no wing-bars; taU black, the outer feathers with white 
patches on their inner vanes at the tips: a yellow line over the eye; throat 
and breast bright yellow; belly soiled whitish, tinged -nith yellow; sides of the 
throat, the breast, and sides streaked ■vsith chestnut-ruf ous ; under tail- 
coverts yellow. Ad. in winter and Im. — Crown-cap partly concealed by 
brownish tips to the feathers and sometimes wanting; line over the eye and 
eve-ring white; underparts soiled whitish, more or less tinged with vellow; 
breast streaked ^dth dusky. L., 5-25; W., 2-64; T., 2-10; B. from X., -32. 

Range. — Interior X. A. Breeds in Canadian zone from s. Mackenzie 
(Ft. Simpson) and cen. Keewatin s. and se. to n. Minn.; ^-inters from s. 
ila. and the Bahamas to the Greater Antilles and Yucatan; occurs in migra- 
tion on the Atlantic slope. 

Washington, rare T. V., Apl. 22-May 18; Sept. 18-Oct. 11. Ossining, 
T. v., Apl. 29; Sept. 30-Oct. 12. Cambridge, uncommon T. V.. in fall, 
Sept. 1.5-Oct. 10. X. Ohio, [tolerablv common T. V.. Apl. 24-May 20; 
Sept. 10 to Oct. 16. Glen Ellvn, common T. V., Apl. 2.3-May 19; Sept. 4- 
Oct. 18. SE. Minn., common T. V. Apl. 23- ; Sept. 17-Oct. 3. 

Nesting date, Ft. Resolution, Mack., June 18. 

This interior race of the Yellow Palm Warbler is occasionally met 
with in the North Atlantic States, while in Florida it is much more 
common than the eastern form. Sometimes the two birds may be seen 
in the same flock, when the brighter colors of hypochrysea are usually 
apparent. 

672a. D. p. hjnpochrysea Ridgw. Yellow Palm Warbler. Ads. — 
Crown chestnut; back brownish olive-green; rump olive-green; no white 
wing-bars; secondaries sometimes tinged with chestnut; tail edged with 
olive-green, the outer feathers with white spots on their inner vanes near 
the tips; line over the eye and eye-ring yellow; underparts entirely bright 
yellow; sides of the throat, the breast, and sides streaked with chestnut- 
rufous. Ad. in winter and Im. — Crown-cap partly concealed by the brownish 
tips to the feathers and sometimes wanting; line over the eye and eye-ring 
yeUotcish; entire underparts uniform yellow, washed with ashy; the sides of 
the throat, the breast, and sides streaked with chestnut-rufous or dusky. 
L., 5-43; W., 2*61; T., 2-10; B. from X.. -31. 

Remarks. — In any plumage this bird may be distinguished from the 
preceding by its uniform yellow underparts. 

Range. — Atlantic slope of X. A. Breeds in Canadian zone from Ont., n. 
Que., and X. F., s. to s. N. S., X. B., and Maine; winters from La. to n. 
Fla.. casually to N. C. and Pa.; accidental in Ohio, Cuba, Jamaica and 
Bermuda. 

Washington, T. V., common, Mch. 31-Apl. 29; Sept. 4-Oct. 28. O.ssining. 
tolerably common T. V., Apl. 11-May 5; Sept. 2a-Xov. 8. Cambridge, 
usually common, sometimes abundant, T. V., Apl. lo-May 5; Oct. 1-15. 

Nest, of rather coarse grasses lined with finer gras.ses, on or near the 
ground. Eggs, 4-5, white or buflfy white, with some distinct and obscure 
cinnamon- or olive-brown markings, chiefly at the larger end, "65 x '51. 
Date, Dartmouth, X. S., May 26. 

This species is a renegade Dendroica. He has no liking for the 
woods, and even trees in the open do not seem to attract him. His 
tastes bring him to fields and roadsides, where he lives on or near the 



460 WOOD WARBLERS 

ground, but is ever active and much on the move. During the winter, 
in the south, he is a common bird in the streets and gardens of towns, 
and hke a Chippy hops famiharly about piazzas. 

He has the same nervous pecuHarity, which, irrespective of family, 
seems to affect some birds, and, as though Hfe were a matter of beat- 
ing time, never ceases to wag his tail. His fine chi-p is recognizable 
after one has become famihar with it, while his two songs are described 
by Gerald Thayer (in "Warblers of North America") as "chiefly trills, 
one slower and fuller-toned, the other much quicker and thinner." 

673. Dendroica discolor (VieilL). Praieie Warbler. (Fig. 124.) 

Ad. d'. — Upperparts bright olive-green; back spotted with chestnut-rufous; 
wing-bars yellowish; outer tail-feathers with large white patches at their tips, 
the outer vane of the outer feather white at the base; a yellow line over the 
eye; lores and a crescent below the eye black; underparts bright yellow; 
sides heavily streaked with black. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but wdth less, and some- 
times no chestnut-rufous in the back. Im. 9. — Upperparts uniform ashy 
olive-green; no apparent mng-bars; outer tail-feathers with white on their 
inner webs at the tips; ear-coverts ashy; underparts yellow; sides indistinctly 
streaked with blackish. L., 4-75; W., 2'20; T., 1-95; B. from N., '28. 

Remarks. — The chestnut-rufous patch in the back at once identifies the 
adults; but the young females are puzzHng birds to be known chiefly by 
their small size, absence of wing-bars and streaks on the sides. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds chiefly in Carolinian and Austroriparian 
faunas from se. Nebr., e. Kans., s. Ohio, sw. Pa., s. N. J., and (along the 
coast) from Mass. s. to sw. Mo., n. Miss., nw. Ga., Fla., and the Bahamas, 
and n. locally to cen. Mich., s. Ont., and N. H.; breeds rarely and locally 
in the Gulf States; winters from cen. Fla. through the Bahamas and the 
West Indies. 

Washington, very common S. R., Apl. 12-Sept. 20. Ossining, rare S. R., 
May 2-Sept. 14. Cambridge, locally common S. R., May 8-Sept. 15. N. 
Ohio, rare, Apl. 29, May 9 and 14. 

Nest, of plant fibers and plant-down, lined with rootlets and long hairs, 
in briary bushes. Eggs, 4-5, white, spotted distinctly and obscurely with 
cinnamon- or olive-brown, or chestnut, chiefly in a wreath at the larger end, 
•64 X '48. Date, Savannah, Ga., Apl. 25; Raleigh, N. C, May 14; Cambridge, 
May 28; Ottawa Co., Mich., May 26. 

The Yellow, Palm, and Prairie Warblers are the three "Wood 
Warblers" that are rarely found in the woods. The latter, however, 
differs decidedly in habits from either of the former. It is a rather 
retiring inhabitant of scrubby clearings, bushy fields, and pastures, or 
thickets of young pines and cedars. But while the Prairie, if silent, 
might readily escape observation, no one with an ear for bird music 
will pass within sound of a singing bird without at least tr>^ing to solve 
the mystery of its peculiar notes, a series of six or seven quickly repeated 
zees, the next to the last one the highest. 

674. Seiurus aurocapillus (Linn.). Oven-bird. (Fig.125.) Ads. — 
Center of the crown pale rufous or ochraceous-buff, bordered on either side 
by black lines; rest of the upperparts, wings, and tail brownish olive-green; 
no wing-bars or tail-patches, underparts white; the sides of the throat, 
the breast, and sides streaked with black. L., 6*17; W., 3'00; T., 2-15; B. 
from N., -35. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral 



WOOD WARBLERS 461 

zones from sw. Mackenzie (casually the lower Yukon Valley), to N. F. s. 
to cen. Alberta, Colo., Kans., s. Mo., Ohio Valley, Va., in mts. to Ga. and S. 
C, and e. to the Atlantic coast from N. S. to Va.; winters from cen. Fla. 
(casually S. C.) and islands on the La. coast through the Bahamas 
to Colombia. 

Washington, very common S. R., Apl. 10 to Oct. 17. Ossining, common 
S. R., Apl. 27-Oct. 10. Cambridge, very common S. R., May 6-Sept. 15. 
N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Apl. 22-Oct. 1. Glen EUyn, not common S. R., 
common T. V., Apl. 28-Sept. 30. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 27- 
Sept. 22. 

Nest, bulky, covered, the entrance at one side, of coarse grasses, weed 
stalks, leaves, and rootlets, on the ground. Eggs, 4-5, white, speckled or 
spotted with cinnamon- or rufous-brown markings, sometimes finely dis- 
tributed, sometimes confluent about the larger end, "80 x "60. Date, Weaver- 
ville, N. C, May 7; Chester Co., Pa., May 22; Cambridge, May 25; se. 
Minn., May 19. 

During the nesting season Oven-birds are among our commonest 
woodland birds. We hear them everywhere; one singer scarcely ceases 
before another begins. But when the song period has passed how com- 
paratively rare they become! The reason is not hard to find. At most 
times the Oven-bird is somewhat of a recluse. He passes much of his 
time on or near the groimd, generally where the woods are more or 
jess uridergrown. Only the practised ear will detect his sharp, weak 
cheep. 

If there be such a thing as inspiration, I believe the Oven-bird sings 
under its influence. Not that his usual song is in the least remarkable, 
but because the bird is so obviously moved by a spirit which demands 
utterance. Watch him now as he is about to sing. Flying up from the 
ground, how cautiously he hops from branch to branch, and, with 
crest slightly erect, walks carefully along a limb, when, suddenly over- 
come by the music in his soul, he throws fear to the winds and lifts up 
his voice in a crescendo chant which vibrates through the woods. 
Teacher, teacher, teacher, TEACHER, TEACHER, Mr. Burroughs 
writes it, and the description is difficult to improve upon. 

The bird fairly quivers with the violence of his effort. The result 
seems inadequate; we feel that he is striving for something better, 
and, in truth, as Mr. Bicknell says, he sometimes breaks the bonds 
that ordinarily beset his expression, and ''bursts forth with a wild out- 
pouring of intricate and melodious song," the very force of which 
carries him up into the air among the tree tops. 

1911. Stanwood, C. J., Journ. Mo. Orn. Soc, XHI, 18-20 (nesting). 

675. Seiurus noveboracensis noveboracensis (Gmcl). Water- 
Thrush. Ads. — Upperparts, wings, and tail uniform olive; no wing-bars or 
tail-patches; a buffy line over the eye; underparts whitr, tinged with i);ile 
sulphur-yellow, (richer in fall) and everywhere; — including throat — stnuikcd 
with black. L., 6-04; W., 2-99; T.. 2-11; B. from N., -36. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds chiefly in Canadian zone from n. Ont., n. 
Ungava, and N. F. s. to cen. Ont., nw. N. Y., and n. New England (casually 
s. New England), and in mts. s. to W. Va.; wint(>rs from the Valley of Mex- 
ico to British Guiana, and throughout West Indies. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 22-June 2; July 21-Oct. 6. Ossining, 



462 



WOOD WARBLERS 





Fig. 123. Black-poll Warbler. 



Fig. 127. Maryland Yellow-tliroat. 




Fig. 124. Prairie Warbler. 




Fig. 125. Oven-bird. 





Fig. 128. Wilson's Warbler. 




Fig. 126. Kentucky Warbler. Fig. 130. Canadian Warbler. 

Figs. 123-130. Heads of Warblers. (Natural size.) 



WOOD WARBLERS 463 

tolerably common T. V., May 11-21; July 2S-0ct. 3. Cambridge, abundant 
T. v., May 8-June 1; Aug. 10-Oct. 10. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 2&- 
May 25; Sept. 1-15. 

Nest, of moss, lined with tendrils and fine rootlets, in a mossy bank or 
under the roots of a fallen tree. Eggs, 4—5, white, or buffy white, with nu- 
merous cinnamon-brown markings, chiefly about the larger end, "76 x "59. 
Date, Branchport, N. Y., May 18; Pittsfield, Maine, May 28. 

In general habits this bird resembles its southern relative, the 
Louisiana Water-Thrush, but during its migrations it is frequently- 
found some distance from water, and I have known birds to spend sev- 
eral days beneath evergreen trees on a la'^Ti a quarter of a mile from 
the woods. It is, too, much less shy than motacilla, and one can gen- 
erally approach closely enough to take note of the characters which dis- 
tinguish it from that species — a smaller bill, more sharply defined and 
darker streaks, and yellower underparts. 

The sharp, steely alarm note, clink, is not so penetrating as that of 
motacilla, and the loud, ringing song, while lacking in the wild quality 
which so characterizes the notes of that species, is nevertheless more 
musical. 

675a. S. n. notabilis Ridgiv. Grinnell's Water-Thrush. Simi- 
lar to the preceding, but slightly larger, upperparts darker, underparts and 
line over the eye whiter. W., S'lO; T., 2-20; B. from N., -37. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds chiefly in Boreal zones from limit of trees 
in nw. Alaska, n. Yukon, nw. and cen. Mackenzie, and cen. Keewatin s. 
to s. B. C, cen. Mont., nw. Nebr., n. Minn., and nw. Mich.; winters in Cuba 
and the Bahamas and from Mex. to n. S. A.; migrates throughout the 
Miss. Valley, and along the Atlantic coast from S. C. southward; casual 
in N. J. 

Washington, casual, two instances. May. Glen Ellyn, fairly common 
T. v., Apl. 14-June 5; Aug. 17-Oct. 6. SE. Minn., common T, V., Apl. 30- ; 
Sept. 24. 

676. Seiurus motacilla (VieilL). Louisiana Water-Thrush. (Fig. 
70d.) Ads. — A conspicuous white line over the eye; upperparts, wings, and 
tail olive; no wing-bars or tail-patches; underparts white, tinged with crcam- 
buft, especially on the flanks, and streaked with blacki.sh, except on the throat 
and middle of the helhj. L., 6-28; W., 3-23; T., 2-14; B. from X., -40. 

Remarks. — Aside from its larger size, this bird may be known from the 
preceding species by the whiter, more conspicuous line over the eye, huffy 
instead of yellowish tinge on the underparts, and absence of spots on the 
throat. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds mainly in Carolinian fauna from se. Nebr., 
se. Minn., and the s. parts of Mich., Ont., N. Y., and New England s. to 
ne. Tex., n. Ga., and cen. S. C; winters from n. Mex. to Colombia, and in 
the West Indies. 

Washington, rare S. R., Apl. 2-Sept. 14. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 9-Aug. 24. N. Ohio, tolerably common S. R., Mch. 28-Sept. 15. SE. 
Minn., uncommon S. R., Apl. 17-Aug. 2G. 

Nest, of leaves, twigs, and rootlets, under a hank or tlu? upturned roots 
of a fallen tree. Eggs, 4-0, white, evenly sijeeklefl or .spotted, distinctly 
and obscurely, with cinnamon- or rufous-brown, "75 x "(iO. Date, Iredell 
Co., N. C, Apl. 21; Waynesburg, Pa., May 5, hatching; New Haven. Conn., 
May 6; Petersburg, Mich., May 5. 

Few birds are more particular in their choice of homes than this 
Water-Thrush. He lives where dashing brooks leap down wooded 



464 WOOD WARBLERS 

hillsides, or where quieter streams flow through the lowland forests. 
He is a wild, shy bird, and his never-ceasing alertness suggests the 
watchfulness of the savage. Approach as quietly as you will, the Water- 
Thrush knows of your coming. With a tilting motion he walks on 
ahead, springs from rock to rock, or with a sharp, metallic clink of 
alarm takes wing and darts through the woods so low you scarcely get 
a glimpse of him. From a distant limb near the ground he watches you, 
constantly teetering his body as though even when resting he must 
find some outlet for his surplus nervous energy. 

As a songster the Water-Thrush is without a rival. His song is 
not to be compared with the clear-voiced carol of the Rose-breasted 
Grosbeak, the plaintive char\,t of the Field Sparrow, or the hymnlike 
melody of the true Thrushes; it is of a different kind. It is the untam- 
able spirit of the bird rendered in music. There is an almost fierce 
wildness in its ringing notes. On rare occasions he is inspired to voice 
his passion in a flight-song, which so far exceeds his usual performance 
that even the memory of it is thrilling. 

677. Oporornis formosus (Wils.). Kentucky Warbler. Ad. d'- — 
(Fig. 126.) A yellow line from the bill passes over and around the back of 
the eye; crown, region below the eye, and the side of the throat black, the 
crown tipped with gray; rest of the upperparts, wings, and tail olive-green; 
no wing-bars or tail-patches ; underparts bright yellow. Ad. 9. — Similar, but 
the black areas more grayish and less clearly defined. L., 5"40; W., 2*60; 
T., 1-90; B. from N., '32. 

Range. — E. U. S. to n. S. A. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroriparian 
faunas from se. Nebr., s. Wise, se. and sw. Pa., and the Hudson Valley 
s. to e. Tex., La., Ala., and n. Ga. ; winters from Tabasco to Colombia; 
accidental in Vt. 

Washington, not very uncommon S. R., Apl. 29-Sept. 2. Ossining, 
common S. R., May 2- Aug. 27. N. Ohio, rare,. Apl. 27 and May 12. 

Nest, bulky, of twigs and rootlets, firmly wrapped with several thick- 
nesses of leaves, lined "with fine rootlets, on or near the ground. Eggs, 4-5, 
white or grayish white, finely and evenly speckled or coarsely blotched with 
rufous to umber, '72 x -58. Date, Buncombe, N. C, May 23; West Chester, 
Pa., May 27; Dunklin Co., Mo., May 15. 

The Kentucky Warbler frequents rather densely grown, well- 
watered woods. Here he may be found, on or near the ground, hop- 
ping from limb to limb or walking about searching for food. When 
singing, he generally mounts to the lower branches of the higher trees. 
His song is entirely unlike that of any other Warbler. It is a loud, 
clearly whistled performance of five, six, or seven notes — tur-dle, tur- 
dle, tur-dle — resembling in tone some of the calls of the Carolina Wren. 
Even in the woods it may be heard at a distance of about one hundred 
and fifty yards. 

In the height of the breeding season this Warbler is a most per- 
sistent singer. On one occasion, at Englewood, N. J., I watched a 
male for three hours. During this period, with the exception of five 
interruptions of less than forty-five seconds each, he sang with the 
greatest regularity once every twelve seconds. Thus, allowing for 
the brief intervals of silence, he sang about 875 times, or some 5,250 



WOOD WARBLERS 465 

notes. I found him singing, and when I departed he showed no signs 
of ceasing. 

678. Oporornis agilis (Wils.). Connecticut Warbler. Ad. cf. — 
Head, neck, and breast bluish gray, lighter on the throat; crown in the fall 
tipped with olive-green; eye-ring white; rest of upperparts, wings, and tail 
olive-green; no wing-bars or tail-patches; belly yellow; sides washed with 
olive-green. Ad. 9 and Im. — Similar to the cf, but upperparts uniform olive- 
green; throat and breast pale grayish brown; belly pale yellow. L., 5'40; 
W., 2-90; T., 1-90; B. from X., -32. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian zone from Man. to cen. Minn., 
and n. Mich.; winters in n. S. A.; migrates through Fla. and the Bahamas; 
in spring rare e. of Alleghanies but common in the Miss. Valley; in autumn 
rare in the Miss. Valley but common e. of the Alleghanies; casual ne. of 
Mass. and in Ont. 

Washington, T. V., very rare in spring, May 24-30; common from 
Aug. 28-Oct. 24. Ossining, rare T. V., Aug. 26-Oct. 9. Cambridge, fall 
T. v., sometimes locallv abundant, Sept. 10-30. N. Ohio, tolerably com- 
mon T. v.. May 7-24. Glen Ellyn, fahly common T. V., May 12-June 28; 
Aug. 14-Sept. 22. SE. Minn., uncommon T. V., June 1.- . 

Nest, of dry grasses, on the ground. Eggs, 4, white, with a few spots of 
lilac-purple, brown, and black about the larger end, "75 x '60. (Seton, Auk, 
I, 1884, 192.) Date, Carberry, Man., June 21. 

"Connecticut Warbler" is an unfortunate misnomer for this species. 
'Swamp' or 'Tamarack Warbler,' or 'Bog Black-throat,' would have 
been much more truly descriptive. 

Ivi ihe cold, boggy tamarack swamps of Manitoba, where I found it 
breeding, it was the only one of the family, and almost the only bird, 
whose voice broke the silence of those gray wastes. Its loud song was 
much like the ''teacher, teacher" chant of the Oven-bird, but it also 
uttered another, which I can recall to mind b}^ the aid of the syl- 
ables "free-chapple, free-chapple, free-chapple, whoit." 

The nest was placed on the ground, or, rather, in the moss which 
everywhere covered the ground to a depth of a foot or two, and was com- 
posed of fine vegetable fibers. 

This species has somewhat the manners of the Vircos, but is much 
more active and sprightly in its movements. During the migrations 
it is generally found on or near the ground, in the undergrowth of low, 
damp woods, and also in bordering, weedy fields, whore it sometimes 
announces its presence by a sharp peek. Ernest Tho.mpson Seton. 

679. Oporornis Philadelphia (Wils.). Mourning Wardler. Ad. d<. 

— Head, neck, and throat bluish gray, changing to black on the breast: no 
white eye-ring; rest of upperparts, wings, and tail olivc-grccn; no wing-bars 
or tail-patches; belly yellow. Ad. 9 and Im. — Similar, but upperparts olive- 
green, slightly grayer on the head; breast grayish, throat whiter. L., 5'G3; 
W., 2-56; T., 2-13; B. from N., "32. 

Remarks. — This species bears a general resemblance to the preceding, 
but may be distinguished from it by the absence of a white eye-ring. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in lower Canadian zone from e. cen. Alberta, 
s. Sask., sw. Keewatin, N. S., and Magdalen Islands, s. to cm. Minn., 
Mich., cen. Ont., and mts. of N. Y., Pa., Mass., and W. Va.; winters from 
Nicaragua to Ecuador; in migration from e. Tex. to tho Alleghanies; rare 
e. of the Alleghanies and from N. C. w. to Miss. (Sec Fig G.) 



466 WOOD WARBLERS 

Washington, very rare T. V., May 6-30; Aug. 17-Oct. 1. Ossining, rare 
T. v., May 28-29; Aug. 18-Oct. 1. Cambridge, rare T. V., May 22- June 
5; Sept. 12-25. N. Ohio, tolerably common T. V., May 5-28. Glen Ellyn, 
rather rare T. V., May 18- June 8; Aug. 17- . SE. Minn., uncommon 
T. v., May 13- ; Aug. 1-Sept. 10. 

Nest, of strips of bark and other fibrous materials, lined with hair, on 
or near the ground. Eggs, 4, white, sprinkled with reddish dots near the 
larger end, '71 x "54. Date, Orleans Co., N. Y., May 31; Listowel, Ont., 
June 3; Kalkuska Co., Mich., June 7. 

The Mourning Warbler inhabits the undergrowth, choosing situ- 
ations not unlike those selected by the Maryland Yellow- throat. 

"Its common song consists of a simple, clear, warbling whistle, 
resembling the syllables Hrue, Hrue, Hrue, Hru, Hod, the voice rising on 
the first three syllables and falling on the last two. 

"Sometimes, when otherwise occupied, the first, or first two, syl- 
lables are omitted. All through the breeding season, and till late in 
July, they have a very characteristic habit of perching, at frequent inter-, 
vals during the day, on some branch, generally a dead one, and com-| 
monly ten or fifteen feet from the ground, and singing for half an hour 
at a time." (Merriam, "Birds of Connecticut," 24.) 

681. Geothlypis trichas trichas (Linn.). Maryland Yellow- 
throat. (Fig. 127.) Ad. d". — A broad band across the forehead, and on 
the cheeks and ear-coverts black, bordered behind by grayish; rest of the 
upperparts, wings, and tail olive-green, sometimes tinged with brownish; 
no wing-bars or tail-patches; throat and breast bright yellow, changing to 
whitish on the belly; sides washed with brownish; under tail-coverts yellow. 
Ad. cf in fall. — Similar, but browner above; black mask tipped with grayish; 
belly more yellow; sides browner. Im. cf. — Similar, but the black mask 
more concealed, sometimes merely indicated by a dusky area. Ad. 9. — 
No black mask; upperparts, wings and tail olive-green, the forehead some- 
times tinged with rufous; throat and breast yellowish, changing to whitish 
on the belly; under tail-coverts yellow; sides brownish. L., 5"33; W., 2'20; 
T., 2-04; B., "42. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral 
zones from N. D., n. Minn., n. Ont., and s. Lab. s. to cen. Tex., n. parts of 
the Gulf States, and Va.; winters from N. C. and La. to Fla., the Bahamas, 
Cuba, Jamaica, Guatemala, and Costa Rica. 

Washington, abundant S. R., Apl 13-Oct. 21. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 28-Oct. 23. Cambridge, abundant S. R., May 5-Oct. 20; occasional 
in winter. N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Apl. 25-Sept. 25. Glen Ellyn, common 
S. R., May 2-Oct. 2. SE. Minn., common S. R. 

Nest, bulky, of strips of bark, coarse grasses, and dead leaves, lined with 
fine grasses, tendrils, and rootlets, on or near the ground. Eggs, 3-5, white, 
rather thinly speckled and spotted with rufous to umber, chiefly — some- 
times entirely — at the larger end, '70 x "53. Date, Chester Co., Pa., May 19; 
Cambridge, May 25; Lancaster, N. H., June 2; Melbourne, Iowa, May 24. 

Doubtless one of the first acquaintances you will make, among the 
Warblers, will be this black-masked inhabitant of thickets and bushes. 
Indeed, you have only to pause near his home, when he will meet you 
halfway. He announces his coming by an impatient, quickly repeated 
chack, varying to chit, pit, quit, as, hopping from twig to twig, he finally 
appears for a moment and then darts back into the cover of his haunts. 

His song is characteristic of his active, nervous nature, and is deliv- 



WOOD WARBLERS 467 

ered with much force and energy. It varies greatly with locality, a 
fact which may account for the quite dijfferent descriptions given of 
it by authors. Sometimes it is "^Titten wichity, wichity, wichity, wichity; 
again, rapity, rapity, etc.; but the birds near New York City seem to me 
to say / beseech you, I beseech you, I beseech you, I beseech you; though, 
to be sure, the tone is far from pleading. 

They sing throughout the summer, and include a fiight-song in 
their repertoire. This is usually uttered toward evening, when the bird 
springs several feet into the air, hovers for a second, and then drops 
back to the bushes. 

681b. G. t. ignota Chapm. Florida Yellow-throat. Similar to the 
preceding, but with longer tarsus, tail, and bill; yellow of undcrparts of a 
deeper shade and of greater extent; flanks of a much darker color; upper- 
parts browner; black mask wider, its ashy border (in summer specimens) 
slightly paler and of greater extent ; first primary shorter, equaling the eighth 
instead of the sixth. W., 2-17; T., 2-18; B., '47. 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from the Dismal 
Swamp, Va., s. to Fla. and along the Gulf coast at least to La.; winters from 
the coast of S. C. to se. Tex. and Cuba. 

Nesting date, Charleston, S. C, May 9. 

In Florida this southern representative of the Maryland Yellow- 
throat is usually found in dense growths of scrub palmetto. Its song 
differs recognizably from that of the northern bird. 

683. Icteria virens vixens (Linn.). Yellow-breasted Chat. Ads. — 
Largest of the Warblers; upperparts, wings and tail olive-green; line from the 
eye to the bill, one on the side of the throat, and eye-ring white; throat, 
breast, and upper belly bright yellow; 
lower belly white; sides grayish. L., 
7-44; W., 3-00; T., 3-07; B. from N., -41. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly 
in Upper and Lower Austral zones from 
s. Minn., Wise, Mich., Ont., cen. N. Y., 
and s. New England s. to se. Tex., s. 
parts of Gulf States, and n. Fla.; win- 
ters from Puebla, Vera Cruz, to Costa 
Rica; casual in Maine. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 
16-Sept. 28. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 28-Aug. 29. Caml)ridge, rather Fig. 131. Yollow-broasted Chat, 
rare and irregular S. R., May 15-Sopt. (Natural sizp.) 

N. Ohio, common S. R., May 1-Scpt. 

15. Glen Ellyn, local, not common, May 10-Aug. IG. SE. Minn., rare S. 
R. (?). 

Nest, rather bulky, of coarse grasses, leaves, and strips of bark well 
interwoven, lined with finer grasses, in a crotch, near the ground. Eggs, 
3-5, white, rather evenly speckled and .spotted with nifous-hrown, '90 x •GG. 
Date, Chatham Co., Ga., May 7; Wayncshurg, Pa., May 10; New Haven, 
Conn., May 22; Oberlin, Ohio, May 15. 

Bushy undergrowths or thickets in partial clearings form the home 

of the Chat. After an acquaintance of many years I frankly confess that 

his true character is a mystery to me. While listening to his strange 

medley and watching his peculiar actions, we arc certainly justified 

32 




468 WOOD WARBLERS 

in calling him eccentric, but that there is method in his madness no 
one who studies him closely can doubt. 

Is the odd jumble of whistles, chucks, and caws uttered by one 
bird in that copse yonder, or by half a dozen different birds in as many 
places? Approach cautiously, and perhaps you may see him in the 
air — a bunch of feathers twitched downward by the queer, jerky notes 
which animate it. One might suppose so peculiar a performance would 
occupy his entire attention, but nevertheless he has seen you; in an 
instant his manner changes, and the happy-go-lucky clown, who a 
moment before was turning aerial somersaults, has become a shy, 
suspicious haunter of the depths of the thicket, whence will come his 
querulous chut, chuc as long as your presence annoys him. 

684. Wilsonia citrina {Gmel). Hooded Warbler. (Fig. 129.) 
Ad. d^. — Forehead and cheeks bright yellow; crown black, connected behind 
with the black throat; upperparts, wings, and tail olive-green; outer tail- 
feathers with inner vane mostly white; breast and belly yellow; bill with 
evident bristles at its base. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but with the black hood usually 
developed as a narrow line on the nape and crown, and a blackish wash on 
the throat or chest. Im. cf. — Similar to ad. d", but the black feathers with 
yellow tips. Im. 9. — Similar to ad. 9, but with no black on the head or 
breast. L., 5-67; W., 2-58; T., 2-30; B. from N., -31. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas 
from se. Nebr., s. Iowa, sw. Mich., cen. N. Y., and the lower Conn. Valley 
s. to La., Ala., and Ga.; winters from Vera Cruz to Panama; occasional in 
the Bahamas, Cuba, and Jamaica; casual n. to Wise, Mich., Ont., and 
Mass. 

Washington, locally common S. R., Apl. 19-Oct. 1. Ossining, rare S. R., 
to Sept. 1. N. Ohio, rare, May 8, 9, 12 and 22. 

Nest, of leaves, strips of bark, and rootlets, lined with fine grasses and 
rootlets, in the crotch of a bush or sapling, about four feet up. Eggs, 4-5, 
white or creamy white, rather thinly speckled or spotted with rufous or 
rufous-brown, generally in a wreath at the larger end, "yi x '53. Date, 
Charleston, S. C., Apl; 30, inc. adv.; Saybrook, Conn., May 26; Kalamazoo 
Co., Mich., June 10. 

This beautiful bird is a lover of well-watered, rather densely grown 
woods. It is a bird of the lower growth rather than the trees, but is not 
a thicket-haunter, and its habit of flitting restlessly from bush to 
bush renders it easily observed. When on the wing its white outer 
tail-feathers are conspicuously displayed, and, with the striking mark- 
ings of the head, make an excellent field-mark. 

The song of the Hooded Warbler is sweet and graceful. It is sub- 
ject to much variation, but as a rule consists of eight or nine notes. 
To my ear the bird seems to say, "You must come to the woods, or 
you won't see me." Its call-note is a sharp, characteristic cheep, fre- 
frequently uttered when the bird is anxious for the safety of its nest or 
young, and accompanied by a flit of the tail, which reveals the white 
outer tail-feathers. 

685. Wilsonia pusilla pusilla (Wils.). Wilson's Warbler. (Fig. 
128.) Ad. d'. — Forehead yellow, crown black; rest of the upperparts, wings 
and tail bright olive-green; no wing-bars nor tail-patches; underparts bright 



WOOD WARBLERS 469 

yellow; bill with bristles at its base. Ad. 9. --Similar, but generally without 
the black cap. Im. 9. — Similar, but mthout black cap. L., 5"00; W., 2*21; 
T., 2-03; B. from N., -25. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zones from tree limit in nw. 
Mackenzie, and N. F., s. to s. Sask., n. Minn., cen. Ont., N. H., Maine, and 
N. S.; winters in e. Cen. Am.; migrates mainly along the Alleghanies; 
practically unknown in the Austroriparian fauna from Va. to La. 

Washington, rather common T. V., May 1-26; Aug. 27-Oct. 6. Ossining, 
tolerably common T. V., May 9-30; Aug. 10-Sept. 9. Cambridge, common 
T. v., May 12-25; uncommon, Sept. 5-20. N. Ohio, tolerably common T. 
v.. May 5- June 2; Sept. 5-15. Glen Ellyn, not common T. V., May 7- 
June 26; Aug. 16-Sept. 21. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 2- ; Aug. 23- 
Sept. 27. 

Nest, on the ground, almost wholly of fine, dry grass, lined with a few 
hairs, deeply cupped and quite substantial for a Warbler. Eggs, 4, white, 
with or without light brown splashes and with a small wreath of dark specks 
at the larger end, "59 x "48. Date, Bangor, Maine, June 1. (See "Warblers 
of North America," 277.) 

The Black-cap frequents the lower woodland or bushy growths. 
Like other members of this genus, it has decided talents as a fly-catcher 
and captures much of its prey on the wing, darting out into the air, but 
does not, like a true Flycatcher, return to the same perch. It is an alert 
little bird and its motions of wings, tail or crest suggest a certain pert- 
ness of manner. 

"The song has much of the ringing clarity of the Canada's and 
Hooded's songs. The commonest form of it, a rapid bubbling warble of 
two nearly equal parts, the second lower-toned and sometimes dimin- 
uendo, has always reminded me of a Northern Water-Thrush's song" 
(Thayer in "Warblers of North America"). 

686. Wilsonia canadensis (Linn.). Canadian Warbler, (Fig. 130.) 
Ad. d". — Upperparts, wings, and tail gray; no wing-bars or tail-patches; 
crown spotted with black; line from the l)ill to the eye and underparts yellow; 
sides of the neck black; a necklace of Idack spots across the breast; under tail- 
coverts white; bill with evident bristle at its base. Ad. 9 and Im. d". — Simi- 
lar, but with no black on the head or sides of the throat; necklace indicated 
by dusky spots. Im. 9. — Similar, but with breast spots fainter or wanting. 
L., 5-61; W., 2-.53; T., 223; B. from N., -31. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in the Canadian zone and casually in the 
Transition from cen. AlVjcrta, s. to N. F., s. to con. Minn., con. Mich., 
s. Ont., cen. N. Y,, and Mass., aiifl along the Alleghanies to N. C. and Tenn.; 
winters in Ecuador and Peru and casually in (iuatt^mala. 

Washington, very common T. V., May 5-June 2; July 31-Sept. 25. 
Ossining, common T. V., May 6-June 2; Aug. 10-Oct. 11. Cambridge, 
common, May 12-30, rare, Sept. 1-15; rare S. R. N. Ohio, common T. V., 
Apl. 28-May 27; Sept. 1-lS. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., May 5-June 0; 
Aug. 15-Sept. 22. SE. Minn., common T. V., May H- ; Aug. IS-Scpt. 5. 

Nest, of strips of bark, bits of dead wood, and moss wrapped in leaves, 
and lined with fine rootlets, in mossy banks or under roots. Eggs, 4-5, 
white, speckled and spotted, chiefly at the larger end, with riifous or rufous- 
brown, '66 X "51. Date, Lancaster, N. H., June 9; Bay City, Mich., June 2. 

Although when associated with other migrating Warblers this bird 
may be found in woodland of varied character, it prefers low, wet woods, 
in which, like Wilson's Warbler, it frequents the lower growth. Like 
that bird also it is an expert fly-catcher. 



470 WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 

Its song is sweet, loud, and spirited. Fuertes writes "it suggests to 
me the unfinished song of a Goldfinch more than that of a Warbler. 
It is very broken and energetic and also possesses a large quaUty" 
("Warblers of North America"). 

687. Setophaga ruticilla {Linn.). Redstart. (Fig. 70c.) Ad. cf. — 
Upperparts, throat, and breast shining black; basal half of the wing-feath- 
ers salmon, end half and wing-coverts black; basal two-thirds of all but the 
middle tail-feathers salmon, end third and middle feathers black; sides of 
the breast and flanks deep reddish salmon; belly white, tinged with salmon; 
bill with prominent bristles at its base. Ad. 9. — Salmon of the d" replaced 
by dull yellow; head grayish; back ashy, with a greenish tinge; underparts, 
except where marked with yellow, white. Im. — Resemble the 9 ; the d' 
acquires his full plumage at the end of his first breeding season during 
which he resembles the 9, but is more or less mottled with black. L., 5"41; 
W., 2-57; T., 2*27; B. from N., '27 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral 
zones from cen. B. C. to N. F., s. to Wash., n. Utah, Colo., cen. Okla., Ark., 
and N. C; rarely breeds in the se. U. S. s. of lat. 35°; casual in migration 
in Ore., Calif., L. Calif., Ariz., and n. Ungava; winters in the West Indies 
and from cen. Mex. to Ecuador and B. Guiana. (See Fig. 8.) 

Washington, very abundant T. V., Apl. 15-May; Aug. 19-Sept. 30; 
a few breed. Ossining, common S. R., May 1-Oct. 3. Cambridge, abundant 
S. R., May 5-Sept. 20. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 27-Sept. 20. Glen 
Ellyn, not common S. R., common T. V., May 3-Oct. 5. SE. Minn., com- 
mon S. R., May 2-Sept. 22. 

Nest, of fine strips of bark, leaf stalks, and plant-down, firmly inter- 
woven, lined with tendrils and fane rootlets, in the crotch of a sapling, 5-20 
feet up. Eggs, 4-5, grayish white or bluish white, spotted and blotched, 
chiefly at the larger end, with cinnamon- or olive-brown, '68 x "50. Date, 
Raleigh, N. C, May 12; Waynesburg, Pa., May 19; New Haven, Conn., 
May 20; Cambridge, June 2. 

If this active, brilliantly colored inhabitant of woodlands were as 
rare as he is beautiful, we would consider a meeting with him an event 
demanding at least a page in our journals. In Cuba most of our Wood 
Warblers are known simply as 'Mariposas' — butterfhes; but the 
Redstart's bright plumage has won for him the name * Candelita ' — 
the httle torch that flashes in the gloomy depths of tropical forests. 

Ching, ching, chee; ser-wee, swee, swe-e-e he sings, and with wings 
and tail outspread whirls about, dancing from limb to hmb, darting 
upward, floating downward, blown hither and thither like a leaf in the 
breeze. But the gnats dancing in the sunlight and the caterpillars 
feeding in the shade of the leaves know to their sorrow that his erratic 
course is guided by a purpose. 

59. Family MoTACiLLiDiE3. Wagtails and Pipits. (Fig. 71.) 

Of the one hundred species included in this family only ten are 
American, the remaining ninety being distributed throughout the Old 
World. Of Wagtails, a single species {Budytes flavus alascensis) reaches 
western Alaska, while our nine species of Pipits are scattered from the 
Arctic zone to Patagonia, only two being known from north of the Rio 
Grande. 



WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 471 

Wagtails are found about the borders of streams and where there is 
more or less vegetation, while the Pipits are more larklike and usually 
inhabit an open, treeless country. Both Wagtails and Pipits are emi- 
nently terrestrial. The}' walk or run, instead of hop, rarely (with one 
or two exceptions) if ever alight in trees, sing on the wing, the Pipits 
ascending much the higher, and nest on the ground, and both have in a 
highly developed form the habit of tail-wagging. 

697. Anthus rubescens (Tz/nstoZZ). American Pipit. (Fig. 71.) Ads. 
in winter. — Outer tail-feather largely white, next one or two white-tipped. 
Above warm grajish brown; wing-coverts tipped with whitish or buffy; 
longest tertial longer than fifth primary; a whitish or buffy line over eye; 
below buffy (whitish just before spring molt) breast and sides streaked with 
fuscous; hind toe-nail longest, as long as or longer than its toe. After spring 
molt upperparts grayer, underparts more pinkish buff, but these colors fade 
as breeding season advances. L., 6"38; W., 3"o0; T., 2*69; B., '47. 

Range. — Breeds in Arctic zone from ne. Siberia, n. Alaska, and lat. 70° 
on w. coast of Greenland s. to Great Slave Lake, cen. Keewatin, n. Que., 
and X. F., and on high mts. s. to Calif., Colo., and X. M.; winters from s. 
Calif., and the Ohio and lower Del. valleys to Guatemala. 

Washington, W. V., sometimes abundant, Oct. 2-Mav 12. Ossining, 
common T. V., Mch. 26-(?); Sept. 24-Xov. 16. Cambridge, T. V., abund- 
ant Sept. 20-Xov. 10; rare Apl. 10-Mav 20. X'. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 
6-May 26; Oct. 19. Glen Elh-n, not common T. V., Apl. 15- ; Sept. 30- 
Oct. 18. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 4- ; Oct. 

Nest, of grasses, on the ground. Eggs, 4—6, bluish white or grayish 
white, thicklv and evenlv speckled with cinnamon- or vinaceous-brown, 
•78 X -57. Date, Whale River, Lab., June 20. 

Large, open tracts in the vicinity of the coast are the localities in 
which Titlarks are most common, but they are also found in numbers in 
old fields, meadows, and pastures inland. A recently burned or newly 
plowed field is a good place in which to look for them. Once seen, there 
is little difficulty in identifying these graceful walkers, as they run on 
before you, or with constantly wagging tail await your approach. The 
individuals of a flock are generally scattered over a varying space while 
feeding, but when flushed they rise together and, with a soft dee-dee, 
dee-dee, mount high in the air as though bound for parts unknown, 
but often, after hovering above you for several seconds in an undecided 
way, they will return to or near the place from which they rose. Their 
flight is light and airj-, and in loose companies they undulate gently 
through the air without apparent effort, uttering their faint dee-dee 
as they fly. 

The Pipit's song is delivered in the air both as he mounts to and 
descends from a height of as much as two hundred feet. To mo it sounds 
like the ringing of a httle bell. Townsend ("Along the Labrador Coa.st," 
p. 52) describes it as '^che-whee, che-whee, with a vibratory resonance on 
the whee." 

700. An thus spragnei (Aud.). Sprague's Pipit. Hind toe-nail 

longer than its claw. Ads. — Above grayish brown ividcly margined with 
buffy or ashy; tail fuscous, twc: outer foathors largely white, wings browner 
with two indistinct bars; below wliito. buff-tinged, a band of streaks acrosa 
the breast. L., 6-25; W., 3-30; T., 2'40; B., '50. 



472 THRASHERS, MOCKINGBIRDS, ETC. 

Range. — Interior plains of N, A. Breeds in Transition zone from sw. 
Sask. and s. Man. s. to w. Mont., and N. D.; winters from Tex., s. La., and 
s. Miss., to s. Mex. 

Nest, of grasses on the ground. Eggs, 3-5, grayish white, thickly and 
finely speckled with blackish and purplish. 

This species appears to be of rare but more or less regular occurrence 
on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. In general habits it resem- 
bles the Pipit, but its song appears to be far more noteworthy than the 
vocal effort of that species. Seton (''Birds of Manitoba") writes that 
the song, which is dehvered from a height of five hundred feet or more, 
is loud and ventriloquial. "At the beginning it is much like that of the 
English Skylark, and the notes are uttered deliberately but continuously, 
and soon increase in rapidity and force till in a few seconds the climax 
is reached, after which they fade away in a veery-Hke strain, and then 
suddenly stop." 

The European White Wagtail {694.. Motacilla alha) and European 
Meadow Pipit {698. Anthus pratensis) have been recorded as of accidental 
occurrence in Greenland. 



60. Family Mimid^. Thrashers, Mockingbirds, Etc. (Fig. 72a, b.) 

Most of the sixty-odd species contained in this distinctively American 
family are restricted to the tropics, only eleven being found north of 
Mexico. Generally speaking, they frequent scrubby growths and bushy 
borders of wooded land. When singing they take a more or less exposed 
perch and devote themselves seriously and exclusively to the delivery 
of their musical message. As a rule they are possessed of exceptional 
vocal ability, and the Mockingbirds, of which there are some twenty 
species, some quite as talented as ours, are conceded first rank among 
American song birds, so far as variety of expression and execution are 
concerned. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Back slate-color; cap black; under tail-coverts rufous-brown. 

704. Catbird. 

B. Back and crown grayish; underparts whitish; outer tail-feathers white. 

703. Mockingbird. 

C. Back rufous; underparts streaked with black . 705. Brown Thrasher. 

703. Mimus polyglottos polyglottos {Linn.). Mockingbird. Ads. 
Above ashy; wings and tail fuscous; primary coverts white, centrally, black 
at end, primaries basally white, showing conspicuously in flight; outer tail- 
feather white, next two or three with a decreasing amount; below soiled 
white. L., 10-50; W., 4-50; T., 4-90; B., '70. 

Remarks. — The sexes can not be certainly distinguished in color, but in 
the female the white areas average slightly smaller. Nestlings are grayish 
brown above, white, spotted with fuscous below. 

Range. — SE. U. S., chiefly in Austral zones, from e. Nebr., s. Iowa, 
Ills., Ind., Ohio, and Md., s. to e. Tex., s. Fla., and the Bahamas, and spa- 
ringly to N. Y. and Mass.; accidental in Wise, Ont., Maine, and N. S.; 
introduced in Bermuda. 



THRASHERS, MOCKINGBIRDS, ETC. 473 

Washington, uncommon P. R., less numerous in winter. Cambridge, 
rare S. R., Mch. to Nov. 

Nest, of coarse twigs, weed stalks, etc., lined with rootlets, cotton, etc., 
in thickets, orange trees, etc. Eggs, 4-6, pale greenish blue or bluish white, 
sometimes with a brownish tinge, rather heavily spotted and blotched, 
chiefly at the larger end, with cinnamon- or rufous-brown, 1"00 x '72. Date, 
Gainesville, Fla., Apl. 1; Raleigh, N. C, May 9. 

The Mockingbird might be called our national song bird; his 
remarkable vocal powers have made him famous the world over, while 
our more retiring Thrushes are scarcely to be found mentioned outside 
the literature of ornithology. He is a good citizen, and courting rather 
than shunning public life, shows an evident interest in the affairs of 
the da}'. He lives in our gardens, parks, and squares, and even in the 
streets of the town, and is always alert and on the qui vive; a self- 
appointed guardian, whose sharp alarm-note is passed from bird to 
bird like the signals of watchmen. 

In Florida, IMockingbirds begin to sing in February, and by March 
1 the air rings with music. The heat of midday is insufficient to quell 
their ardor, and on moonlight nights many birds sing throughout the 
night. It is customary to consider the Mockingbird a musician possessed 
of marvelous technique, but with comparatively little depth of feel- 
ing. He is said to create intense admiration without reaching the 
soul. But listen to him when the world is hushed, when the air is heavy 
with the rich fragrance of orange blossoms and the dewy leaves glisten 
in the moonlight, and if his song does not thrill you then confess your- 
self deaf to Nature's voices. 

It must not be supposed that every Mockingbird is a mocker; there 
is much variation in their imitative gifts, Mr, L. M. Loomis tells 
me of a Mockingbird he once heard singing in South Carolina which 
imitated the notes of no less than thirty-two different species of 
birds found in the same locality, and this during ten minutes' contin- 
uous singing! This was a phenomenal performance, one I have never 
heard approached, for in my experience many Mockingbirds have no 
notes besides their own, and good mockers are exceptional. 

1902. Daniels, J. W., Wilson Bull., 68-71 (nesting). 

704. Dumetella carolinensis (Linn.). Catbird. Ads. — Crown and 
tail black; under tail-coverts chestnut, sometimes spotted with* slaty, and 
rarely largely slaty; rest of the plumage slaty gray. L., 8'94; W., 3"54; T., 
3-65; B., -60. 

Rajige. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in Transition and Au.stral zones 
from cen. B. C, cen. Alberta, ccn. Sask., s. Man., cen. Ont., s. Quo., and 
N. S. s. to ne. Ore., n. Utah, no. N. M., e. Tex., and n. Fla.; resident in 
Bermuda; winters from s. States to the Bahamas anrl Cuba and through 
Mex. to Panama; casual in winter n. to the Middle States. 

Washington, abundant S. R., Apl. 24-Oft. 11; occasionally winters. 
Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 28-Oct. 2-5. Camhriflge, abundant S. R., May 
6-Oct. 1; occasional in winter. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 21-Oct. 5. 
Glen EUyn, common S. R., Apl. 29-Oct. 6. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 
30-Oct. 6. 

Nest, of twigs, grasses, and leaves, lined with rootlets, in thickets or 



474 THRASHERS, MOCKINGBIRDS, ETC. 

densely foliaged trees. Eggs, 3-5, rich greenish blue, '94 x "67. Date, D. C, 
May 17; Cambridge, May 22; Utica, N. Y., May 21; se. Minn., May 18. 

The Catbird is one of the most inteUigent birds in North America. 
He is incHned to be very friendly to man, and where he is well treated 
and his confidence won he hkes to nest near our homes, showing him- 
self delightfully familiar, coming around the doorsteps, answering 
one's calls and talk, and singing by the hour for our entertainment. 
In the garden and orchard he is as useful as he is enchanting, for he 
is an untiring devourer of insects, and his value in preserving our 
fruits can hardly be overrated. In this way he earns his full share of 
the fruit protected, and it should not be grudged to him when he pro- 
ceeds to take it, as he surely will. 

It is not generally known that the Catbird is a charming singer, 
for the reason, probably, that his song is rarely loud, and is preferably 
given from the depths of the thickest shrub he can find. One more 
often hears than sees him sing, and will miss even the hearing unless 
quite near, and gifted with a listening ear, ever open to bird notes. 

The Catbird mother is one of the most anxious and devoted. If 
her nest is discovered, she exhibits so much distress that one sjTupa- 
thetic to bird griefs has no heart to pursue investigations. 

The Catbird is generous and helpful to others of his kind in trouble 
of any sort, feeding and caring for deserted or orphaned young ones 
of any species, and always ready to aid distracted parents in the defense 
of their home and Httle ones. 

He is of a lively and restless temperament, entirely lacking the 
serene repose of his near relatives, the Thrushes. He is always toss- 
ing upward or spreading his tail, jerking his Hthe body about, now 
crouching like a cat ready to spring, then straightening himself up 
very tall; one moment puffing his feathers out till he looks like a ball, 
and the next holding them closely against his body. He is very playful, 
full of droll pranks and quaint performances. I know of no bird better 
worth cherishing and cultivating than the Catbird. 

Olive Thorne Miller. 

1905. Herrick, F. H., Home-Life of Wild Birds, 122-128. 

705. Toxostoma rufum {Linn.). Brown Thrasher. (Fig. 72a.) 
Ads. — Upperparts, wings, and tail rufous; wing-coverts tipped Tvath whitish; 
underparts white (buffy in fall), heavily streaked with black or cinnamon, 
except on throat and middle of belly. L., 11-42; W., 4-06; T., S'OS; B., -96. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds mainly in Transition and Austral zones from 
s. Alberta, s. Man., n. Mich., s. Ont., s. Que., and n. Maine, s. to e. La., 
Miss., Ala., and n. Fla., and from base of the Rocky Mts. in Mont., Wyo., 
and Colo, eastward; winters from se. Mo. and N. C. to s. cen. Tex., s. Fla., 
and casually further n. 

Washington, very common S. R., Apl. 8-Oct.; occasionally winters. 
Ossining, common S. R., Apl. 22-Oct. 28. Cambridge, common S. R., Apl. 
26-Oct. 20. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 6-Oct. 15. Glen Ellyn, common 
S. R., Apl. 9-Oct. 11. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 15-Oct. 7. 

Nest, of twigs, coarse roo'Jets, and leaves, lined with finer rootlets, in 
bushes, thickets, or on the ground. Eggs, 3-6, bluish white or grayish white, 
thickly, evenly, and minutely speckled with cinnamon- or rufous-brown, 



WRENS 475 

1-08 X -80. Date, D. C, May 7; Montgomery Co., Pa., May 15; Cambridge, 
May 21; Wheatland, Ind., May 7; se. Minn., May 11. 

Hedgerows, shrubbery about the borders of woods, scrubby growth, 
or thickets in dry fields, are alike frequented by the Thrasher. Gen- 
erally speaking he is an inhabitant of the undergrowth, where he passes 
much time on the ground foraging among the fallen leaves. He is an 
active, suspicious bird, who does not hke to be watched, and expresses 
his annoyance with an unpleasant kissing note or sharply whistled 
wheeu. 

Like many thicket-haunting birds, who ordinarily shun observa- 
tion, he seeks an exposed position when singing. Morning and evening 
he mounts to a favorite perch — generally in the upper branches of a 
tree — and deliberatelj^ gives his entire attention to his song. This 
is repeated many times, the bird singing almost continuously for an 
extended interval. He is a finished musician, and, although his reper- 
toire is limited to one air, he rivals the Mockingbird in the richness 
of his tones and execution. I never listen to the Thrasher's song with- 
out involuntarily exclaiming, ''"^Tiat a magnificent performance!" 
Nevertheless, there is a certain consciousness and lack of spontaneity 
about it which makes it appeal to the mind rather than to the heart. 

61. Family Troglodytid.e. Wrexs. (Fig. 72 c, d.) 

The Wrens are one of the few famihes of birds represented in both 
hemispheres, in which there is a larger number in the New World than 
in the Old ; only thirty-odd of the some two hundred and sixty known 
forms occurring in the Old World, while the remainder are American. In 
this country they are most abundant in the tropics, only fourteen species 
advancing beyond Mexico. Wrens, as a rule, are haunters of the undc^r- 
growth in well-thicketed places, but some species arc marsh-inhabiting 
and others live among rocks. They are active, nervous little creatures, 
whose usually up-cocked tail is an index to their excitable dispositions. 
Their notes of alarm or displeasure are loud, harsh and insistent, but 
the songs of most species are marked by sweetness and brilliancy of 
execution. Their irrepressible energy finds expression in nests of great 
size or complex structure as well as in exceptionally large sets of eggs. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Uppcrparts bright rufous, a long, conspicuous whitish line over the rye; 

underparts cream-buff or ochraceous-buff; wing 2"25 or over. 

718. Carolina Wren. 718a. Florida Wren. 

B. Upperparts not bright rufous. 

a. Upperparts uniform daric, reddish olive-brown; back without white 

streaks. 

a^. Underparts whitish; primaries finely barred; no white line over the 

eye . . . 721. House Wren, 7216. Western House Wren. 

a^. Underparts whitish; primaries not barred; a white line over the eye. 

719. Bewick's When. 
a^. Underparts brownish, finely barred >vith black. 722. Winter ^^'REN. 



476 WRENS 

b. Back with white streaks. 

b^. White streaks confined to the center of the back; a white line over 
the eye .... 725. Long-billed Marsh Wren and races. 
62. Crown, back, and wing-coverts streaked with white. 

724. Short-billed Marsh Wren. 

718. Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus (Lath.). Carolina 
Wren. (Fig. 72c.) Ads. — Above bright rufous or rufous-brown without 
bars or streaks; feathers of rump with concealed downy white spots; a long, 
conspicuous whitish or buffy line over eye; wings and tail rufous-brown, 
finely barred with black; underparts ochraceous-buff or cream-buff, whiter 
on the throat; flanks sometimes with a few blackish bars. Worn breeding 
plumage is dingier above and whiter below. The largest of our Wrens. 
L., 5-50; W., 2-30; T., 2-00; B., -60. 

Range. — E. U . S. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas from 
se. Nebr., s. Iowa, Ohio, s. Pa., and lower Hudson and Conn, valleys s. to 
cen. Tex., Gulf States, and n. Fla.; casual n. to Wise, Mich., Ont., Mass., 
N. H., and Maine. 

Washington, common P. R. Cambridge, rare or casual. N. Ohio, 
tolerably common P. R. 

Nest, bulky, of grasses, feathers, leaves, etc., lined with finer grasses, 
long hairs, etc., in holes in trees or stumps, nooks and crevices about build- 
ings, etc. Eggs, 4-6, white or creamy white, with numerous cinnamon-, 
rufous-brown, and lavender markings, sometimes wreathed about the 
larger end, "75 x '58. Date, Weaverville, N. C, Apl. 20. 

The cozy nooks and corners about the home of man which prove 
so attractive to the House Wren are less commonly chosen by this bird. 
His wild nature more often demands the freedom of the forests, and he 
shows no disposition to adapt himself to new conditions. Undergrowths 
near water, fallen tree tops, brush heaps, and rocky places in the woods 
where he can dodge in and out and in a twinkling appear or disappear 
like a feathered Jack-in-the-box, are the resorts he chooses. 

The nervous activity so characteristic of all Wrens reaches in him 
its highest development. Whatever he may be when alone, he is never 
at rest so long as he imagines himself observed. Now he is on this 
side of us, now on that ; a moment later, on a stump before us, bobbing 
up and down and gesticulating wildly with his expressive tail ; but as a 
rule he is seldom in sight more than a second at a time. Of course, so 
excitable a nature must find other than physical outlet for its irrepressi- 
ble energy, and the bird accompanies his movements by more or less 
appropriate notes: scolding cacks, clinking, metallic rattles, musical 
trills, tree-toadlike krrrings — in fact, he possesses an almost endless 
vocabulary. He is sometimes called Mocking Wren, but the hundreds 
of birds I have heard were all too original to borrow from others. In 
addition to his peculiar calls he possesses a variety of loud, ringing whis- 
tles, somewhat similar in tone to those of the Tufted Titmouse or Car- 
dinal, and fully as loud as, if not louder than, the notes of the latter. 
The more common ones resemble the syllables whee-udel, whee-udel, 
whee-udel, and tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle. 

1909. TowNSEND, C. W., Auk, XXVI, 263-269 (in N. E.). 

718a. T. 1. miamensis Ridgw. Florida Wren. Similar to the preceding, 
but larger; above darker; below more deeply colored. W., 2"46;T.,2"19;B., '70. 



WRENS 477 

Range. — Florida s. of the wSuwanee River, Gainesville, and Palatka. 
Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Apl. 6. 

719. Thryomanes bewicki bewicki (Awe?.). Bewick's Wren. Ads. — 
Above dark cinnamon-brown without bars or streaks; feathers of rump with 
concealed, downy white spots; outer vane of primaries little if at all barred; 
central tail-feathers grayish-brown, barred, at least on sides, with black; 
outer ones black, tipped with grayish; the outer one or two with more or 
less bars on the outer vane; a white or buffy line over eye, underparts gray- 
ish white; flanks brownish. L., 5;00; ^y., 2-30; T., 2-10; B., "50. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds chiefly in Carolinian fauna from se. Nebr., 
n. Ills., s. Mich., and s. cen. Pa. s. to cen. Ark., n. Miss., cen. Ala., and along 
the Alleghanian highlands to n. S. C; winters from near n. limit of its 
range s. to Gulf coast and Fla.; accidental in Ont., and N. H. 

Washington, rare and local T. V., Mch. 26- July- ; may winter, Nov. 
24-Dec. 22. 

Nest, resembles that of T. aedon; location the same. Eggs, 4r-6, white, 
speckled with cinnamon-, rufous-brown, or lavender, evenly, or in a wreath 
at the larger end, '66 x 'oO. Date, Buncombe Co., N. C, Apl. 14; Old 
Orchard, Maine, Apl. 20. 

"No bird more deserves the protection of man than Bewick's Wren. 
He does not need man's encouragement, for he comes of his own accord 
and installs himself as a member of the community wherever it suits his 
taste. He is found about the cow-shed and barn along with the Pewee 
and Bam Swallow ; he investigates the pig-sty, then explores the garden 
fence, and finally mounts to the roof and pours forth one of the sweetest 
songs that ever was heard. Not . . . like the House Wren's merry 
roundelay, but a fine, clear, bold song, uttered as the singer sits with 
head thrown back and long tail pendent — a song which may be heard a 
quarter of a mile or more, and in comparison with which the faint 
chant of the Song Sparrow sinks into insignificance. The ordinary 
note is a soft, low plit, uttered as the bird hops about, its long tail 
carried erect or even leaning forward, and jerked to one side at short 
intervals. In its movements it is altogether more deliberate than either 
T. ludovicianus or T. aedon, but nothing can excel it in quickness when 
it is pursued" (Ridgway). 

721. Troglodytes aedon aedon (Vieill.). House Wren. Ae/.s-. — Above 
cinnamon olive-brown, more rufous on the rum.p and tail; back gonorally with 
indistinct bars; feathers of the rurnp with conccaUid, downy white .spots; 
wings and tail finely barred; below grayish white, flanks rusty, sides and 
flanks usually, breast rarely, und(>r tail-coverts always barred with blackish. 
L., 5-00; W., 1-97; T., 1-71; B., -.50. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds chiefly in Transition and Upper Austral 
zones from e. Wise, Mich., cen. Ont., s. Que., and N. B. s. to Ky. and 
Va.; winters in e. Tex. and Tamaulipas, and in the S. Atlantic and Gulf 
States. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 13-Oct. 11. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 2.3-Oct. 14. Cambridge, formerly abundant S. R., Apl. 28-Sept. 25; 
now rare and local. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 17-Oct. .5. Glen EUyn, 
S. R. in isolated pairs; Apl. 26-Oct. 13. SE. Minn., common S. R., Apl. 27- 
Sept. 18. 

Nest, of twigs lined with grasses, feathers, etc., generally filling the hole 
in a tree, bird-box, crevice, etc., in which it is placed. Eggs, 6-8, vinaceous, 
uniform, or minutely speckled, with generally a wreath of a deeper shade 



478 WRENS 

at the larger end, '65 x '51. Date, White Sulphur Springs, Va., Apl. 27; 
D. C, May 1; Cambridge, May 25; se. Minn., May 19. 

It has been claimed that the name House Wren is a misnomer, 
because in the South during the winter these birds are found in the for- 
ests miles from the nearest habitation. This, however, is owing to 
circumstances over which the House Wren has no control. He is just 
as much of a House Wren in the south as he is in the north; you will 
find a pair in possession of every suitable dwelling. The difficulty is 
that in the winter there are more House Wrens than there are houses, 
and, being of a somewhat irritable disposition, the House Wren will not 
share his quarters with others of his kind. Late comers, therefore, 
who can not get a snug nook about a house or outbuilding, are forced 
to resort to the woods. 

In the summer, when they are spread over a much greater area, 
House Wrens are very particular in their choice of haunts, and for 
this reason are locally distributed. Having selected a nesting-site, they 
become much attached to it, and return to the same place year after 
year. It may be a bird-box, a crevice in a building, a hollow in an 
apple tree, or hole in a fence rail; wherever it is, it is theirs, and they will 
fight for it against all comers. 

The song of the House Wren is delivered with characteristic energy — ■ 
a sudden outpouring of music which completely dominates the singer, 
who with raised head and drooped tail trembles with the violence of 
his effort. 

1905. Herkick, F. H., Home Life of WHd Birds, 38-44. 

721a. T. ae. parkmani {Aud.). Western House Wren. Similar 
to T. aedon aedon but grayer, bars above usually more distinct; black bars 
of tail usually more or less margined posteriorly with grayish or buffy; 
flanks less rusty. 

Range. — W. N. Am. Breeds in lower Canadian and Transition zones 
from s. B. C, n. Alberta, cen. Sask., and s. Man., s. to L. Calif., s. Ariz., 
sw. Tex., s. Mo., and s. Ills.; winters from Calif, and Tex. southward to Mex. 

SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 26-Sept. 18. 

722. Nannus hiemalis hiemalis {VieilL). Winter Wren. Ads. — 
Tail very short; a cinnamon-buff line over eye; upperparts dark, nearly 
uniform cinnamon-brown; back indistinctly barred; feathers of the rump 
with concealed, downy white spots; wings and tail barred; underparts cin- 
namon-buff; flanks and belly heavily barred with black. L., 4'06; W., 1*89; 
T.. 1-24; B., -35. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Canadian zone from cen. Alberta, s. Man., 
n. Ont., n. Que., and N. F., s. to cen. Minn., n. Wise, cen. Mich., and Mass., 
and through the Alleghanies to N. C; winters from about its s. breeding 
limit to Tex. and n. Fla. 

Washington, rather common W. V., Aug. 10-May 1. Ossining, tolerably 
common W. V., Sept. 18- Apl. 27. Cambridge, T. V., uncommon, Sept. 20- 
Nov. 25; rare, Apl. 10-25; a very few winter. N. Ohio, tolerably common 
W. v., Sept. 14-Mav 17. Glen Ellyn, fairly common, T. V., Apl. 1-May 10; 
Sept. 9-Nov. 7. SE. Minn., common T. V., rare W. V., Sept. 22-Apl. 3. 

Nest, of small twigs and moss, lined with feathers, in the roots of a tree, 
brush-heap, or similar place. "Eggs, 5-7, white or creamy white, finely but 



WRENS 479 

rather sparingly speckled with reddish brown, sometimes neariy immaculate, 
•69 X '50" (Ridgw.) . Date, Upton, Maine, June 11. 

When looking for a Winter Wren during the fall migration I go to 
an old raspberry patch, and in the woods watch the stumps and fallen 
trees. In the shadow of the woods it is easy to overlook the small dark 
bird creeping under a log or clambering over an old stump. But often, 
when sitting alone in the deserted patch, my heart has been warmed 
by the sudden apparition of the plump httle Wren atilt of a dry golden- 
rod stalk close beside me, his tail standing straight over his back and 
his head cocked on one side. He would bow to me with a droll bobbing 
motion, but his hearty quip-quap and the frank look of interest in his 
bright eyes showed that he was quite ready to make friends. Many 
a dull morning has been gladdened by such an encounter. 

Perhaps my choicest memories, however, are of a Wren who left 
his usual home in the dark coniferous forest for our brighter woodlands 
of maple and beech. He built liis nest in an upturned root on the edge 
of a bit of marshy land, helping himself to some feathers the Scarlet 
Tanager had left at his bath in the swamp behind. 

I had never before had a chance to listen to his famous song, and 
it was the event of the summer in the woods. Full of trills, runs, and 
grace notes, it was a tinkling, rippling roundelay. It made me think 
of the song of the Ruby-crowmed Kinglet, the volume and ringing qual- 
ity of both being startling from birds of their size. But while the King- 
let's may be less hampered by considerations of tune, the Wren's song 
has a more appeahng human character. It is like the bird himself. The 
dark swamps are made glad by the joyous, wonderful song. 

Florence Merriam Bailey. 

724. Cistothorus stellaris (Licht.). Short-billed Marsh Wren. 
Ads. — Entire upperparts streaked with white, black, and ochraceous-buff ; 
wings and tail barred; underparts unbarred, white; under tail-coverts, 
flanks, and a more or less broken band across 
breast ochraceous-buff . L.,4-00; W., 1-75; T., 1-41. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Transition and 
Upper Austral zones from se. Sask., s. Keewatin, 
s. Ont., and s. Maine, s. to e. Kans., cen. Mo., 
cen. Ind., and n. Del.; winters from s. Ills., and 
s. N. J. to s. Tex., La., and Fla.; accidental in 
Colo. 

Washington, very rare T. V., two instances, _, ,„« «, , .,. . 

May. Ossining, rare S.R., to Oct. IG. Cambridge, ,/'°/ \??- Short-MIed 
formeriy locally common S. R., May I'i-Sept. 25; ^Iff' ^'■^"- ^^-'^^^'^''^ 
now chiefly T. V. N. Ohio, rare. May 12, 14, 16 ' 

and 19. Glen Ellyn, fairly common S. R., May8-0ct. 17. SE. Minn., com- 
mon S. R., May 1.3-Sept. 19. 

Nest, globular, the entrance on one side, of grasses, lined with plant- 
down, on or near the ground, in a tussock of tall grass. Egg.'i, 6-S, pure 
white, rarely with a few lavender spots, '62 x "47. Date, Cambridge, May 
25. 

This bustling, energetic little creature ^ill much more often be 
heard than seen. Its ordinary call-note, like the sound of two pebbles 




480 WRENS 

struck together, may be heard in a dozen directions for a quarter of 
an hour before one of the birds comes in view, so careful are they to 
keep concealed among the protecting sedge. The ordinary song of 
the species has much the same timbre as the call-note; it resembles the 

syllables chap chay — chap-chap, chap chap-chap-chap-p-p-rrrr ; but 

during the height of the love season it vents its feelings in a much more 
ambitious refrain, one which, while it is everywhere varied and in parts 
very musical, is still conspicuous for the amount of chappering that 
enters into its composition. While singing, it is usually seen clinging to 
the side of some tall swaying reed with its tail bent forward so far as 
almost to touch the head, thus exhibiting in an exaggerated manner a 
characteristic attitude of all the Wrens. 

This is less a species of the deep-water marshes than is the long- 
billed member of the genus, and often it wiU be found in places that are 
little more than damp meadows. It is remarkably mouselike in its 
habits and movements, and can be flushed only with extreme difficulty. 

Ernest Thompson Seton. 

725. Telmatodytes palustris palustris (Wils.). Long-billed 
Marsh Wren. Crown unstreaked, its sides black, its center olive-brown, 
a white line over eye; middle of back black broadly streaked with white; 
rest of back cinnamon-brown; middle tail-feathers narrowly, outer tail- 
feathers broadly barred; below white, the sides and flanks pale cinnamon- 
brown sometimes extending to breast; under 
tail-coverts rarely barred. Specimens in worn 
breeding plumage are grayer. 

Range. — E. U. S. Breeds in Transition 
and Upper Austral zones from s. Ont. and s. 
Que. s. to the Potomac Valley and coast of 
Va.; winters from s. N. J. to S. C. and 
casually to Fla. ; casual in N. B. 

Washington, very numerous S. R., Apl. 

15-Nov. 1. Ossining, common S. R., May 10- 

FiG. 133. Long-billed- Marsh Oct. 28. Cambridge, locally abundant S. R 

Wren. (Natural size.) May 15-Oct. 1; sometimes a few winter. N. 

Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 21-Sept. 20. Glen 

EUyn, fairly common S. R., May 16-Oct. 10. 

Nest, globular, the entrance at one side, of coarse grasses, reed stalks, 
etc., lined with fine grasses, attached to reeds or bushes. Eggs, 5-9, uni- 
form chocolate or minutely speckled or thickly marked with cinnamon- or 
olive-brown, '65 X '49. Date, D. C, June 4; Cambridge, June 12. 

If you would make the acquaintance of this Marsh Wren, you have 
only to visit his home in the cattails and tall, reedy grasses bordering 
rivers, creeks, and sloughs. It will be unnecessary to announce yourself; 
he will know of your presence long before you know of his, and from 
the inner chambers of his dwelling will proceed certain scolding, caching 
notes before this nervous, excitable bit of feathered life appears on his 
threshold. With many flourishes of the tail and much bobbing and 
attitudinizing, he inquires your business, but before you have had time 
enough to inspect him he has darted back into his damp retreats, and 
you can tell of his frequently changing position only by his scolding, 
grumbling notes. 




CREEPERS 481 

All this time his neighbors — and he generall}^ has numbers of them — 
have doubtless been charming j'ou with their rippling, bubbUng, gurg- 
ling song. It is quite beyond their control ;!they seem filled to overflowing 
with an inexhaustible suppl}' of music. Sometimes, like a mine of 
melody, it explodes within them and lifts them from the dark recesses 
of the flags up into the air above. 

725b. T. p. griseus (Brewst.). WoRTmxGTON's Marsh Wrex. Gray- 
est of the Marsh Wrens. Ads. — Above olive-gray; side? of crown narrowly 
blackish, black of back much reduced in extent, white streaks less conspicu- 
ous than in other races; below white, the sides gravish. bars, if present, 
indistinct; under tail-coverts barred, in this respect resembling T. p. marianm 
from which it may be readilv distinguished by its much grayer color. 
W., 1-80; T., 1-52; B., -53. 

Range. — S. Atlantic coast region from S. C. to n. Fla. 

725d. T. p. iliacus Ridgw. Prairie Marsh Wren. "Similar to 
T. p. palustris, but slightly larger and with the coloration much more ru- 
fescent, the brown of the upperparts russet-brown to cinnamon-brown or 
russet, the flanks conspicuously deep cinnamon-buff or cinnamon" (Ridgw.). 

Range. — Plains and Prairies of cen. X. A. Breeds in Transition and 
Upper Austral zones from cen. Alberta and sw. Keewatin s. to cen. Miss. 
Valley and e. to Ind.; winters s. along the Gulf coast to w. Fla. and s. to 
Mex. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 5-Sept. 9. 

Nesting da e, se. Minn., June 3 (nest, no eggs). 

725e. T. p. marianse (Scott). Marian's Marsh Wren. Similar to 
T. p. palustris, but smaller, with the upperparts darker, the sides and flanks 
more heavily washed and of about the same color as rump; the under 
tail-coverts, and sometimes sides and breast barred or spotted with black. 
W., 1-80; T., 1-50; B., -52. 

Remarks. — The amount of black above is variable and the general tone 
of color in some specimens closely approaches that of T. p. palustris, from 
which, however, the heavily barred under tail-coverts separate this race. 

Range. — Coast of S. Atlantic States. Breeds on coast of N. C.; winters 
s. to S. C. and w. coast of Fla. 

Nesting date, Matanzas Inlet, Fla., May 24. 
« 

62. Family Certhiid/e. Creepers. (Fig. 73.) 

This is an Old World family, numbering about twelve species, of 
which only one is found in America where, represented by five sub- 
species, it ranges as far south as the southern extremity of the Mexican 
tableland. It is a true tree-creeper, and, like a Woodpecker, uses its 
tail as a prop in climbing. 

726. Certhia familiaris americana (Bonap.). Brown Creeper. 

(Figs. 166, 73.) Ads. — Upperparts mixed with white, fuscous, and ochra- 
ceous-buff; rump pale rufous; tail pale gravish brown; a hand of cream- 
buff through all but outer wing-feathers; bill curved; tail-feathers stiff- 
ened and sharply pointed; underparts white. L., 5"G6; W., 2'56; T., 2"65; 
B., -63. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds mainly in Canadian and Transition zones 
from s. Man., cen. Ont., s. Que., and X. F., s. to e. Nebr.. n. Ind., n. N. Y., 
and Mass., and s. along the .AUeghanies to N. C, and casually in se. Mo.; 



482 NUTHATCHES 

winters over a large part of its breeding range and s. to cen. Tex. and n. 
Fla. 

Washington, common W. V., Sept. 22-May 1. Ossining, tolerably- 
common W. v., Sept. 20-May 7. Cambridge, common T. V., rather common 
W. v., Sept. 25-May 1; one summer record. N. Ohio, common W. V., Oct. 
1-May 9. Glen Ellyn, tolerably common W. V., Sept. 15-May 19. SE. 
Minn., common T. V., uncommon W. V., Sept. 25-Mch. 30. 

Nest, of twigs, strips of bark, bits of dead wood, moss, etc., placed 
behind the loose bark of a tree. Eggs, 5-8, white, spotted and speckled 
with cinnamon- or rufous-brown and lavender, chiefly in a wreath at the 
larger end, '62 x "47 (Brewster, Bull Nutt. Orn. Club., IV, 1879, 199). 
Date, Holland Patent, N. Y., May 20. 

The facts in the case will doubtless show that the patient, plod- 
ding Brown Creeper is searching for the insects, eggs, and larvse which 
are hidden in crevices in the bark; but after watching him for several 
minutes one becomes impressed with the thought that he has lost the 
only thing in the world he ever cared for, and that his one object in 
life is to find it. Ignoring you completely, with scarcely a pause, he 
winds his way in a preoccupied, near-sighted manner up a tree trunk. 
Having finally reached the top of his spiral staircase, one might sup- 
pose he would rest long enough to survey his surroundings, but like a 
bit of loosened bark he drops off to the base of the nearest tree and 
resumes his never-ending task. 

He has no time to waste in words, but occasionally, without stop- 
ping in his rounds, he utters a few screening, squeaky notes, which 
are about as likely to attract attention as he is himself. As for song, 
one would say it was quite out of the question; but Mr. Brewster, in 
his biography of this bird, tells us that in its summer home, amid the 
northern spruces and firs, it has an exquisitely pure, tender song of 
four notes, "the first of moderate pitch, the second lower and less 
emphatic, the third rising again, and the last abruptly falKng, but 
dying away in an indescribably plaintive cadence, like the soft sigh of 
the wind among the pine boughs." 

1879. Brewster, W., Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, IV, 199-209 (Biog.). 
—1895. WiDMANN, O., Auk, XII, 350-355 (nesting in Mo.).— 1905. Chad- 
bourne, A. P., Auk, XXII, 179-183; Kennard, F. H. and McKechnie, 
F. B., 183-193 (nesting in Mass.). 



63. Family Sittid^. Nuthatches. (Fig. 74a.) 

The Nuthatches, numbering some seventy species, are mainly 
restricted to the northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere, four 
species occurring in the New World. Although expert creepers, they 
receive no support from the tail while climbing, nor does their foot 
conform to the usual Woodpecker type of two toes in front and two 
behind. Both their toes and toe-nails are, however, well developed, 
and the birds run up or down a tree trunk with equal ease. Their notes 
are pronounced, characteristic, and freely uttered, but their singing 
powers are limited. They nest in holes in trees, but, contrary to the 



NUTHATCHES 483 

rule that birds which nest in such situations lay white unmarked eggs, 
their eggs are spotted. Their name is derived from the habit of wedging 
a nut in a crevice of the bark and then attempting to 'hatch' or 'hack' 
it by repeated strokes with the bill. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Underparts more or less washed with rufous; a black or gray streak 

through the eye 728. Red-breasted Nuthatch. 

B. Underparts white or whitish; under tail-coverts more or less rufous; tail 

with white spots. 727. White-breasted Nuthatch. 7276. Florida 
Nuthatch. 

C. Whole top of the head brown . . . 729. Brown-headed Nuthatch. 

727. Sitta carolinensis carolinensis Lath. White -breasted 
Nuthatch. (Fig. 74a.) Ad. cf. — Top of head shining black; rest of upper- 
parts bluish gray; inner secondaries bluish gray, marked with black; wing- 
coverts and quills tipped with whitish; outer tail-feathers black, with white 
patches near their tips; middle ones bluish gray; sides of head and under- 
parts white; lower belly and under tail-coverts mixed with rufous. Ad. 9. — 
Similar, but black of head veiled by bluish gray. L., 6-07; T., 1-92; B., '70. 

Range. — N. Am. e. of the Plains. Breeds in Canadian, Transition, and 
Upper Austral zones from n. Minn., cen. Ont., s. Que., and N. F., s. to the 
n. parts of the Gulf States; casual in Keewatin. 

Washington, common T. V., and W. V., less common S. R. Ossining, 
common P. R. Cambridge, P. R., rare in summer, uncommon in winter, 
common in migrations; most numerous in Oct. and Nov. N. Ohio, common 
P. R. Glen EUyn, fairly common P. R. SE. Minn., common P. R. 

Nest, of feathers, leaves, etc., in a hole in a tree or stump. Eggs, 5-8, 
white or creamy white, thickly and rather evenly spotted and speckled 
with rufous and lavender, '75 x "57. Date, Cambridge, Apl. 19; se. Minn., 
ApL 7. 

When the cares of a family devolve upon him, the Nuthatch eschews 
all society and rarely ventures far from his forest home. But in the 
winter I believe even the birds are affected by the oppressive lonciUness; 
the strangers of summer become for a time boon companions, and we 
find Downy Woodpeckers, Chickadees, and Nuthatches wandering 
about the woods or visiting the orchards on apparently the best of 
terms. 

Few birds are easier to identify: the Woodpecker pocks, the Chick- 
adee calls chickadee, while the Nuthatch, running up and down the 
tree trunks, assumes attitudes no bird outside his family would think 
of attempting. His powers of speech are in nowise disturbed by his 
often inverted position, and he accompanies his erratic clamlxTings by 
a conversational twitter or occasionally a loud, nasal ynnic, yank, which 
frequently tells us of his presence before we see him. 

He is not too absorbed in his business to have a mild interest in 
yours, and he may pause a moment to look you over in a cahn kind of 
way, which somehow makes one feel that perhaps, after all, Nuthatches 
are of as much importance as we. But his curiosity is soon satisfied; 
affairs are evidently pressing, and wilh a yank, yank, he resumes his 
search for certain tidbits in the shape of grubs or insects' eggs hidden 
in the bark. 



484 NUTHATCHES 

There is such a lack of sentiment in the Nuthatch's character, he 
seems so matter-of-fact in all his ways, that it is difficult to imagine 
him indulging in anything hke song. But even he can not withstand 
the all-conquering influences of spring, and at that season he raises his 
voice in a pecuhar monotone — a tenor hah-hah-hah-hah-hah — sounding 
strangely hke mirthless laughter. 

727b. S. c. atkinsi Scott. Florida White-breasted Nuthatch. 
Similar to the preceding, but somewhat smaller, the wing-coverts and quills 
but slightly or not at all tipped with whitish, the female with the top of the 
head and nape black, as in the male. W., 3-32; T., 1-80; B., -70. 

Range. — Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from Miss. e. along the coast 
to Fla., and n. to S. C. 

Nesting date, San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 16. 

728. Sitta canadensis Linn. E,ed-breasted Nuthatch. Ad. cf. — 
Top of head and a wide stripe through eye to nape shining black; a white 
line over eye; upperparts bluish gray, no black marks on secondaries, or 
tips to wing-coverts; outer tail-feathers black, with white patches near their 
tips; middle ones bluish gray; throat white; rest of underparts ochraceous- 
buff. Ad. 9. — Similar, but top of head and stripe through the eye bluish 

gray, like the back; underparts paler. 
L., 4-62; W., 2-66; T., I'SS; B., -50. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Canadian 
zone from the upper Yukon Valley, and 
N. F., s. to n. Minn., Mich., and Mass., 
and s. in the Sierra Nevada and Rocky 
Mts. to Calif., Ariz., and N. M., and in 
the Alleghanies to N. C. ; winters from s. Canada 
s. to L. Calif., and the Gulf States. 

Washington, irregularly abundant W. V., some- 
times rare, Sept. 15-May 10. Ossining, irregular 
W. v., Aug. 8-May 8. Cambridge, irregular T. V. 
Fig. 134. Red - breasted and W. V., Aug. 15-Nov. 25; Nov. 25-Apl. 15. 
Nuthatch. (Natural size.) N. Ohio, tolerably common W. V., Sept. 4-May 
22. Glen EUyn, irregular T. V., Apl. 24-May 21; 
Aug. 19-Dec. 12. SE. Minn., common T. V., uncommon W. V., Sept. 24- 
Apl. 21. 

Nest, of grasses, in a hole in a tree or stump. Eggs, 4-7, white or creamy 
white, speckled with cinnamon-, rufous-brown, and lavender, '60 x '47. 
Date, Calais, Maine, May 7. 

While resembling the White-breasted Nuthatch, this more northern 
species differs from it sufficiently both in notes and appearance to be 
easily distinguished. Its black face-stripe is a noticeable character, 
while to the trained ear its higher, finer, more nasal, slightly drawled, 
penny-trumpet-hke yna, yna is quite unlike the White-breast's vigorous 
yank, yank. The Red-breast has an evident partiality for pine trees, 
and may be seen hovering about the cones while looking for a foothold 
from which to extract their seeds. 

729. Sitta pusilla Lath. Brown-headed Nuthatch. Ads. — Top and 
back of head grayish brown, sometimes tipped with pale ashy; a whitish 
patch on nape; no white over eye; rest of upperparts bluish gray; outer tail- 
feathers black, tipped with grayish, middle ones bluish gray; underparts 
grayish white; the breast, particularly in the fall, with a tinge of buff; sides 
gray. L., 4*50; W., 2-60; T., 1*25; B., '52. 




TITMICE 485 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Austroriparian fauna from s. Mo., and 
s. Del. s. to e. Tex. and s. Fla.; casual in s. Mich., Ohio, N. Y., and the 
Bahamas. 

Nest, of feathers, grasses, etc., generally near the ground, in a hole in a 
tree or stump. Eggs, 5-6, white or creamy- white, heavily spotted or blotched 
with cinnamon- or olive-brown, "56 x "46. Date, San Mateo, Fla., Mch. 4; 
Charleston, S. C, Mch. 12; Edgecombe Co., N. C, Mch. 28. 

This little Nuthatch, the Red-cockaded Woodpecker, and Pine 
Warbler, are characteristic birds of the great pineries in our Southern 
States. Frequently they are found associated. The Woodpeckers 
generally keep to the tree tops, the Warblers live on or near the ground, 
while the Nuthatches scramble about from the base of the trunk to the 
terminal twigs, but feed chiefly among the smaller branches, actively 
and spirally, getting food which they take to the main trunk to wedge 
behind the large bark scales. They are talkative sprites, and, like a 
group of school children, each one chatters away without paying the 
slightest attention to what his companions are saying. WTien feeding 
they utter a liquid, conversational pit-pit, a note which is accelerated 
and emphasized as the birds take wing. At intervals, even when the 
individuals of a troop are quite widely separated, they all suddenly 
break out into a thin, metallic dee-dee-dee or tnee-tnee-tnee. 



64. Family Parid^. Titmice. (Fig. 746.) 

Like the Nuthatches, with which, after the nesting season, they are 
often associated, the Titmice are largely restricted to the more northern 
parts of the world. Of the two hundred and forty-one known species, 
fifteen are North American, where they range to the southern bortler 
of the Mexican tableland. They inhabit wooded countries, where their 
destructiveness to insects, their eggs and larva), is of incalculable value. 
Their nests vary widely in character. The true Titmice {Penthcatea) 
excavate holes in dead trees; Mqilhalus builds a felted, purse-shaped 
structure of plant-down with the entrance near the top; Auriparus 
a not dissimilar but more globular home which is covered witli thorny 
twigs, and PsaUripariis a long, loosely-woven bag of plant-down, covered 
with lichens. They are migratory at the northern limit of their range 
and, except when nesting, are usually found in small troops. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. Crown brown; sides chestnut .... 740a. Acadian Chickadee. 

B. Crown black; outer margin of greater wing-coverts, distinctly whitish; 

wing generally over 2*50 , 735. Chickadee. 

C. Crown black; greater wing-coverts without white margins; wing under 

2*50 73G. Caholina Chickaoke. 

D. Crown gray, crested 731. Tufted Titmoume. 

73J,. Bseolophus bicolor (Linn.). Tufted Titmouse. Ads. — Head 
crested. Forehead black; r(>st of upperparts, wings, and tail gray; back in 
wintf.r tinged with olive-brown; undori)arts whitish; sides washed with 
rufous. L., 6-00; W., 3' 10; T., 270; B., -45. 



486 



TITMICE 




Fig. 135. Tufted Titmouse. 
(Natural size.) 



Range. — Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas from Nebr., Iowa, Ills., 
Ind., Ohio, Pa., and N. J. s. to cen. Tex., the Gulf coast, and Fla.; casual in 
s. parts of Wise, Mich., N. Y., and Conn. 

Washington, very common P. R., more so in winter. N. Ohio, common 
P. R. Glen Ellyn, only two records, Apl. 4 and Nov. 19. 

Nest, of leaves, moss, strips of bark, feathers, etc., in Woodpeckers' 
deserted holes, stumps, etc. Eggs, 5-8, white or creamy white, rather coarsely 

and evenly marked with rufous-brown, 
•71 X -55. Date, Mt. Pleasant, S. C, Apl. 
21; Weaverville, N. C, Apl. 8; Brook- 
ville, Ind., Apl. 22. 

The Tufted Titmouse is a bird of 
very general distribution in wood- 
lands, where its presence is always 
made known by its notes. Its com- 
mon caU is a loud, clearly whistled 
yeto, peto, peto, peto, which may be 
repeated by the same individual for 
hours at a time. Occasionally the 
key is changed, and at first the notes 
are decidedly pleasing, but the bird 
finally wearies one by its monoto- 
nous repetition. It utters also other whistled calls, and a de-de-de-de, 
much like the notes of the Chickadee, though somewhat louder and 
hoarser. The Tufted Tit is not a shy bird and may be approached 
with ease. Its conspicuous crest is an excellent field-mark. 

735. Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus (Linn.). Chickadee. 
(Fig. 746.) Ads. — Top of the head, nape, and throat shining black; sides 
of the head and neck white; back ashy; outer vanes of greater wing-coverts 
distinctly margined with white; wing and tail-feathers margined with 
whitish; breast white; belly and sides washed with cream-buff. L., 5*27; 
W., 2-53; T., 2-43; B., '37. 

Range. — Canadian and Transition zones of e. N. A, from se. Keewatin, 
and N. F. s. to cen. Mo., Ills., n. Ind., Ohio, Pa., n. N. J., and in the AUe- 
ghanies s. to N. C; somewhat further s. in winter. 

Washington, rare and irregular W. V., Oct. 19-Apl. 19. Ossining, toler- 
ably common P. R. Cambridge, common P. R., more numerous in fall and 
winter. N. Ohio, common P. R. Glen Ellyn, fairly common P. R. SE. Minn., 
common P. R. 

Nest, of moss, grasses, feathers, and plant-down, in old stumps, holes in 
trees, etc., not more than 15 feet up. Eggs, 5-9, white, spotted and speckled, 
chiefly at the larger end, with cinnamon- or rufous-brown, "60 x '48. Date, 
Saybrook, Conn., May 6; Cambridge, May 10; Holland Patent, N. Y., May 
15; Brookville, Ind., Apl. 22; se. Minn., May 11. 

When most birds were strangers to me, I remember tliinking 
what a blessing it would be if every one spoke his name as plainly 
as does this animated bunch of black and white feathers. No need 
of a text-book to discover his name ; with winning confidence he 
introduced himself, and probably for this reason he has alwa3^s been 
my best friend among birds. ^?I .^ "f^ -m- -^ 

I never hear his voice in the pizt: 
woods without answering him: 



TITMICE 487 

This is the so-called Thoebe' note, which, it may be added, is uttered 
by both sexes. Soon he comes to me, mildly inquisitive at first, 
looking about for the friend or foe whose call has attracted him. In 
an unconcerned way he hops from hmb to hmb, whistHng softly the 
while, picking an insect's egg from beneath a leaf here or larva from a 
crevice in the bark there, all the time performing acrobatic feats of 
which an accomplished gymnast might be proud. Finally his curiosity 
becomes aroused, he ceases feeding, and gives his entire attention to the 
discovery of the bird who so regularly replies to him. Hopping down to 
a limb within three feet of my head, he regards me with puzzled intent- 
ness; his little black eyes twinkle with intelligence, he changes his call, 
and questions me with a series of chick-d-dees, liquid gurgles, and odd 
chuckling notes which it is beyond my power to answer, and finally, 
becoming discouraged, he refuses to renew our whistled conversation 
and retreats to the woods. 

On several occasions Chickadees have flown down and perched upon 
my hand. During the few seconds they remained there I became rigid 
with the emotion of this novel experience. It was a mark of confidence 
which seemed to initiate me into the ranks of woodland dwellers. 

1900. Chapman, F. M., Bird Studies with a Camera, 147-61 (nesting). 
1911. STAmv'OOD, C. J., Journ. Me. Orn. Soc, XIII, 25-32 (nesting). 

736. Penthestescarolinensiscarolinensis (Awd.). Carolina Chicka- 
dee. — Similar to the preceding species, but smaller; greater wing-coverts 
not margined with whitish; wing and tail-feathers with less white on their 
outer vanes. L., 4-06-4-75; W., 2-20-2-48; T., 1-88-2-12; B., •30--32. 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Carolinian and Austroriparian faunas 
from cen. Mo., Ind., cen. Ohio, Pa. (sparingly), and cen. N. J., s. to se. La., 
the Gulf coast, and n. Fla. 

Washington, very common P. R., particularly in winter. 

Nest, of grasses, fine strips of bark, feathers, hair, etc., in holes in trees, 
stumps, etc. Eggs, 5-8, similar in color to those of P. atricapillus. Date, Mt. 
Pleasant, S. C, Mch. 23; Iredell Co., N. C, Apl. 13; D. C, Apl. 24. 

My experience with this southern Chickadee has been confined 
largely to Florida. There I found it a comparatively shy bird, with 
notes quite unlike those of P. atricapillus. Instead of the two dear 
whistles which atricapillus in New Jersey utters, the Florida bird 
repeates four rather tremulous notes, and there is also a substantial 
difference in its other calls, one of which resembles the words my watcher 
key, my watcher key. 

Dr. C. W. Richmond writes me that at Washington the chick-d-dee 
call of carolinensis is higher pitched and more hurriedly given than 
that of atricapillus, and that the whistle consists of thnni notes, bdt in 
New Jersey, Mr. W. DeW. Miller tolls me that it consists of four. 

Writing from the mountains of North Carolina, where both species 
occur together, Mr. Brewster says: "In one place a male of each species 
was singing in the same tree the low, plaintive, tswce-dee-twsec-dee of 
the P. carolinensis, contrasting sharply with the ringing tc-dcrry of its 
more northern cousin" {The Auk, 1886, p. 177). 



488 KINGLETS AND GNATCATCHERS 

736b. P. c. impiger (Bangs). Florida Chickadee. — Similar to P. 
c. carolinensis, but smaller (except bill) and darker above. 
Range. — Southern half of Florida. 

740. Penthestes hudsonicus hudsonicus (ForsL). Hudsonian 
Chickadee. Ads. — Crown dull, dark brownish gray; back brownish ashy; 
wings and tail grayish ; throat black; ear-coverts, sides of the neck, breast, and 
belly white; sides rufous. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian zones from 
Kowak Valley, Alaska, and tree limit in cen. Mackenzie and cen. 
Keewatin s. to s. B. C, cen. Alberta (casually Mont.), n. Man., cen. Ont., 
and Ungava; s. in winter casually to n. Ills. 

740a. P. h. littoralis {Bryant). Acadian Chickadee. — Similar to 
P. h. hudsonicus, but smaller and browner. 

Range. — NE. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zones from n. Que., and N. F., 
s. to the Adirondacks of N. Y. and mts. of n. Vt. and cen. N. H.; migrating 
casually to Mass., R. I., and Conn. 

Cambridge, rare, perhaps only casual, W. V., Nov. 1-Apl. 1. 

Nest, of moss and felted fur, in holes in trees and stumps. Eggs, 6-7, 
not distinguishable from those of P. atricapillus, "61 x '50. Date, Stewiacke, 
N. S., May 25. 

The general habits of this northern Chickadee resemble those of 
atricapillus, but its notes are recognizably different. Wright (Auk, 
1890, p. 407) speaks of its ''sweet, warbling song," and Clark (Journ. Me. 
Orn. Soc, 1906, p. 27) writes of "a sweet, little song of three or four notes," 
but Brewster ("Birds of the Cambridge Region," p. 379) says "besides 
low, chattering, conversational sounds — difficult of description but 
far from musical in character — which the birds occasionally make while 
feeding, I have heard them utter only a low chip much Hke that of the 
common Chickadee, but rather feebler, an abrupt, explosive tch-tchip, 
and a nasal drawling tchick, chee-day-day. In the call last mentioned the 
intervals between the doubled middle note and the single notes which 
precede and follow it are very pronounced, and the accented notes are 
very strongly emphasized — characteristics which serve at once to dis- 
tinguish these sounds from any that the Black-capped Chickadee ever 
produces." 

1910. Allen, F. H., The Auk, XXVII, 86 (song). 

65. Family SYLviiDiE. Old-World Warblers, Kinglets, and 

Gnatcatchers. (Fig. 75.) 

No generally accepted classification of the birds of this family has as 
yet been proposed, but for our present purposes they may be divided 
into three subfamilies: (1) The Sylviinw, or Old- World Warblers, num- 
bering some five hundred species, confined exclusively to the Old- World, 
with the exception of one species found in Alaska; (2) the Regulince, 
or Kinglets, of which two of the seven known species are found in the 
New World; (3) the Polioptilince, or Gnatcatchers, an American group 
containing about fifteen species, three of which are found in the United 
States. 



KINGLETS AND GNATCATCHERS 489 

The Old- World Warblers are generally dull, olivaceous birds with 
ten, instead of the nine, primaries of our Mniotiltidce, with which, indeed, 
they have no close relationship. Many of the species are highly musical, 
whence the origin of the family name, a misfit when applied to the New- 
World Warblers, to which it was given because of their superficial 
resemblance to the Old- World forms, rather than for their musical en- 
dowments. The Kinglets and Gnatcatchers are typically represented 
by the species described below. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

A. With a bright-colored crest. 

a. Crest ruby, without black . 749. Ruby-crowned Kinglet (Ad. d'.). 

b. Crest yellow, or orange and yellow, bordered by black. 

748. GoLDEN-CROWNED KiNGLET. 

B. Without a colored crest. 

a. Back ashy blue; outer tail-feathers white. 

751. Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. 

b. Back olive-green ; no white in tail. Ruby-crowned Kinglet ( 9 and im. ) . 

748. Regulus satrapa satrapa Licht. Golden-crowned Kinglet. 
Ad. cT. — Center of crown bright reddish orange, bordered by yellow and 
black; a whitish line over the eye; rest of upperparts olive-green; wings and 
tail fuscous, margined with olive-green; tail slightly forked; underparts 
soiled whitish. Ad. 9 . — Similar, but crown with- 
out orange, its center bright yellow, bordered on 
each side by black. L., 4*07; W., 2-14; T., 1-75; 
B., -28. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zones 
from n. Alberta, s. Keewatin, s. Ungava, and Cape 
Breton Is. s. in Rocky Mts. to n. Ariz, and N. M., 
and to Mich., N. Y., and mts. of Mass., and in 
the higher Alleghanies s. to N. C; winters from 
Iowa (casually Minn.), Ont., and N. B. to n. Fla. 
and Mex. 

Washington, abundant W. V., Sept. 30-Apl. Fig. 136. Golden-crowned 
27. Ossining, common W. V., Sept. 20-Apl. 28. Kinglet. (Natural size.) 

Cambridge, very common T. V., not uncommon 

W. v., Sept. 25-Apl. 20. N. Ohio, common W. V., Sept. 26-May 4. Glen 
EUyn, common T. V., irregular W. V., Sept. 19-May 8. SE. Minn., common 
T. v., Mch. 30- ; Sept. 21-Dec. 1. 

Nest, generally pensile, of green mosses, lined with fine strips of soft 
inner bark, fine black rootlets, and feathers, in coniferous trees, G-60 feet 
from the ground. Eggs, 9-10, creamy white to muddy cream-color, speckled 
and blotched with pale wood-brown, and rarely, faint lavender, '55 x "44. 
(See Brewster, Auk, V, 1888, 337.) Date, Grand Menan, N. B., May 24. 

This Kinglet resembles in habits its ruby-crowned cousin, with 
which during the migrations it is frequently associated. Its notes, 
however, are quite unlike those of that species, its usual call-note being 
a fine, high ti-ti, audible only to practiced ears. In his extended account 
of the nesting habits of this species, as observed by him in Worc(\st(T 
County, Mass. (Auk. I. c), Mr. Brewster writes that its song "begins 
with a succession of five or six fine, shrill, high-pitched, somewhat 
faltering notes, and ends with a short, rapid, rather explosive warble. 
The opening notes are given in a rising key, but the song falls rapidly 




490 KINGLETS AND GNATCATCHERS 

at the end. The whole may be expressed as follows: tzee, tzee, tzee, tzee, 
ti, ti, ter, ti-ti-ti-ti." 

Muffled in its thick coat of feathers, the diminutive Goldcrest 
braves our severest winters, living evidence that, given an abundance 
of food, temperature is a secondary factor in a bird's existence. 

749. Regulus calendula calendula (Linn.). Ruby-crowned King- 
let. (Fig. 75a.) Ad. cf. — Crown with a partly concealed crest of bright red; 
rest of upperparts grayish olive-green, brighter on the rump ; wings and tail 
fuscous, edged with olive-green; two whitish wing-bars; tail slightly forked, 
the middle feathers shortest; underparts soiled whitish, more or less tinged 
with buffy. Ad. 9 and Im. — Similar, but without the red crown-patch. 
L., 4-41; W., 2-24; T., 1-73; B., -29. 

Remarks. — Females and young are warblerlike in general appearance, 
but note the short first primary, barely one inch in length. 

Range. — N. N. Am. Breeds in Boreal zones from nw. Alaska, and w. 
cen. Ungava s. in mts. to s. Calif., s. Ariz., cen. N. M., n. Ont., N. B., and 
N. S. (casually Maine); winters from s. B. C, Iowa, and Va. (casually 
further n.) s. to Guatemala. 

Washington, abundant T. V., Apl. 12-May 15; Sept. 25-Nov. 1; occa- 
sionally winters. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 8-May 13; Sept. 16-Nov. 3. 
Cambridge, rather common T. V., Apl. 12-May 5; Oct. 10-30. N. Ohio, 
common T. V., Apl. 1-May 23; Sept. 9-Nov. 3. Glen EUyn, fairly common 
T. v., Mch. 22-May 19; Sept. 9-Oct. 27. SE. Minn., Mch. 12- ; Sept. 18- 
Oct. 24. 

Nest, usually semipensile, of moss and fine strips of bark, neatly inter- 
woven, lined with feathers, in coniferous trees, 12-30 feet from the ground. 
Eggs, 5-9, dull whitish or pale buffy, faintly speckled or spotted with pale 
brown, chiefly at the larger end, '55 x "43 (Davie). Date, Boulder Co., Colo., 
June 3. 

When the leaves begin to turn you will notice numerous very small, 
oUve-green birds flitting about the terminal twigs of the trees and lower 
growth, in the woods, orchards, or hedgerows. They resemble Warblers, 
but are much tamer — you can almost touch them — and have a habit of 
nervously flitting their wings every few seconds, perhaps accompany- 
ing the action by a wrenlike, scolding note. You will not often 
hear them sing at this season, and there is little in their voice or appear- 
ance to tell you that they are among the most famous of feathered 
songsters. 

The May morning when first I heard this Kinglet's song is among 
the most memorable of my early ornithological experiences. The 
bird was in the tree-tops in the most impassable bit of woods near my 
home. The longer and more eagerly I followed the unseen singer the 
greater the mystery became. It seemed impossible that a bird which 
I supposed was at least as large as a Bluebird could escape observation 
in the partly leaved trees. The song was mellow and flutelike, and loud 
enough to be heard several hundred yards; an intricate warble past 
imitation or description, and rendered so admirably that I never hear 
it now without feeling an impulse to applaud. The bird is so small, 
the song so rich and full, that one is reminded of a chorister with the 
voice of an adult soprano. To extend the comparison, one watches this 
gifted but unconscious musician flitting about the trees with somewhat 



THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 491 

the feeling that one observes the choir-boy doffing his surpHce and 
joining his comrades for a game of tag. 

751. Polioptila cserulea caerulea (Linn.). Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. 
(Fig. 756.) Ad. cf. — Upperparts bluish gray; forehead and front of the head 
narrowly bordered by black; wings edged with grayish, the secondaries bor- 
dered with whitish; outer tail-feathers white, changing gradually until the 
middle ones are black; underparts dull gravish white. Ad. 9. — Similar, 
but without the black on the head. L., 4-50; W., 2-05; T., 2-00; B., '40. 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in Austroriparian and Carolinian faunas 
from e. Nebr., and s. parts of Wise, Mich., and Ont., and sw. Pa., IMd., and 
s. N. J. s. to s. Tex. and cen. Fla.; winters from s. Tex., Gulf States, and n. 
Fla. to the West Indies and Cen. Am.; casual n. to se. Minn., New Eng- 
land, and N. Y. 

Washington, rather common S. R., Mch. 30-Nov. 23. N. Ohio, common 
S. R., Apl. 20-Sept. 15. Glen Ellyn, not common, S. R., Apl. 22-Aug. 20; 
possibly later. SE. Minn., rare S. R. 

Nest, of tendrils, fine strips of bark, and fine grasses firmly interwoven 
and covered externally with lichens, on a horizontal branch or in a crotch, 
10-60, usually 30 feet up. Eggs, 4-5, bluish white, thickly spotted and 
speckled with cinnamon-, rufous-brown, or umber, '56 x "46. Date, Mt. 
Pleasant, S. C, Apl. 17; Iredell Co., N. C, May 6. 

The Blue-gray Gnatcatcher frequents rather densely foliaged trees, 
generally in the woods, showing a preference for the upper branches. 
He is a bird of strong character, and always seems to me like a minia- 
ture Mockingbird with some of the habits of Kinglets. His exquisitely 
finished song is quite as remarkable as the ordinary performance of his 
large prototype, but is possessed of so little volume as to be inaudible 
unless one is quite near the singer. His characteristic call-note — a 
rather sudden ting, like the twang of a banjo string — can be heard at a 
greater distance. 

66. Family Turdid^. Thrushes, Bluebirds, Etc. (Fig. 76.) 

The some six hundred species included in this large family are placed 
by systematists in several subfamilies. About two hundred and forty 
are true Thrushes belonging in the subfamily Turdince, the juvenal 
plumage of which is always more or loss spotted. These are distributed 
throughout the world, eighty inhabiting the New World, twelve of 
which are found north of Mexico. Thrushes inhabit wooded regions; 
our species are migratory, and gregarious or sociable to a greater or loss 
extent during their migrations and in winter. As songsters, they are 
inferior to some of our birds in power of execution, hut their voices are 
possessed of greater sweetness and expression, and they are conceded 
first rank among song birds by all true lovers of bird music. 

KEY TO THE SPECIES 

I. Tail blue, back blue or blui.sli 760. BMTEniRD. 

II. Tail not blue. 
1. Tail with white. 

A. Tail black, outer feathers tipped with white . 7(31. 701/>. Robin. 

B. Tail white tipped with black . . 765a. Greenland Wheatear. 



492 THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 

2. No white in tail; which is olive-brown or rufous. 

A. Tail not brighter than back. 

a. Upperparts cinnamon-rufous. 

a^. Entire underparts, including sides, more or less heavily marked 
with round, black spots; back brighter than tail. 

755. Wood Thrush. 

a^. Throat and upper breast pale buffy, with small, cinnamon- 
brown, wedge-shaped spots; belly pure white; sides with a 
barely perceptible grayish wash . . 756. Wilson's Thrush. 

b. Upperparts olive. 

b^. Throat, breast, cheeks, eye-ring, and lores deep cream-buff. 

758a. Olive-backed Thrush. 
62. Throat, and breast, white, with only a very slight buffy tinge; 
eye-ring whitish, lores grayish. 

757. Gray-cheeked Thrush. 757a. Bicknell's Thrush. 

B. Tail brighter than back. 

a, Upperparts olive-brown, sometimes inclining to cinnamon; upper 
tail-coverts and tail rufous .... 759&. Hermit Thrush. 

755. Hylocichla mustelina (Gmel). Wood Thrush. Ads. — Upper- 
parts bright cinnamon-brown, brightest on the head, and changing gradually 
to pale olive-brown on the upper tail-coverts and tail; underparts white, 
thickly marked with large, round black spots except on the throat and middle 
of the belly. L., 8-29; W., 4-44; T., 2-92; B., -65. 

Remarks. — The Wood Thrush may be distinguished from our other 
Thrushes (1) by its larger size; (2) by its brighter, more rufous color above; 
and (3) especially by the numerous large, round black spots on its under- 
parts. These cover not only the breast, but are equally numerous on the 
sides, where they extend well up under the wings. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Alleghanian and Carolinian faunas from 
s. S. D., cen. Minn., cen. Wise, s. Ont., and s. N. H. s. to e. Tex., La., and 
n. Fla. ; winters from s. Mex., to Costa Rica; casual in Maine. 

Washington, common S. R., Apl. 19-Oct. 10. Ossining, common S. R., 
Apl. 30-Oct. 2. Cambridge, locally common S. R., May 10-Sept. 15. N. 
Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 20-Oct. 1. Glen EUyn, fairly common S. R., Apl. 
30-Sept. 29. SE. Minn., common S. R., May 1-Sept. 19. 

Nest, of leaves, rootlets, fine twigs, and weed stalks, firmly interwoven, 
with an inner wall of mud and lining of fine rootlets, generally in saplings, 
about 8 feet up. Eggs, 3-5, greenish blue, lighter and with less green than 
those of the Catbird, averaging lighter, but not certainly distinguishable 
in color from those of the Robin, 1*05 x '76. Date, Yemassee, S. C, May 
12; D. C, May 1; Chester Co., Pa., May 17; Cambridge, May 26; se. Minn., 
May 26. ^ 

The Wood Thrush is not so distinctively a bird of the woods as the 
Veery. Well-shaded lawns are sometimes graced by its presence, and 
at all times it is more familiar and easier to observe than its retiring 
relative. Large size, bright cinnamon upperparts, and especially 
a conspicuously spotted breast and sides, are its most striking field 
characters. 

The Wood Thrush's call-notes are a Hquid quirt and a sharp pit-pit. 
The lattef is the more characteristic and is often heard after night- 
fall. When the bird is alarmed or imagines its young in danger, its 
loud and rapid utterance of this call, resembling the sound produced- 
by striking large pebbles together, gives painful evidence of its fear 
and anxiety. 

The songs of the Wood and Hermit Thrushes are of the same char- 



Plate XXIV 







/,<»///<• /ut.r/ix 



Thrushes of the Genus IIylocichla 

1. Wood Thrush. W. ( )livo-l):ickc<l Tliru.sh. 

2. Veery. 4. Gray-clieekod Thruah, 

5. Hermit Thru'^h. 



THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 493 

acter, but, while the Hermit is the more gifted performer, the Wood 
Thrush does not suffer by the comparison. His calm, restful song 
rings through the woods like a hymn of praise rising pure and clear 
from a thankful heart. It is a message of hope and good cheer in the 
morning, a benediction at the close of day : 



-^(^ 



The flutelike opening notes are an invitation to 
his haunts ; a call from Nature to yield ourselves to 
the ennobling influences of the forest. Come to me. 

1910. ^YEYGANDT, C, Cassinia, 21-27 (biography). 

756. Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens {Steph.). Veery. Ads. — 
Upperparts, wings, and tail nearly uniform cinnamon-brown, not so bright 
as in the Wood Thrush; center of the throat white; sides of the throat and 
breast with a delicate tinge of cream-buff, spotted with small wedge-shaped 
spots of nearly the same color as the back; bellv white; sides white, with only 
a faint tinge of grayish. L., 7-52; W., 3-84; f., 2-87; B., -53. 

Remarks. — The Veery's distinguishing characters are (1) its uniform 
cinnamon-brown upperparts; (2) its delicately marked breast; and (3) partic- 
ularly its almost white sides. The Wood Thrush has the sides heavily spotted, 
and the other Thrushes have this part more or less strongly washed with 
grayish or brownish. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in lower Canadian and Alleghanian faunas 
from n. Mich., cen. Ont., Anticosti, and N. F., s. to n. Ills., n. Ind., n. Ohio, 
and n. N. J., and in the Alleghanies to N. C. and n. Ga.; winters in n. S. A. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 26- June 2. Aug. 18-Scpt. 25. Ossin- 
ing, common S. R., Apl. 29-Sept. 5. Cambridge, locally abundant S. R., 
May 8-Sept. 5. N. Ohio, common S. R., Apl. 20-Oct. 1. Glen Ellyn, toler- 
ably common, T. V., Apl. 24-May 29; Aug. 26-Scpt. 3. 

Nest, of strips of bark, rootlets, and leaves, ^Tapped with leaves and 
lined -^vith rootlets, on or near the ground. Eggs, 3-5, greenish blue, of the 
same shade as those of the Wood Thrush, "88 x "65. Date, Ossining, N. Y., 
May 26; Cambridge, May 28; Farmington, Maine, June 2. 

The Veery's home is in low, wet, rather densely undergrown wood- 
lands. He is a more retiring bird than the Wood Thru.sh; he lives nearer 
the ground and is less likely to leave the cover of his haunts. For this 
reason, even in localities where both are equally common, the Wood 
Thrush is more frequently observed. 

The Veery's call-notes are a clearly whistled whee-o or whbe-you, the 
first note the higher, and a somewhat softer l6o-whec or tcweii, wth the 
first note lower, all of which can be closely imitated. His song is a 
weird, ringing monotone of blended alto and soprano tones. Neither 
notes nor letters can tell one of its peculiar quality; it has neither l)r('ak 
nor pause, and seems to emanate from no one place. If you can imagiin^ 
the syllables vee-r-r-hu repeated eight or nine times around a .series of 
intertwining circles, the description may enabl(> you to recognize tlie 
Veery's song. 

The Veery has a double personality, or he may repeat th(^ n()t(\s of 
some less vocally dcna^loped an(;e8tor, for on ocf;asions he gives utter- 
ance to an entirely uncharacteristic series of cnckinq notes, and even 
mounts high in the tree to sing a hesitating medley of the same un- 
musical cacks, broken whistled calls, and attempted trills. Fortunately, 
this performance is comparatively uncommon, and to most of us the 



494 THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 

Veery is known only by his own strange, unearthly song. His notes 
touch chords which no other bird's song reaches. The Water-Thrush 
is inspiring, the Wood and Hermit Thrushes ''serenely exalt the spirit," 
but the Veery appeals to even higher feelings; all the wondrous myste- 
ries of the woods find a voice in his song; he thrills us with emotions we 
can not express. 

756a. H. f. salicicola Ridgw. Willow Thrush. Similar to the 
preceding, but with the upperparts slightly darker. 

Range. — W. N. Am., eastward in migration to Wise, Ills., Ind., and 

Miss. 

Glen EUyn, tolerably common T. V., May 3-June 4; Aug. 26-Sept. 17. 
SE. Minn., common S. R., May 5. 

Nesting date, se. Minn., May 24. 

757. Hylocichla alicise aliciee (Baird). Gray-cheeked Thrush. 
Ad. — Upperparts uniform olive, practically no difference between the colors 
of the back and tail; eye-ring whitish, lores grayish; middle of the throat and 
middle of the belly white; sides of the throat and breast with a very faint 
tinge of cream-buff (richer in the fall) ; the feathers of the sides of the 
throat spotted with wedge-shaped marks, those of the breast with half- 
round black marks; sides brownish gray or brownish ashy. L., 7"58; W., 
4-09; T., 2-96; B., '55. 

Remarks. — The uniform olive of the upperparts of this species at once 
separates it from our other eastern Thrushes except its subspecies hicknelli 
and the Olive-backed Thrush. From the latter it may be known by the com- 
parative absence of buff on the breast and sides of the throat, by its whitish 
eye-ring and grayish lores. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in Hudsonian zone in a narrow belt just s. of 
tree limit from ne. Siberia to cen. Ungava, and N. F. ; winters in S. A. 

Washington, rather common T. V., May 8-31; Sept. 15-Oct. 20. Ossin- 
ing, tolerably common T. V., May 15- June 1; Sept. 20-Oct. 17. Cambridge, 
uncommon T. V., May 18-28; Sept. 15-Oct. 9. N. Ohio, not common T. V., 
Apl. 29-May 23. Glen EUyn, common T. V., May 1-June 4; Aug. 26-Oct. 
9. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 7- ; Sept. 8. _ _ 

Nest, of grasses, leaves, strips of fine bark, etc., lined with fine grasses, in 
low trees or bushes. Eggs, 4, greenish blue, spotted with rusty brown, 
•92 X -67. Date, Ft. Yukon, Alaska, June 9. 

The Gray-cheeked and Bicknell's Thrushes differ more widely in 
name than in anything else. As a matter of fact, they are representa- 
tives of one and the same species which, in the northern parts of its 
range, is somewhat larger than it is in the southern parts of its range. 
But here the difference stops : the northern bird (alicicB) resembling the 
southern bird (hicknelli) in notes and habits; while the difference be- 
tween them in size is so slight that during their migrations, where both 
might be expected to occur together, it would be impossible to say 
which bird was under observation. During the nesting season, however, 
it will be safe to call any olive-backed, gray-cheeked Thrush found south 
of the St. Lawrence, Bicknell's and all to the north of that river the 
Gray-cheeked. 

The Olive-backed Thrush (swainsoni) may he distinguished in life 
from the gray-cheeked bird {aliciw and hicknelli) by its buff cheeks and 
eye-ring; but the identification should be made under favorable con- 
ditions and by one familiar with specimens of the birds. 



THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 495 

757a. H. a. bicknelli Ridgw. Bicknell's Thrush. Similar to the 
preceding, but smaller. L., 6-25-7-2o; W., 3-40-3-80; T., 2-60-2-70; B., 
•50--O2 (Ridgw.). 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds in Hudsonian and upper Canadian zones in 
N. S., mts. of n. New England, the Catskills and Adirondacks of N. Y., and 
probably mts. of w. Mass.; migrates through se. U. S. and the Bahamas; 
winters in Haiti and probably n. S. A. 

Washington, apparently rare T. V., May 14-2.3; Oct. 3. Cambridge, 
rather common T. V., May 2-May 30; Sept. 25-Oct. 5. 

Nest, essentially like that of H. u. swainsoni, both in construction and 
position. Eggs, greener and more finelj^ spotted than those of swainsoni 
(Brewster, Minot's Land Birds and Game Birds, 2d ed., appendix, 468). 
Date, Seal Island, N. S., June 13 (Thayer CoU.). 

"In northern New England Bicknell's Thrush breeds from an alti- 
tude of about three thousand feet (scattered pairs may be found lower 
than this) to the extreme upper limits of tree growth, but most abun- 
dantly among the dwarfed, densely matted spruces and balsams which 
cover such extensive areas on the upper slopes and ridges of our higher 
mountains. Here, in an atmosphere always cool and ordinarily satu- 
rated with moisture from passing clouds, it spends the summer in 
company with such birds as Swainson's Thrushes, Winter Wrens, 
Yellow-rumped and Black-poll Warblers, Juncos, \^'hite-throated 
Sparrows, and Yellow-bellied Flycatchers. In many places it is quite 
as numerous as any of these species, and in certain favored locaUties 
it probably outnumbers thc^m all put together. Nevertheless one may 
spend hours in its chosen haunts without getting a fair view of a sin- 
gle individual, for, despite (or perhaps really because of) the fact that 
these solitudes are rarely invaded b}^ man, Bicknell's Thrush is, while 
breeding, one of the very shyest of our smaller birds. . . . 

"The song is exceedingly like that of the Vocry, having the same 
ringing, flutehke quality; but it is more interrupted, and it ends dif- 
ferently — the next to the last note dropping a half tone, and the final 
one rising abruptly and having a sharp empha.sis. The ordinary calls 
are a whistled pheu practically identical with that of //. fuscescens, a 
harsh note which recalls the cry of the Night Hawk, a low cluck much 
like that of the Hermit Thrush, and a pzp or yeenk similar to that of 
Swainson's I = Olive-backed] Thrush. The last is rarely heard" (Brews- 
ter, Minot's Land and Game Birds, p. 467). 

1882. BicKNELL, E. P., Bull. Xutt. Orn. Club, VII, 152-159.— 1883. 
Brewster, W., Ibid, VIII, 12-17 (biographical). 

758a. Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni (Tschudi). Olive-backed 

Thrush. Ad. Uppcrparts uniform olive; buck and tail practicallj' the same 
color; eye-ring deep cream-huff, lores the same; whole throat and F)rr'a.><t with 
a strong tinge of deep cream-buff or even orhraceous-bufT; the feathers of the 
sides of the throat with wedge-shaped black spots at their tips, those of the 
breast with rounded black spots at their tips; middle of the l)ell\- white; 
sides brownish gray or brownish ashy. L., 7'17; W.. 3'93; T., 270; B.. '50. 

Remarks. — This bird will be confused only with the Gray-cheeked and 
Bicknell's Thrushes, from which it differs in the mueh stronger suffusion of 
buff on the throat and breast, its buff eye-ring and lores. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds in lower Hudsonian and Canadian zones from 



496 THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 

nw. Alaska, to s. Ungava, and N. F., s. to Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, e. Ore., 
Nev., Utah, Colo., n. Mich., N. Y., and in mts. from Mass. to Pa., and W. 
Va,; winters from s. Mex. to S. A. 

Washington, common T. V., Apl. 19- June 2; Sept. 2-Nov. 1. Ossining, 
tolerably common T. V., May 2-30; Sept. 19-Oct. 22. Cambridge, common 
T. v.. May 12-28; Sept. 15-Oct. 5. N. Ohio, common T. V., Apl. 22-June 
13; Sept. 2-Oct. 24. Glen Ellyn, common T. V., Apl. 23-June 6; Aug. 16- 
Oct. 24. SE. Minn., common T. V., May 1- ; Sept. 25- . 

Nest, of coarse grasses, moss, rootlets, leaves and bark, lined with root- 
lets and grasses, in bushes or small trees, about 4 feet up. Eggs, 3-4, greenish 
blue, more or less spotted and speckled with cinnamon-brown or rufous, 
"90 X '64. Date, Upton, Maine, June 4. 

Passing northward in the spring, in small, silent bands, scattered 
through the woodland undergrowth, whence they quietly slip away, if 
disturbed, often to the higher branches of the trees, these birds easily 
escape observation. In late September or early October their loud, 
metallic call-notes may be recognized overhead at night, and during 
the day the birds themselves may be found on the edges of the woods 
or along tangled hedgerows, associated with Sparrows and other 
migrants. Their summer home is in the coniferous forest of the North, 
although they do not confine themselves strictly to the evergreen 
woods, and, avoiding its depths, seek rather the vicinity of clearings 
well grown up with firs and spruces. Here, day after day, the same 
musician may be seen pouring forth his ringing song from some com- 
manding elevation — preferably a dead tree top. If approached, he 
promptly dives down into the underbrush, where he is very likely 
joined by his mate, and both proceed to scold, in a mild way, the 
chance intruder. Little is ever seen of these shy birds, but fortunately 
their notes are quite characteristic, and the sole obstacle in distinguish- 
ing them from those of the Hermit Thrush, a bird frequenting the 
same localities, lies in the difficulty of tracing them to their source. 

The effect of its loud and beautiful song is much enhanced by the 
evening hush in which it is most often heard. It lacks the leisurely 
sweetness of the Hermit Thrush's outpourings, nor is there pause, but 
in lower key and with greater energy it bubbles on rapidly to a close 
rather than fading out with the soft melody of its renowned rival. 
There are also a variety of other notes, the most frequent being a 
puk of alarm, pitched higher than a corresponding cluck of the Hermit 
Thrush. J. Dwight, Jr. 

759b. Hylociehla guttata pallasi (Cab.). Hermit Thrush. Ad. — 
Upperparts olive-brown, sometimes cinnamon-brown; tail pale rufous, of a 
distinctly different color from the back; throat and breast with a slight buffy 
tinge; feathers of the sides of the throat with wedge-shaped black spots 
at their tips; those of the breast with large, rounded spots; middle of the 
belly white; sides brownish gray or brownish ashy. L., 7" 17; W., 3*56; T., 
2-74; B., -51. 

Remarks. — The Hermit Thrush may always be easily identified by its 
rufous tail. It is the only one of our Thrushes which has the tail brighter 
than the back. 

Range. — N. and e. N. A. Breeds in Canadian and Transition zones 
from s. Yukon, to n. Que., s. to cen. Alberta, s. Sask., cen. Minn., n. Mich., 



THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 497 

Ont., Mass., Conn., L. I. (locally), and mts. of Pa. and Md.; winters from 
Mass. (locally) and the lower Del. and Ohio valleys to Tex., Fla., and 
Cuba. 

Washington, very common T. V., sometimes not uncommon W. V., 
Apl. 6-May 17; Sept. 18-Nov. 12. Ossining, common T. V., Apl. 5-May 
9; Oct. 18-Nov. 26. Cambridge, very common T. V., Apl. 15-May 5; Oct. 
5-Nov. 15; occasionally one or two may winter; one summer record. 
N. Ohio, common T. V., Mch. 21-May 10; Oct. 2-28. Glen Ellyn, common 
T. v., Mch. 18-May 11; Sept. 14-Nov. 1. SE. Minn., common T. V., Apl. 
1- ; Sept. 1.3-Oct. 26. 

Nest, of moss, coarse grasses, and leaves, lined with rootlets and pine 
needles, on the ground. Eggs, 3-4, greenish blue, of a slightly lighter tint 
than those of the Wood Thrush, "88 x -69. Date, Holland Patent, N.Y.,May 
23; Grand Menan, N. B., May 26. 

This Thrush comes to us in the spring, when the woods are still 
bare, and Ungers in the autumn until they are again leafless — the 
earliest as it is the latest of our Thrushes. It is common on its migra- 
tions, but attracts little notice, for, though not really a shy bird, its 
disposition is retiring, and it is most at home in secluded woodland 
and thickety retreats. Still, it often finds seclusion enough along 
shrubby roadsides, and may so far doff its hermit traits as to approach 
dwellings, where its attractive lightness of motion and ease of manner 
may be observed from indoors. It frequently descends to the ground, 
but is soon back again in the branches, making short flights from 
perch to perch, often with long, quiet pauses in the intervals. It may 
be known at sight by its habit of lifting its tail slightly, especially 
after alighting. This action is usually accompanied by the bird's 
customary note — a low chuck, which sounds scarcely thrushlikc. 

The Hermit Thrush bears high distinction among our song birds. 
Its notes are not remarkable for variety or voJumoj but in purity and 
sweetness of tone and exquisite modulation they are uncqualed. Some, 
indeed, have deemed the Wood Thrush not inferior; but though the 
Wood Thrush at its best seems sometimes to touch the very highest 
chords of bird music, the strains of its wikkr cousin, in tranquil clearness 
of tone and exalted serenity of expression, go beyond any woods music 
we ever hear. 

While traveling, the Hermit Thrush is not in full voice, and he 
who would know its song must follow it to the mo.ssy forests, which 
are its summer home. Eugene P. Bicknell. 

1910. McClintock, N., Auk, XXVH, 409-418 (ne.sting). 

Townsend's Solitaire {754. Myadcstes iownsendi) of western North 
America, is of accidental occurrence in Illinois and New York. 

The Red-winged Thrush {700. Turdus musicus), a European species, is 
of accidental occurrence in Greenland. 

761. Planesticus migratorius migratorius {Linn.). Robin. (Fig. 
76a.) Ads. — Top and sides of the head black, a white spot above and below 
the eye; rest of the upperparts grayish shite-color; margins of wings slightly 
lighter; tail blackish, the outer feathers with white spots at their tips; throat 
white, streaked with black; rest of the underparts rufous (tipped with white 
in the fall), becoming white on the middle of the lower belly; bill yellow, 



498 THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 

brownish in fall. Im. females average paler below and with less black on 
the head, but fully adalt birds are as richly colored as the brightest males. 
Nestling. — Back and underparts spotted with black. L., lO'OO; W., 4*96; T., 
3-87; B., -84. 

Range. — N. A. Breeds from limit of trees in nw. Alaska, to n. Ungava, 
and N. F. s. to Cook Inlet, Alaska, cen. Alberta, se. Wyo., Kans., Ills., Ind., 
Ohio, Pa., N. J., and in the Alleghanies to N. C.; winters from cen. Kans., 
Ohio valley, and N. J. (irregularly further n.) to the Gulf coast and Fla., 
and to Nuevo Leon, Mex. ; accidental in Bermuda and Cuba. 

Washington, rather common S. R., abundant T. V., from Feb.-ApL; 
irregularly common W. V. Ossining, common S. R., Mch. 4-Oct, 30; a few 
winter. Cambridge, very abundant S. R., common but irregular W. V. 
N. Ohio, abundant S. R., Feb. 26-Nov. 30; a few winter. Glen Ellyn, very 
common S. R., rare W. V., Jan. 25-Nov. 19. SE. Minn., common S. R., 
rare W. V., Mch. 8-Nov. 11. 

Nest, of coarse grasses, leaves, rootlets, etc., with an inner wall of mud 
and lining of fine grasses, most frequently in fruit or shade trees, 5-30 feet 
up. Eggs, 3-5, greenish blue, very rarely with brownish markings, 1'14 x "80. 
Date, New York City, Apl. 20; Cam-bridge, Apl. 25; se. Minn., Apl. 28. 

While the few Robins that have the courage to winter with us are 
seeking protection from chilling winds in the depths of friendly ever- 
greens, their comrades who extended their journey to the south are 
holding carnival under sunny skies. In Florida, during the winter, 
Robins may be found in enormous flocks, feeding on the berries of the 
China tree, holly, and mistletoe. Occasionally they give voice to a 
half-suppressed chorus, as though rehearsing for the approaching 
season of song. 

Robins migrate in flocks, and the arrival of the advance guard 
makes the dreariest March day seem bright. It is a question whether 
these pioneers are summer residents or transients en route to a more 
northern summer home, but in my experience they make the sunny 
side of some woods their headquarters and remain there until paired. 
They are then in full song, and we see them in their accustomed haunts 
about our lawns and orchards. 

Toward the last of June the young of the first brood, with the old 
males, resort in numbers nightly to a roosting-place. These roosts are 
generally in deciduous second growths, usually in low, but sometimes 
on high ground. The females are now occupied with the cares of a 
second family, and the males are said to return each day to assist them 
in their duties. 

Early in September, when the nesting season is over, Robins gather 
in large flocks, and from this time until their departure for the south, 
roam about the country in search of food, taking in turn wild cher- 
ries, dogwood and cedar berries. 

The songs and call-notes of the Robin, while well known to every 
one, are in reality understood by no one, and ofTer excellent subjects 
for the student of bird language. Its notes express interrogation, sus- 
picion, alarm, caution, and it signals to its companions to take wing; 
indeed, few of our birds have a more extended vocabulary. 

1890. Brewster, W., Auk, X, 360-373 (summer roosts).— 1892. 
ToRREY, B., Foot-path Way, 153-175 (summer roosts). — 1895. Widmann, 0., 



I 



THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 499 

Auk, XII, 1-11, also 274 (winter roosts).— 1898. Howe, R. H., Jr., Auk, 
XV-, 162-167 (nesting).— 1905. Herrick, F. H., Home Life of Wild Birds, 
72-85. 

761b. P. m. achrusterus {Batch.). Southern Robin. Smaller than 
P. m. migratorius, colors in general much lighter and duller. W., 4*80 ; T., 
3-60. 

Range. — SE. U. S. Breeds in s. part of CaroHnian fauna from s. 111. 
and Md. to n. Miss., n. Ga., and S. C. 

The Varied Thrush {763. Ixoreus ncBvius ncevius), a species of western 
North America, has been recorded from Quebec, Massachusetts, Long Is- 
land, and New Jersey. 

765a. Saxicola oenanthe leucorhoa {Gmel.). Greenland Wheatear. 
Ad. cf. — Upperparts light gray; forehead and upper tail-coverts white; 
cheeks and wings black; the basal two-thirds of the tail white, the end 
black; underparts whitish, more or less washed with buffy. Ad. 9. — Sim- 
ilar, but duller, the black grayer, the white parts more buffy. Ad. in winter 
and Im. — Upperparts cinnamon-brown, wings edged with lighter; upper tail- 
coverts and base of the tail white; end of the tail black, tipped with buffy; 
underparts ochraceous-buff. L., 6-25; W., 4*00; T., 2-20; B., -50. 

Range. — NE. Arctic Am. Breeds in Arctic zone from EUesmere Land 
and Boothia Pcnninsula e. to Greenland and Iceland, and s. to n. Ungava; 
winters in w. Africa, migrating through the British Isles and France; casual 
in migration to Keewatin, Ont., N. B., Que., N. Y., Bermuda, La., and 
Cuba. 

Nest, of moss and grasses, usually in crevices among rocks. Eggs, 4-7, 
bluish white, '81 x '59. Date, Holsteinborg, Greenland, June 8. 

This European species is a common summer resident in Greenland. 
It has been found nesting in Labrador, and there is evidence of its 
having bred at Godbout, Province of Quebec (Merriam, Auk, 1885, 
p. 305; Comeau, ibid., 1890, p. 294). South of these points it is of acci- 
dental occurrence. 

Mr. Saunders writes: "From early spring onward the Wheatear is 
to be seen, jerking its white tail as it flits along, uttering its sharp chack, 
chack, on open downs, warrens, and the poorer land; ascending the 
mountains almost to the highest summits. . . . 

"The song of the male is rather pretty, and the bird also displays 
considerable powers of imitating other species." 

766. Sialia sialis sialis {Linn.). Bluebird. (Figs. 1, 70^^.) Ad. cf. — 
Upperparts, wings, and tail bright bhu;, tipped with rusty in the fall; throat, 
breast, and sides dull ciniiiinion-rufous; belly white. Ad. 9. — UpjxTparts 
with a grayish tinge- throat, breast, and .sides paler. Nestling. — Hack 
spotted with whitish; the breast feathers margined with fuscous. L., 7"()1; 
W., 3-93; T., 2-58; B., -47. 

Range. — E. N. Am. Breeds from lower Canadian to Lower Austral 
zone from s. Man., n. Ont., s. Que., and N. F., s. to s. Tex., the (Julf coast, 
and s. Fla. ; casually w. to base of the Rocky Mts. in Mont., Wyo., and Golo.; 
winters from s. Ills., and s. N. Y., southward. 

Washington, common S. R., and W, V. Ossining, common P. R. Cam- 
bridge, common S. R., Mch. 6-Nov. 1; more numerous during migrations, 
in Mch. and Nov. N. Ohio, common S. R., Feb. 17-Nov. 18; a few winter. 
Glen Ellyn, fairly common S. R., Feb. 19-Nov. 18. SE. Minn., common 
S. R., Mch. 16-Oct. 31. 

Nest, of grasses, in hollow trees or bird-houses. Eggs, 4-6, bluish white, 

34 



500 THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, ETC. 

sometimes plain white, '85 x '65. Date, Ft. Pierce, Fla,, Mch. 17; Mt. 
Pleasant, S. C, Mch. 26, small embryos; Cambridge, Apl. 15; se. Minn., 
Apl. 16. 

A bird so familiar as the Bluebird needs no introduction; in fact, 
he seems so at home in our orchards and gardens or about our dwell- 
ings that one wonders what he did for a home before the white man 
came. 

In the winter, it is true. Bluebirds are greater rovers, and one may 
see them in the Southern States whirling through the woods in large 
flocks or feeding on the berries of the mistletoe. But the warmth of 
returning spring reminds them of cozy bird-boxes or hospitable pear 
or apple trees, and soon we see them inspecting last summer's home, 
evidently planning repairs and alterations. 

The Bluebird's disposition is typical of all that is sweet and amia- 
ble. His song breathes of love; even his fall call-note — tur-wee, tiir- 
wee — is soft and gentle. So associated is his voice with the birth and 
death of the seasons that to me his song is freighted with all the glad- 
ness of springtime, while the sad notes of the birds passing southward 
tell me more plainly than the falling leaves that the year is dying. 

1905. Herrick, F. H., Home Life of Wild Birds, 115-121. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

The appended titles of general and local ornithological publications 
have been selected from the great mass of literature relating to American 
birds, in part with regard to their historic importance, but mainly on 
the basis of their present working value. They include chiefly sys- 
tematic and faunal works, references to special books and papers being 
given in their proper connection in the body of the book. 

It is hoped that the section devoted to 'local Usts,' as they are com- 
monly termed, will be of much assistance to the faunal naturalist and 
particularly to students of the bird-life of the regions to which, respec- 
tively, they refer. Unfortunately many of these papers are now out of 
print, but the Librarian of the American Museum of Natural History 
may be consulted with a view to securing, at cost, type-written copies 
of those not otherwise available, and which are of sufficient importance 
to warrant the expense involved. 

THE WORLD 

1875-1895.. Sharpe, B. and others. Catalogue of Birds in the British 
Museum. 27 vols, with descriptions of the birds of the world, ills. — 1885. 
Stejneger, L., and others. Riverside Natural History. Vol. IV, Birds, 4to, 
558 pp., ills. (Houghton, Mifflin). Classification, structure, habits, distri- 
bution. — 1893-1896. Newton, A., and others. A Dictionary of Birds. 
Pop. Ed., 8vo, 1088 pp., ills. fMacmillan). — 1894-95. Lydekker, R., and 
others. Royal Nat. Hist., Birds, 4to, Vols. Ill, 584 pp., and IV, 576 pp., 
ills.. General account. — 1899. Evans, A. H., Birds. Vol. IX, Cambridge 
Natural History (Macmillan), 8vo, 635 pp., ills. Classification, habits, 
distribution. — 1899-1909. Sharpe, B. A Hand-List of the Genera and 
Species of Birds. 8vo, 5 vols. Published by British Museum. Names and 
Ranges. — 1909. Knowlton, F. H., and others. Birds of the World, sm. 
4to, 873 pp., ills. (Holt). Habits, distribution. 

NORTH AMERICA 

1808-14. Wilson, A. American Ornithology. 9 vols., 4to. Many sub- 
sequent editions, the last, in one volume, by Porter & Coates, Philadcljjhia, 
is crude, but at least places Wilson's text within reach of every one. — 1831-39. 
Audubon, J. J. Ornithological Biography. 5 vols., Svo of text to acconii)any 
the 4 elephant folios of plates (1827-38). Republished in 8 vols., 8vo, 1S4() 44 
and later editions. The elephant folios with the 5 volumes of text sell for §2500 
-$3000; the text can sometimes l)e injrchased at S5 per volume; the first Svo 
edition brings about S350. — 1832-34. Nuttall, T. Manual of the Orni- 
thology of the United States and Canada. 2 vols. Several later editions, the 
last revised by Montague Chamberlain (Little, Brown & Co.), 1903, 2 vols, 
in one, 473 and 431 pp. — 1872. Coues, E. Key to North Amerifun liirds. 
1903, 5th and last ed., 2 vols., roy. 8vo, 1152 pp. The introduction, of 233 
pages, treats of general ornithology and the anatomy of birds. — 1874-1884. 
Baird, S. F., Brewer, T. M., and Ridgway, R. Hi.story of North Ameri- 
can Birds. Land birds, 3 vols.; water birds, 2 vols., 4to. The volumes on 
land birds republished in Svo size but from same plates, 1905, 590, 590, 560 

(501) 



502 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

pp. (Little, Brown & Co). — 1886. American Ornithologists' Union Check-List 
of North American Birds. New York, Rev. Ed. 1910, 8vo, 430 pp. — 1887. 
RiDGWAY, R. A Manual of North American Birds. 2d Ed. 1896, 653 pp. 
(Lippincott). — 1892-5. Bendire, C. Life Histories of North American 
Birds. I, 414 pp., GalHnaceous birds, Pigeons, Hawks, and Owls; II, 1895, 
508 pp., Parrots, Cuckoos, Trogons, Kingfishers, Woodpeckers, Goat- 
suckers, Swifts, Hummingbirds, Cotingas, Flycatchers, Larks, Crows and 
Jays, Blackbirds and Orioles. (Pub. by U. S. Nat. Mus.) — 1893. Nehr- 
LiNG, H. Our Native Birds of Song and Beauty. Vol. I, 371 pp.; Vol. II, 
1896, 452 pp. Biographical. — 1898. Davie, O. Nests and Eggs of North 
American Birds. 5th Ed., 8vo, 509 pp. (Columbus, Ohio). — 1901-1911. 
RiDGWAY, R. The Birds of North and Middle America. Bull. 50, U. S. 
Nat. Mus. Part I, 1901, Fringillidse ; Part II, 1902, Tanagridae, Icteridae 
Coerebidse, Mniotiltidse ; Part III, 1904, Motacillidae, Hirundinidae, Ampel- 
idse, Ptilogonatidse, Dulidse, Vireonidse, Laniidae, Corvidse, Paridse, Sittidse, 
Certhiidse, Troglodytidse, Cinclidse, Chameidse, Sylviidse; Part IV, 1907, 
Turdidse, Zeledoniidae, Mimidse, Sturnidse, Ploceidse, Alaudidse, Oxyruncidse, 
Tyrannidse, Pipridse, Cotingidae. Other volumes to follow. The standard 
work. — 1903. Chapman, F. M. Color Key to North American Birds. 312 
pp., upward 800 col. ills. — 1904. Reed, C. S. North American Birds' 
Eggs. 356 pp., many ills. — 1910. American Ornithologists' Union Abridged 
Check-List of North American Birds. Pocket Edition, 77 printed -f 77 blank 
pp. (New York.) 

EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 

1872-1881. Maynard, C. J. Birds of Eastern North America; 1896, 
Rev. Ed., 4to, 721 pp., ills. (West Newton, Mass.).— 1884. Langille, J. H. 
-Our Birds in Their Haunts. 12mo, 624 pp. (Cassino). — 1889. Merriam, 
F. A. Birds Through an Opera-glass. 12mo, 223 pp. (Houghton). — 1895. 
Wright, M. O. Birdcraft, 12mo, 317 pp., ills. (Macmillan).— 1895. Chap- 
man, F. M. Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America, 421 pp., 
ills.; 1912, Rev. Ed. (Appleton's).— 1897. Chapman, F. M. Bird-Life. A 
Guide to the Study of our Common Birds. 12mo, 269 pp. 75 plls.; 1901, 
Rev. Ed., with col. plls. (Appleton's). — 1897. Wright, M. O., and Coues, E. 
Citizen Bird, 12mo, 430 pp., ills. (Macmillan).— 1898. Blanchan, N. 
Bird Neighbors, 234 pp., col. plls. (Doubleday). — 1898. Merriam, F. A. 
Birds of Village and Field. 12mo, 406 pp., ills. (Houghton).— 1898. Scott, 
W. E. D. Bird Studies, an Account of the Land Birds of Eastern North 
America. 4to, 363 pp. Many half-tones (Putnam's). — 1898. Apgar, A. C. 
Birds of the United States East of the Rockies. 12mo, 415 pp., ills. (Am. 
Book Co.). — 1899. Cory, C. B. The Birds of Eastern North America. 
8vo, 387 pp., ills. (Field Museum).— 1905-6. Reed, C. A. Bird-Guide. 
Oblong, 32mo, Part I, 254 pp.; Part II, 197 pp.; many ills. (Doubleday). 

GREENLAND 

1861. Reinhardt, J. List of Birds Hitherto Observed in Greenland; 
Ibis, III, pp. 1-19, 118 species. — 1875. Newton, A. Notes on Birds Which 
Have Been Found in Greenland, . . . London, 8vo pamphlet, pp. 94-115 
(Author's extra from Man. Nat. Hist.\ Greenland). 63 4-62 species; bibliog- 
raphy. — 1889. Hagerup, a. Some 'Account of the Birds of Southern 
Greenland, from the MSS. of A. Hagerup, edited by Montague Chamberlain. 
Auk, VI, pp. 211-218, 291-297, 39 species.— 1891. Hagerup, A. T. The 
Birds of Greenland, translated from the Danish by Frcmann B. Arngrimson, 
edited by Montague Chamberlain. Boston (Little, Brown & Co), 8vo, 62 pp.; 
139 species. — 1892. Stone, W. Birds Collected by the West Greenland 
Expedition. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1892, pp. 145-152; 147 species.— 
1895. Stone, W. List of Birds Collected by the Peary Expd. Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci., Phila., 1895, pp. 502-505; 28 species.— 1895. Schalow, H. von. 
Ucber eine Vogelsammlung aus Westgronland. Jour, fiir Orn., 1895, pp. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 503 

457-481; 35 species. — 1899. Chapman, F. M. Report on Birds Received 
Through the Pearv Expeditions to Greenland. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 
XII, pp. 219-244; 48 species.— 1904. Schalow, H. Die Vogel der Arktis, 
Band IV, Leiferung, I, pp. 81-288; Gustav Fischer, Jena. A detailed syn- 
opsis of Ajctic bird-life. 



BRITISH POSSESSIONS 

Bermuda 

1859. Jones, J. M., Wedderburn, J. "W., and Hurdis, J. L. The 
Naturalist in Bermuda. Birds, pp. 23-97—1884. Reid, S. G. List of the 
Birds of Bermuda. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 25., pp. 165-279; 186 species. 
(See also, Merriam, C. H., Ihid., 283, 284.)— 1901. Bangs, O. and Brad- 
lee, T. S. The Resident Land Birds of Bermuda. Auk, XVIII, pp. 249-257; 
10 species. 

Canada 

1909. Macoun, J. and J. M. Catalogue of Canadian Birds. 8vo, 
xviii + 761 pp. Government Ptg. Bureau, Ottawa. Distribution and 
nesting; important. — 1908. Preble, E. A. A Biological Investigation of 
the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region. N. A. Fauna, No. 27, 574 pp. Birds, pp. 
251-500; 296 species, bibliography. 

Keewatin 

1902. Preble, E. A. Birds of Keewatin. N. A. Fauna, No. 22, pp. 75- 
131; 260 species. 

Labrador 

1861. CouES, E. Notes on the Ornithology of Labrador. Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci., Phila., XIII, pp. 215-257; 82 species.— 1885. Turner, L. M. 
List of the Birds of Labrador, including Ungava, East Main, Moose, and 
Gulf Districts of the Hudson Bay Company, together with the Island of 
Anticosti. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., VIII, pp. 233-254; 207 species. (See also 
Packard, A. S. The Labrador Coast, 1891).— 1887. Frazar, M. A. An 
Ornithologist's Summer in Labrador. Orn. and 051., XII, pp. 1-.3, 17-20, 33- 
35; 62 species.- 1902. Bioelow, H. B. liirds of the Northeastern Coa.st of 
Labrador. Auk, XIX, 1902, pp. 24-31; 85 species.— 1907. Townsend. C. 
W., and Allen, G. M. Birds of Labrador. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
XXXIII, pp. 277-428, map; 213 species. (See also Townsend, C. W., and 
Bent, A. C. The Auk, 1910, pp. 1-18; 93 species.) 

Manitoba 

1886. Seton, E. T. The Birds of Western Manitoba. Auk, III, pp. 
145-156, 320-329, 453; 258 species.— 1891. Seton, E. T. The liirds of 
Manitoba. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII, pp. 457-643, 1 pi.; 206 si)ocies. 
(See also 14 additions, Auk, 1893, p. 49.)— 1909. Seton, E. T. Fauna of 
Manitoba. British Assc. Handbook. Winnipeg, pp. 1-47; 273 species. 

New Brunswick 

1857. Bryant, H. A List of Birds Observed at Grand Menan and at 
Yarmouth, N. S., from June 16 to July 8. Proc. Bo.st. Soc. Nat. Hist.. VI, 
pp. 114-123; 55 species. — 1873. Herrick, H. A Partial Catalogue of the 
Birds of Grand Menan, N. B., Bull. Essex. Inst., V, pp. 28-41; 194 species. — 
1879. Pearsall, R. F. Grand Menan Notes; Summers of 1877 and 1878. 
Forest and Stream, XIII, p. 524; 43 species. — 1882. Batchelder, C. F. 



504 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

Notes on the Summer Birds of the Upper St. John. Bull. N. 0. C, VII, 
pp. 106-111, 147-152; 105 species.— 1882. Chamberlain, M. A Catalogue 
of the Birds of New Brunswick. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, No. 
1, pp. 23-68; 269 species. 

Newfoundland 

1869. Reeks, H. Notes on the Zoology of Newfoundland. Zoologist, 
2nd ser., IV, pp. 1609-1614, 1689-1695, 1741-1759, 1849-1858; 212 species. 
See also Canad. Nat. and Quart. Journ. Sci., V, 1870-71, pp. 38-47, 151- 
159, 289-304, 406-416; and Harvey, M. Forest and Stream, III, pp. 53, 
196, 341.— 1900. Porter, L. H. Newfoundland Notes. Auk, XVII, pp. 71- 
73; 50 species summer birds. 

Nova Scotia 

1857. Bryant, H. (See New Brunswick.) — 1858. Blakiston, R. A., 
Bland, R. E., and Willis, J. R. List of Birds of Nova Scotia. Thirteenth 
Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst., pp. 280-286; 206 species.— 1879. Jones, J. Mat- 
thew. List of the Birds of Nova Scotia — Land Birds. Forest and Stream, 
XII, pp. 65, 66, 105, 106, 205, 245; 128 species.— 1887. Dwight, J., Jr. 
Summer Birds of the Bras d'Or Region of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. 
Auk, IV, 1887, pp. 13-16; 59 species. (See also Allen, F. H., Ihid., 1891.)— 
1888. Downs, A. Birds of Nova Scotia, edited by Harry Piers. Proc. and 
Trans. Nova Scotia Inst. Nat. Sci., VII, ii, pp. 142-178; 240 species. 

Ontario 

1860. McIlwraith, T. List of Birds Observed in the Vicinity of Hamil- 
ton. Canad. Journ. V, pp. 387-396. (See also Proc. Essex. Inst., V, 1866, pp. 
79-96), 241 species. — 1882. Morden, J. A., and Saunders, W. E. List of 
the Birds of Western Ontario. Canad. Sportsm. and Nat. II, pp. 183-187, 
192-194, also III, pp. 218, 219, 243; 236 species.— 1891. Farley, F. L. A 
List of the Birds of Elgin County, Ontario. The Oologist, VIII, pp. 81-87; 
190 species.— 1891. Ottawa Field Nat. Club. The Birds of Ottawa. Ottawa 
Nat. V, pp. 31-47; 224 species.— 1894. McIlwraith, T. The Birds of Ontario, 
8vo, x+426 pp. Wm. Briggs, Toronto; 317 species. — 1897-8. Nash, C. W. 
Birds of Ontario in Relation to Agriculture. Rep. Farmers' Inst, of Ont. 
8vo, 32 pp.— 1900. Nash, C. W. Check List of the Birds of Ontario. War- 
wick Bros, and Rutter, Toronto. 8vo, 58 pp.; 302 species. — 1901. Fleming, 
J. H. A list of the Birds of the Districts of Parry Sound and Muskoka, Ont, 
Auk, XVIII, 1901, pp. 33-45; 196 species. (See also Ihid., XIX, p. 403.)— 
1905. Nash, C. W. Check List of the Birds of Ontario. L. K. Cameron, 
Printer, Toronto, Ont. 82 pp.; 324 species. — 1906. Swales, B. H., and 
Taverner, p. a. Remarks on the Summer Birds of Lake Muskoka, Ont. 
Wilson Bull., XVIII, pp. 60-68; 59 species.— 1906-7. Fleming, J. H. Birds 
of Toronto, Ont. Auk, XXIII, pp. 437-453; XXIV, pp. 71-89; 290 species. 
— 1907. HuBEL, F. C. Preliminary List of the Summer Birds of the Cobalt 
Mining Region, Nipissing District, Ont. Auk, XXIV, pp. 48-52; 76 species. 
—1907-8. Taverner, P. A. and Swales, B. H. The Birds of Point Pelee, 
Wilson Bull. XIX, pp. 37-53; 82-99, 133-153; XX, pp. 79-96, 107-129; 
209 species. See also Wood, N. A., Ihid., 1910, pp. 63-78.-1910. Eifrig, 
G. A Winter of Rare Birds at Ottawa. Auk, XXVII, pp. 53-59. 

Quebec 

1878. Cory, C. B. A Naturalist in the Magdalen Islands (Boston). 
Part II, pp. 33-83, list of birds; 109 species.— 1882. Wintle, E. D. Orni- 
thology of the Island of Montreal. Canad. Sportsm. and Nat., II, pp. 108- 
110, 116, 117; 168 species.— 1882-5. Merriam, C. H. List of Birds Ascer- 
tained to Occur within Ten Miles of Point dcs Monts, Province of Quebec, 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 505 

Canada; based chiefly upon the notes of Napoleon A. Comeau. Bull. N. O. 
C, VII, pp. 233-242, and Addenda; VIII, pp. 244, 245; Auk, I, 1884 p. 
295; II, 1885, pp. 113, 315; 180 species.— 1884. Brewster, W. Notes on 
the Birds Observed During a Summer Cruise on the Gulf of St. LawTence. 
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XXII, pp. 364-412; 92 species.— 1889. Bishop, 
L. B. Notes on the Birds of the Magdalen Islands. Auk, VI, pp. 144-150; 
66 species. — 1889. Dionxe, C. E. Catalogue des Oiseaux de la Province de 

Quebec avec des Notes sur leur Distribution Geographique Quebec 

des Presses a Vapeur de J. Dussault, Port Dauphin, 8vo, 119 pp.; 273 
species. — 1891. Palmer, William. I^otes on the Birds Observed During the 
Cruise of the United States Fish Commission Schooner Grampus in the 
Summer of 1887. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII, 1890, pp. 249-265; 78 
species. — 1893. Dwight, J., Jr. Summer Birds of Prince Edward Island. 
Auk, X, 1893, pp. 1-15; 81 species.— 1896. Wintle, E. D. The Birds of 
Montreal. W. Drysdale & Co., Montreal. 8vo, xiv + 181 pp.; 254 species. — 
1908. MacSwain, J. A Catalogue of the Birds of Prince Edward Island. 
Proc. and Trans. Nova Scotia Inst, of Science. XI, pp. 570-592; 220 species. 



UNITED STATES 

Mississippi Valley 

1888. Cooke, W. W. Report on Bird Migration in the Mississippi Val- 
ley in the years 1884 and 1885. Edited and revised by C. Hart Merriam. 
Bull. No. 2, Div. Economic Ornithology [= Biological Survey]. 313 pp., 
1 map. 

New England 

1877. MiNOT, H. D. The Land and Game Birds of New England. 
Second Ed., edited by Wm. Brewster, 1895, 492 pp. (Houghton).— 1881-3. 
Stearns, W. A. and Coues, E. New England Bird-Life. 2 vols., pp. 
324-409—1904. Hoffmann, R. A Guide to the Birds of New England 
and Eastern New York. 350 pp. (Houghton).— 1909. Allen, G. M. 
Birds of New England. Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, pp. 1-230, 
Annotated list of 402 species. 

Alabama 

1878-9. Brown, N. C. A List of Birds Observed at Coosada, Central 
Alabama. Bull. N. O. C, III, pp. 168-174; IV, pj). 7-13; 119 .species.— 
1890-1. Avehy, W. C. Birds Ob.scrvc^d in Alabama. Am. Field. XXXIV. 
pp. 584, 607, 608; XXXV, 1891, pp. H, 32, 55; 1.S4 .specif>s.— 1908. Saunueks, 
A. A. Some Birds of Central Alabama. Auk, XXV, pp. 413-424; 129 species. 

Connecticut 

1843. LiNSLEY, J. H. A Catalogue of the Birds of Connecticut. Am. 
Journ. Sci. and Arts, XLIV, pp. 249-274, 302 species. See ahso Ibid., 
XLVI, 1844, pp. 50, 51.— 1877. Merriam, C. H. A Review of the Birds 
of Connecticut, with Re-marks on their Habits. Trans, of the Corm. 
Acad., IV, pp. 1-165; 292 .species. ^1887. Platt, F. A Li.st of the 
Birds of Meriden, Conn. Trans. Meriden Scientific As.soc.. II. 1SS5 SO. 
pp. 30-53; III, p. 41; 11(5 species. —1892. Averill. C. K.. .Jr. Li.«t 
of Birds Found in the Vicinity of Bridgeport, Conneetieut. Bridgeport 
Scientific Society, 8vo, pp. 1-19; 246 species.— 1906. Chapman. F. M. 
(see New York). — 1908. Committee. A List of the Birds of the New 
Haven Region. Bull. No. 1, New Haven Bird Club, pp. 1-32; 217 species. 



506 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 



Delaware 

1905. Rhoads, S. N. and Pennock, C. J. Birds of Delaware: A Pre- 
liminary List. Auk, XXII, 1905, pp. 194-205; 211 species. (See also Auk, 
XXV, 1908, pp. 282-288.)— 1897-1908. Stone, W., Editor. Numerous 
Notes on Delaware Birds. Proc. Del. Valley Orn. Club, Phila. 

District of Columbia 

1883. CouES, E. and Prentiss, 15. W. Avifauna Columbiana, Second 
Edition. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus. No. 26, 8vo, pp. 1-133, many woodcuts, 
4 maps, 248 species. — 1888. Richmond. C. W. An Annotated List of Birds 
Breeding in the District of Columbia. Auk, V, pp. 18-25; 100 species.— 
1888. Smith, Hugh M., and Palmer, William. Additions to the Avifauna 
of Washington, D. C, and Vicinity. Auk, V, pp. 147, 148. Adds 12 species 
to Coues' and Prentiss' list of 1883. 

Florida 

1871. Allen, J. A. On the Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida. 
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., II, pp. 161-450, pll. ix-xiii; 181 species. — 1888. 
Chapman, F. M. A List of Birds Observed at Gainesville, Florida. Auk, V, 
pp. 267-277; 149 species. — 1888-90. Scott, W. E. D. A Summary of Observa- 
tions on the Birds of the Gulf Coast of Florida. Auk, V, pp. 373-379; VI, pp. 
13-18, 152-160, 245-252, 318-326; VII, pp. 14-22, 114-120; 262 species.— 

1890. Scott, W. E. D. On Birds Observed at the Dry Tortugas, Florida, 
during parts of March and April, 1890. Auk, VII, pp. 301-314; 80 species. — 

1891. Brewster, W. and Chapman, F. M. Notes on the Birds of the Lower 
Suwanee River. Auk, VIII, pp. 125-138; 116 species. (See also Brewster, 
Ihid., pp. 149-157.)— 1892. Scott, W. E. D. Notes on the Birds of the Calo- 
osahatchie Region of Florida. Auk, IX, pp. 209-218. 259 species.— 1895. 
Wayne, A. T. Notes on the Birds of the Wacissa and Aucilla River Regions 
of Florida. Auk, XII, 1895, pp. 362-367; 161 species.— 1896. Cory, C. B. 
Hunting and Fishing in Florida with a Key to the Water Birds of the State. — - 
1904. Williams, R. W., Jr. A Preliminary List of the Birds of Leon County, 
Florida. Auk, XXI, 1904, pp. 449-462; 156 species. (See also Ihid., XXIII, 
pp. 153-161; XXIV, pp. 158, 159.)— 1906. Fowler, H. W. Birds Observed 
in June in the Florida Keys. Auk, XXIII, pp. 396-400; 33 species. 

Georgia 

1883. Bailey, H. B. Memoranda of a Collection of Eggs from Georgia. 
Bull. N. O. C, VIII, pp. 37-43; 104 species.— 1903. Smith, R. S. Birds of 
Kirkwood, De Kalb Co., Ga. Wilson Bull., XV, pp. 49-59; 125 species.— 
1909. Howell, A. H. Notes on the Summer Birds of Northern Georgia. 
Auk, XXVI, pp. 129-137; 76 species. 

Illinois 

1855. Kennicott, R. Catalogue of Animals Observed in Cook County, 
Illinois. Trans. 111. State Agric. Soc. for 1853-54, I, Birds, pp. 580-589; 
187 species. — 1868. Allen, J. A. (See Iowa.) — 1874. Ridgway, R. Cata- 
logue of the Birds Ascertained to Occur in Illinois. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. 
N. Y., X, pp. 364-394; 311 species.— 1876. Nelson, E. W. Birds of North- 
eastern Illinois. Bull. Essex Inst., VIII, pp. 90-155; 316 species. — 1877. 
Nelson, E. W. Notes upon Birds Observed in Southern Illinois, between 
July 17 and September 4, 1875. Bull. Essex. Inst., IX, pp. 32-65; 133 species. 
1881. Ridgway, R. A Revised Catalogue of the Birds Ascertained to Occur 
in Illinois. Ills. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Bull. No. 4, pp. 161-208; 352 species. 
— 1884. Cooke, W. W. Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley, Southern 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 507 

Illinois. Forest and Stream, XXIII, pp. 444, 445, 463 464; 144 species based 
on Ridgway's list of 1881 and observations of Cyrus W. Butler in the vicinity 
of Anna, Ills., during December 1882, and January 1883. — 1887. Ridgway, 
R. List of the Birds Found Breeding within the Corporate Limits of Mt. 
Carmel, Illinois. Bull. No. 2, Ridgway Orn. Club, pp. 26-35; 85 species. — 
1890-1895. Ridgway, R. The Ornithology of Illinois. Roy. 8vo, Vol. I, 
1890, 520 pp., 32 plls. Land-birds to Gallinaj; Vol. II, 1895, 282 pp., 33 pUs. 
Gallinse and Water-birds; 363 species. — 1891. Loucks, W. E. List of Birds 
Found Breeding in the Vicinity of Peoria, Illinois. The Oologist, VIII, 
pp. 224-226; 80 species.— 1904. Walter, H. E. and A. W. Wild Birds in 
City Parks. Rev. Ed., Chicago, 16mo, 66 pp.; 145 species. — 1907. Wood- 
EUFF, F. M. The Birds of the Chicago Area, Chicago Acad. Sci. Bull. VI, 
Nat. Hist. Surv., 221 pp., 12 plls.; 318 species.— 1909. Cory, C. B. Birds of 
Illinois and Wisconsin. Field Museum, Zool. Ser. IX, 8vo, 764 pp., many 
ills.; 398 species. — 1910. Hess, I. E. One Hundred Breeding Birds of an 
Illinois Ten-MHe Radius. Auk, XXVII, pp. 19-32. 

Indiana 

1869. Haymond, R. Birds of Franklin County, Indiana. Cox's Geol. 
Surv. Indiana, Rep. for 1869, pp. 209-235; 163 species. — 1888-89. Ever- 
MANN, B. W. Birds of Carroll County, Indiana. Auk, V. pp, 344-351; VI, 
pp. 22-30; 203 species. — 1891. Butler, A. W. The Birds of Indiana, with 
Illustrations of Many of the Species. Prepared for the Indiana Horticul- 
tural Society, and Originally Published in its Transactions for 1890. 8vo, 
135 pp.; 305 species. — 1905. McAtee, W. L. Ecological Notes on the Birds 
Occurring within a Radius of Five Miles of the Indiana University Cam- 
pus. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., pp. 65-202, 32 ills.; 225 species. 

loWA 

1868. Allen, J. A, Notes on Birds Observed in Western Iowa, in the 
Months of July, August, and September; also on Birds Observed in Northern 
Illinois, in May and June, and at Richmond, Wayne Co., Indiana, between 
June third and tenth. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, pt. IV, pp. 488-526. 
Ogle County, Ills., 84 species; Cook County, Ills., 94 species; Richmond, 
Ind., 72 species; Western Iowa, 108 species. — 1873. Trippe, F. M. Notes 
on the Birds of Southern Iowa. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XV, pp. 229-242; 
162 species. — 1888. Keyes, Charles R. amd Williams, H. S. A Prelim- 
inary Annotated Catalogue of the Birds of Iowa. Proc. Davenport Acad. 
Nat. Sci., V, 8vo, 49 pp.; 260 species. — 1890. CkjoNE, John V. Summer 
Residents of Buena Vista County, Iowa. The Oologist, VII, pp. 45-47; 
52 species. — 1895. Jones, Lynds. Bird Migration at Grinnell, Iowa. Auk, 
XII, 1895, pp. 117-134, 231-237.-1897. Anderson, R. M. An Annotated 
List of the Birds of Winnebago and Hancock Counties, Iowa. Pub. by 
Author, Forest City, Iowa. 16mo, 19 pp.; 218 species.- 1906. Wilson, B. 
H. Birds of Scott Co., Iowa. Wilson Bull., XVIII, pp. 1-11; 166 species.— 
1907. Anderson, R. M. The Birds of Iowa. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci., 
XI, pp. 125-417; 355 species. 

Kansas 

1875. Snow, F. H. A Catalogue of the Birds of Kansas. Contributed to 
the Kansas Academy of Science. 8vo, 14 pp. Third lOdition. 295 species. — 
1886. Goss, N. S. A Revised Cataloging of the liirds of Kansas, with 
Descriptive Notes of the Nests and Eggs of the Birds Known to Breed in 
the State. Topeka. 8vo, vi-|-76 pp.; 335 species. (See also revi(>w in Auk, 
III, 1886, p. 399.)— 1891. Goss, N. S. History of the Birds of Kansas. Illus- 
trating 529 Birds. Topeka, Kansas. Geo. W. Crane & Co., Royal 8vf), 692 
pp., 35 photogravure plates; 343 species. — 1899. Lantz, D, E. A Review 
of Kansas Ornithology. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., 1896-7, pp. 224-276; 



508 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

351 species. — 1903. Snow, F. H. A Catalogue of the Birds of Kansas. Fifth 
Edition. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sciences, XVIII, 23 pp. ; 342 species. 

Kentucky 

1883. Beckham, C. W. A List of the Birds of Bardstown, Nelson 
County, Kentucky. Journ. Cine. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI, pp. 136-147; 167 
species. — 1885. Beckham, C. W. List of the Birds of Nelson County. 
Kentucky. Geol. Surv., John R. Proctor, Director. Author's Edition, 4to, 
pp. 1-58; 171 species. — 1887. Pindar, L. O. List of the Birds of Fulton 
County, Kentucky. Orn. and 061., XII, pp. 54, 55, 84, 85; 122 species. — 
1889. Pindar, L. O. List of the Birds of Fulton County, Kentucky. Auk, 
VI, pp. 310-316; 183 species. — 1910. Howell, A. H., Notes on the Summer 
Birds of Kentucky and Tennessee. Auk, XXVII pp. 295-304. Kentucky, 
80 species. 

Louisiana 

1900. Beyer, G. E. The Avifauna of Louisiana. Proc. La. Soc. Nat., 
45 pp.; 323 species. — 1904. Allison, A. The Birds of West Baton Rouge 
Parish, Louisiana. Auk, XXI, 1904, pp. 472-484; 130 species.— 1906. 
Beyer, G. E., Allison, A., Kopman, H. H. List of the Birds of Louisiana. 
Auk, XXIII, 1906, pp. 1-15, 275-282, XXIV, 314-321; XXV, 173-180; 
339-448. 128 species to Pici. 1908. Howell, A. H. Notes on the Winter Birds 
of Northern Louisiana. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, XXI, 119-124 pp.; 70 
species. 

Maine 

1862. Boardman, G. A. Catalogue of the Birds Found in the Vicinity 
of Calais, Maine, and about the Islands at the Mouth of the Bay of Fundy. 
Edited by A. E. Verrill. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., IX, pp. 122-132; 
236+4 species. (For 12 additions see Verrill, Ibid., pp. 233, 234.)— 1862. 
Verrill, A. E. Catalogue of the Birds Found at Norway, Oxford Co., 
Maine. Proc. Essex. Inst., Ill, pp. 136-160; 159 species. — 1872. May- 
nard, C. J. A Catalogue of the Birds of Coos Co., N. H., and Oxford Co., 
Maine. With notes by Wm. Brewster, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., XIV, 
1871, pp. 356-385; 164 species.— 1882. Brown, N. C. A Catalogue of the 
Birds Known to Occur in Portland, Maine. Proc. Portl. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
Dec. 14, 1882, pp. 1-37; 250 species. (See also Proc. Portl. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
1889, pp. 37-40.) — 1900. Howe, R. H., Jr. Summer Birds near Isleboroand 
the Fox Islands. Journ. Maine Orn. Soc. II, pp. 28-32; III, pp. 14, 15; IV, 
p. 18; 100 species.— 1908. Knight, O. W. [The Birds of Maine. Pub. 
by Author, Bangor. 8vo, 693 pp., 30 ills.; 327 species. 

Maryland 

1895. Kirkwood, F. C. A List of the Birds of Maryland. Trans. Md. 
Acad. Sci., 1895, pp. 241-382; 290 species.— 1900. Merriam, C. H., and 
Preble, E. A. The Summer Birds of Western Maryland. Maryland Geol. 
Surv., pp. 291-307; 100 species. — 1904. Eifrig, G. Birds of Allegany and 
Garrett Counties, Western Maryland. Auk, XXI, 1904, pp. 234-250; 180 
species. 

Massachusetts 

1870. Maynard, C. J. Catalogue of the Birds of Eastern Massachusetts. 
The Naturalist's Guide, Part II, pp. 81-170; 299 species.— 1886. Allen, 
J. A. A Revised List of the Birds of Massachusetts. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., I, pp. 221-271; 349 species.— 1887. Clark, H. L. The Birds of 
Amherst and Vicinity, Including Nearly the Whole of Hampshire County, 
Mass. 8vo, 55 pp.; 177 species. — 1888. Brewster, W. Notes on the Birds 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 509 

of Winchendon, Worcester Co. Auk, V, pp. 386-393; 82 species.— 1889. 
Faxon, W. On the Summer Birds of Berkshire County, Mass. Auk, VI, 
pp. 39-46, 99-107. Southern Berkshire, 76 species; Graylock Mountain, 
80 species. — 1889. Ingalls, C. E. Birds of Templeton and the Adjoining 
Towns. Gardner News, XX, June; 155 species. Not seen; title from Howe 
and Allen. — 1891. Colburx, W. W., and Morris, R. O. The Birds of the 
Connecticut Valley in Massachusetts. 16mo, 24 pp. Springfield. Published 
by the Authors. 212 species. — 1891. Wakefield, J. R. A List of the Birds 
of Dedham. Dedham Hist. Reg., II, pp. 70-74; 181 species. Not seen; title 
from Howe and .AJlen. — 1897. Morse, A. P. Birds of Wellesley. Published 
by Author. Wellesley. 16mo, 56 pp.; 224 species. — 1900. Faxon, W., and 
Hoffmann, R. The Birds of Berkshire Co. Coll. Berkshire Hist, and Sci. 
Soc, III. pp. 109-166; 200 species.— 1901. How-e, R. H. Jr., and Allen, G. 
M. The Birds of Massachusetts. Published by the Authors. 8vo, 154 pp. ; 362 
species. — 1901. Morris, R. O. The Birds of Springfield, Mass. and Vicinity. 
H. R. Johnson, Springfield. 8vo, 54 pp.; 255 species. — 1905. Townsend, 
C. W. The Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts. Memoirs Nutt. Orn. 
Club. 4to, 352 pp. Frontispiece and Map; 319 species. — 1906. Brewster, 
W. The Birds of the Cambridge Region of Massachusetts. Memoirs Nutt. 
Orn. Club, IV, 426 pp., plls. 7; 249 species.— 1909. Wright, H. W. Birds 
of the Boston Public Garden. (Houghton, Mifflin), 16mo, 238 pp.; 116 
species. 

Michigan 

1857. Kneeland, S. On the Birds of Keeweenan Point, Lake Superior. 
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI, 231-241 pp.; 147 species.— 1875. Boies, 
A. H. Catalogue of the Birds Ascertained to Occur in Southern Michigan. 
8vo, 12 pp.; 211 species. — 1876. Covert, A. B. Birds of Lower Michigan. 
Forest and Stream, VI, pp. 99, 132, 163, 214, 266, 318, 354, 402; VII, pp. 
147, 164, 276. (See also VI, p. 197.) 213 species.— 1879. Gibbs, M. Anno- 
tated List of the Birds of Michigan. Bull. U. S. Geol. and Gcograph. Survey 
of the Territories, V, 3, pp. 481-497; 310 species.— 1880. Steere, J. B. A 
List of the Mammals and Birds of Ann Arbor and Vicinity. 8vo, 8 pp.; Ill 
species of birds. — 1884. Atkins, H. A. Summer Birds of Locke, Michigan. 
Orn. and 061., IX, pp. 43-45; 80 species. — 1884. Atkins, H. A. Winter 
Birds of Locke, Michigan. Orn. and 061., IX, pp. 31, 32; 31 species.— 1885. 
Atkins, H. A. Summer Birds of Locke, Michigan. Orn. and 061., X, j). 3; 
82 species. — 1885. Gibbs, M. A Catalogue of the Birds of Kalamazoo 
County, Michigan. Orn. and 061., X, pp. 6, 7, 38, 39, 54, 55, 68-70. 86, 87, 
118, 119, 1.33-135, 149-151, 166, 167, 189, 190; 230 species.— 1885-7. Gibbs, 
M. The Birds of Michigan. Forest and Stream, XXIII, pp. 483, 484; XXIV, 
pp. 5, 6, 26, 27, 44, 45, 65, 84, 104, 105, 124, 125, 144, 145, 184, 224, 
267, 268, 288, 289, 307, 347, 387, 388. 427; XXV. pp. 4, 5. 304. 305, 
365, 366; XXVI, pp. 305, 306; XXVII. pp. 123, 124. 223. 224; 6S spe- 
cies. — 1890. White, T. G. Birds of Mackinac Island, Michigan. The 
061ogist, VII, pp. 48, 49; 101 species.- 1893. Cook, A. J. Birds of Mich- 
igan. Bull. 94, State Agricultural College. 8vo. 148 pp.; 332 species. — 
1893. White, S. E. Birds Observed on Mackinac Island. Michigan, 
During the Summers of 1889. 1890, and 1891. The Auk. X, pp. 221 230; 113 
species. — 1897. Boies, A. PI. Birds of Neebish Island, St. Mary's River, 
Michigan. Bull. Mich. Orn. Clul), I, pp. 17-20. 27-29; 119 species.— 1903. 
Swales, B. H. Notes on the Winter Birds of Wayne C\)., Michigan. Wilson 
Bull., XIV, pp. 20-24; XV. 1904. p. 82; 71 species.— 1903. Swalks, H. H. 
A List of the Land Birds of Southeastern Michigan. Bull. Mich. Orn. Club, 
IV, pp. 14-17, 35-40; V, pp. 37-43; 165 species. (See alsf) Wilson liuU. X VH. 
1905, pp. 108-114); Auk, XXV, pp. 230-232).— 1905 Wood, N. A., and 
Frothingham, E. H. Notes on the Birds of the An Sable Valley, Michigan. 
Auk, XXII, 1905, pp. 39-.54; 103 species.— 1908. Wood, N. A.. Peet. M. 
M., and McCreary, O. Annotated List of the Birds of Porcupine Moun- 
tains [89 species] and Isle Royale [81 species], Mich. Rep. Geol. Surv. 



510 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

Mich., 1905, pp. 113-127. See also McCreary, Ihid., pp. 56-67.— 1909. 
Blackwelder, E. Summer Birds of Iron County. Auk, XXVI, pp. 363- 
370; 80 species. — 1910. Wood, J. Claire. Some Winter Birds of the 
Season 1908-9 in Wayne County. Auk. XXVII, pp. 36-41.— 1910. Wood, 
N. A., and Tinker, A. D. Notes on Some of the Rarer Birds of Washtenaw 
County. Auk, XXVII, pp. 129-141; 34 species.— 1910. Chaney, R. W. 
Summer and Fall Birds of the Hamlin Lake Region, Mason Countv. Auk, 
XXVII, pp. 271-279; 119 species.— 1911. Wood, N. A. Expedition to 
Charity Islands, Lake Huron. Wilson Bull., XXIII, pp. 78-112; 162 species. 

Minnesota 

1871. Trippe, T. M. Notes on the Birds of Minnesota. Proc. Essex 
Inst., VI, pp. 113-119; 138 species. — 1874. Hatch, P. L. Report on the 
Birds of Minnesota. Bull. Minn. Acad. Nat. Sci., pp. 43-68; 230 species. — • 
1876. Roberts, T. S. A List of Some Birds Observed in the Vicinity of 
Minneapolis, Minn., not Enumerated in Dr. Hatch's List. The Scientific 
Monthly (Toledo, Ohio), I, 5, p. 231.-1880. Roberts, T. S., and Benner, 
F. A Contribution to the Ornithology of Minnesota. Bull. N. O. C, V, 
pp. 11-20; 86 species. — 1881. Hatch, P. L. A List oi the Birds of Minne- 
sota. Ninth Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Minn., for 1880, 1881, pp. 
361-372; 281 species. — 1881. Roberts, T. S. The Winter Birds of Minnesota. 
9th Ann. Rep. Geol. and N. H. Surv. Minn., for 188(^1881, pp. 373-383; 
52 species. — 1883. Brackett, F. H., Ornithological Notes from Minnesota. 
Quart. Journ. Bost. Zool. Soc, II, pp. 47-49; III, pp. 7-16; 134 species. — 
1890. Cantwell, G. C. A List of the Birds of Minnesota. Orn. and 061., 
XV, p. 129-139. (See also p. 156 and XVI, p. 157); 295 species.— 1892. 
Hatch, P. L. Notes on the Birds of Minnesota. Geol. and Nat. Hist. 
Survey of Minn. 8vo, 487 pp.; 302 species. — 1904. Currier, E. S. Summer 
Birds of the Leech Lake Region, Minn. Auk, XXI, pp. 29-44; 117 species. — 
1907. Roberts, T. S. List of Birds of Becker Co., Minn., Pioneer Hist, of 
Becker Co. (Pioneer Press, St. Paul), pp. 159-190; 262 species. 

Mississippi 

1905. Stockard, C. R. Nesting Habits of Birds in Mississippi. Auk, 
XXII, 1905, pp. 146-158, 273-285; 83 species.— 1906. Allison, A. Notes 
on the Winter Birds of Hancock Co., Miss., Auk, XXIII, 1906, pp. 44-47; 
61 species. Also, Ihid., p. 232. — 1907. Allison, A. Notes on the Spring 
Birds of Tishomingo County, Miss. Auk, XXIV, pp. 12-25. 

MiSSOUKI 

1879. Scott, W. E. D. Notes on Birds Observed During the Spring 
Migration in Western Missouri. Bull. N. O. C, IV, pp. 139-147; 148 species. 
■ — 1884. HuRTER, J. List of Birds Collected in the Neighborhood of St. 
Louis, Mo. Orn. and 061., IX, pp. 85-87, 95-97 (see also p. 128); 265 
species. — 1896. Widmann, O. The Peninsula of Missouri as a Winter 
Home for Birds. Auk, XIII, 1896, pp. 216-222.-1907. Widmann, O. A 
Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of Missouri. Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis, 
XVIII, pp. 1-288; 383 species.— 1908. Woodruff, E. S. Birds of Shannon 
and Carter Counties, Missouri. Auk, XXV, pp. 191-213; 172 species. 

Nebraska 

1878. AuGHEY, S. Notes on the Nature of the Food of the Birds of 
Nebraska. First Ann. Rep. U. S. Ent. Com. for the year 1877. Appendix 
II, pp. 13-62; 252 species.— 1883. Hall, A. Spring Birds of Nebraska. 
Forest and Stream, XX, pp. 265, 266, 284; 114 species.— 1888. Taylor, W. 
Edgar. A Catalogue of Nebraska Birds . . . Ann. Rep. Nebr. State Board 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 511 

of Agric. for the year 1887, pp. 111-118; 314 species.— 1888-89. Taylor, 

E. W., and Van Vleet, A. H. Notes on Nebraska Birds. Orn. and 061., 
XIII, pp. 49-51, 169-172; XIV, pp. 163-165; 137 species.— 1896. Bruner, 
L. Notes on Nebraska Birds. Rep. Neb. State Hort. Soc, 1896, pp. 48-178; 
415 species. — 1901. Bruner, L. Birds that Nest in Nebraska. Proc. Nebr. 
Orn. Union, 1901, pp. 48-61; 212 species. — 1904. Bruner, L., Walcott, 
R. H., and Swenk, M. H. A Preliminary Review of the Birds of Nebraska, 
1-116+5 p.; 406 species. Klopp and Bartlett, Omaha, Nebr. — 1909. Wal- 
cott, R. H. An Analysis of Nebraska's Bird Fauna. Proc. Neb. Orn. 
Union, IV, pp. 25-55. 

New Hampshire • 

1877. Goodhue, C. F. The Birds of Webster and Adjoining Towns. 
Forest and Stream, VIII, pp. 33, 49, 96, 113, 146; 151 species.— 1872. May- 
NARD, C. J. See Alaine. — 1887. Chadbourne, A. P. A List of the Summer 
Birds of the Presidential Range of the White Mountains, N. H. Auk, IV, 
pp. 100-108; 47 species. — 1888. Faxon, W., and Allen, J. A. Notes on the 
Summer Birds of Holderness [65 species], Bethlehem [50 species], and Fran- 
conia, N. H. [87 species]. Auk, V, pp. 149-155.-1889. Allen, F. H. Sum- 
mer Birds at Bridgewater, N. H. Auk, VI, pp. 76-79. — 1882. Knowlton, 

F. H. A Revised List of the Birds of Brandon, Vt. The Brandon Union, 
February 10, 1882; 149 species. — 1898. Dearborn, N. Preliminary List 
of the Birds of Belknap and Merrimack Counties, N. H. New Hampshire 
College, Durham, Svo, 34 pp.; 175 species. — 1900. Batchelder, F. W. and 
Fogg, E. H. Preliminary List of Birds .... of Manchester, N. H. 
Proc. Manchester Inst. Arts and Sci., I, pp. 123-138; 132 species. (See 
also Proc. for 1901, 1902.)— 1900. Dearborn, N. The Birds of Durham and 
Vicinity. Cont. Zool. Lab. N. H. College Agric. and Mech. Arts, VI, 121 
pp., map. — 1904. Allen, G. M. The Birds of New Hampshire. Proc. 
Manchester Inst. Arts and Sciences, IV, pp. 23-222; 283 species. — 1904. 
CoMEY, A. C. A Partial List of the Summer Birds of Holderness, N. H. 
Wilson Bull., XVI, 5-9 pp.; 94 species. 

New Jersey 

1885. Barrell, H. F. Birds of the Upper Passaic Valley, New Jersey. 
Orn. and 061., X, pp. 21-23, 42, 43; 149 species.— 1887. Thurber, E. A List 
of Birds of Morris County, New Jersey. True Democratic Banner (news- 
paper), Morristown, N. J., Nov. 10, 17, 24; 205 species. — 1894. Stone, W. 
The Birds of Eastern Penn.sylvania and New Jersey. 8vo, 185 pp. Del. 
Valley Orn. Club, Phila. ; 346 species. — 1894. Stone, W. Summer Birds of 
the Pii e Barrens of New Jersey. Auk, XI, 1894, pp. 133-140; 90 species. — 
— i897-l910. Stone, W., Editor. Numerous Notes on Birds of Chiefly 
Southern New Jersey. Proc. Del. Valley Orn. Club, Phila.— 1901. Bab.son, 
W. A. Ihe Birds of Princeton, N. J. Bull. Bird Club, Princeton Univ. 
I, pp. 7-82; 230 species. — 1906. Chap.man. F. M. (See New York.)— 1907. 
Holmes, L. K. Birds Found within a Radius of 12 Miles of Summit, X. .1. 
Wilson Bull. XIX, pp. 21-27; 201 species. See also li.st of Sununer Birds, 
Ibid., XVII, pp. 8-12; and Hann, Li.st of Summit Birds, Ihid., pp. 117-122. 
— 1909. Stone, W. The Birds of New Jersey. Ann. R(^p. N. J. State 
Museum for 1908, pp. 11-347, 409-419; plls. 1-84.-1909. Baily, W. L. 
Breeding Birds of Passaic and Sussex Counties. Cassinia, pp. 29-36; 94 
species. 

New York 

1844. Giraud, J. P., Jr. The Birds of Long Island . . . New York. 
1 vol., 8vo, 397 pp.; 286 species. — 1844. DeKay, James K. Zoology 
of New York. Part II, Birds. Albany. 1 vol., 4to, xii +380 pp., 141 col. plls. 
— 1876. Fowler, H. G. Birds of Central New York. Forest and Stream, VI, 



512 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

pp. 180, 233, 284, 337, 402; VII, pp. 36, 52, 84, 230. Also Additions Ihid., 
p. 180; 170 species. — 1877. Roosevelt, T., Jr., and Minot, H. D. The 
Summer Birds of the Adirondacks in FrankHn County, N. Y. 8vo, 4 pp. ; 97 
species. — 1879. Rathbun, Frank R. A Revised List of Birds of Central 
New York. (Cayuga, Onondaga, Seneca, Wayne, and Yates Counties, 
Auburn, N. Y.) 47 pp. See also Orn. and 061., VII, 1882, pp. 132, 133. 14 
additions. — 1879-80. Mearns, E. A. A List of the Birds of the Hudson 
Highlands. Bull. Essex. Inst., X, pp. 166-179; XI, pp. 43-52, 154-168, 189- 
204; XII, pp. 11-25, 109-128; XIII, pp. 75-93. (See also Auk, VII, 1890, pp. 
55, 56) ; 214 species. — 1880. Gregg, W. H. Revised Catalogue of the Birds of 
Chemung County, New York. Elmira, N. Y., O. H. Wheeler; 217 species, — 
1881-84. Merriam, C. H. Preliminary List of Birds Ascertained to Occur 
in the Adirondack Region, Northeastern New York. Bull. N. O. C, VI, 
pp. 225-235; and Addenda VII, 1882, pp. 128, 256, 257. Auk, I, 1884, pp. 
58, 59; 211 species. — 1882. Bicknell, E. P. A Review of the Summer 
Birds of a part of the Catskill Mountains, with prefatory remarks on the 
faunal and floral features of the region. Trans, of the Linn. Soc. of New York, 

1, pp. 115-168; 90 species. — 1885. Hollick, A. Preliminary List of the 
Birds Known to Breed on Staten Island. Proc. Nat. Sci. Assc. Staten 
Island. Extra No. 4, December. 67 species. — 1886. Barnum, M. K. 
A Preliminary List of the Birds of Onondaga County, N. Y. Bull, 
of the Biol. Lab. of Syracuse University. 8vo, pp. 1-34; 204 species. — 
1886. Ralph, W. L., and Bagg, E. An Annotated List of the Birds 
of Oneida County, N. Y., and Its Immediate Vicinity. Trans. Oneida 
Hist. Soc, III, pp. 101-147; 224 species. (See also Ihid., VII, 1890, pp. 

2, 29-232.) Orn. and Col. XIII, 1888, pp. 58, 59. Auk, XI, 1894, pp. 162-164. 
— 1886. Woodruff, L. B., and Paine, A. G., Jr. Birds of Central Park, New 
York City. A Preliminary List. Forest and Stream, XXVI, pp. 386, 387, 
487; 121 species. — 1889. Bergtold, W. H. A List of the Birds of Buffalo and 
Vicinity. Bull. Buffalo Nat. Field Club, I, 7, pp. 1-21; 237 species.— 1889. 
Davison, J. L. Birds of Niagara County, New York, Forest and Stream, 
XXXIII, pp. 164, 183, 303; 190 species.— 1892. Clute, W. N. The Avi- 
fauna of Broome Co., N. Y. Wilson Quart., pp. 59-64; 106 species. — 1896. 
Short, E. H. Birds of Western New York. F. H. Lattin, Albion, N, Y. 
20 pp.; 229 species. — 1901. Eaton, E. H. Birds of Western New York. 
Proc. Roch. Acad. IV, 64 pp.; 299 species.— 1901. Embody, G. C. Birds of 
Madison County, N. Y. Bull. Dep't. Geol. and Nat. Hist., Colgate Uni- 
versity, Hamilton, N. Y. 8vo, 36 pp.; 191 species. (See also Maxon, Auk, 
XX, p .263.) — 1904. Chapman, F. M. An Annotated List of the Birds Known 
to Breed within 50 Miles of New York City. Guide Leaflet, No. 14, Am. 
Mus. Nat. Hist., 31 pp., 13 ills.— 1906. Chapman, F. M. The Birds of the 
Vicinity of New York City. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Guide Leaflet, No. 22, 
Rev. Ed., 96 pp. Numerous ills.; 353 species. — 1907. Braislin, W. C, 
A List of the Birds of Long Island, N. Y. Abst. Proc. Linnsean Society, N. Y., 
1907, pp. 31-123; 364 species. (See also Auk, 1909, pp. 314-316.)— 1910. 
Reed, H. D., and Wright, A. H. Vertebrates of the Cayuga Lake Basin. 
Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, XLVIII, pp. 370-459; 257 species.— 1910. Wright, 
A. H. and Allen, A. A. The Increase of Austral Birds at Ithaca. Auk, 
XXVII, pp. 63-66.— 1910. Eaton, E. H. Birds of New York. I, Water and 
Game Birds. 4to, pp. 1-501, col. plls. [by Fuertes] 42. 

North Carolina 

1871. CouES, E. Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macon, N. C. 
and Vicinity. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXIII, Birds, pp. 18-47. Also 
Ihid., 1878, pp. 22-24; 133 species.— 1885. Brimley, H. H. and C. S. Sum- 
mer Birds of Raleigh, N. C. Orn. and 061., X, pp. 143, 144; 82 species. — 
1885. Brimley, H. H. and C. S. Winter Birds of Raleigh, N. C. Orn. 
and 061., X, p. 128; 72 species. — 1886. Brewster, W. An Ornitholog- 
ical Reconnaissance in Western North Carolina. Auk, III, pp. 94-112, 173- 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 513 

179; 102 species. — 1886. Batchelder, C. F. The North Carolina Moun- 
tains in Winter. Auk, III, pp. 307-314; 40 species. — 1887. Atkinson, G. F. 
Preliminary Catalogue of the Birds of North Carolina. Journ. Elisha Mitchell 
Society, 1887, Part 2, pp. 44-87; 255 species. A compilation with some 
errors.— '1887. Cairns, J. S. A List of Birds of Buncombe Co., North Caro- 
lina. Orn. andOol., XII, pp. 3-6; 169 species.— 1887. Sennett, G. B. Ob- 
servations in Western North Carolina Mountains in 1886. Auk, IV, pp. 
240-245; 29 species. — 1888. Brimley, C. S. A List of Birds Known to 
Breed at Raleigh, N. C. Orn. and 051., XIII, pp. 42, 43; 54 species. (See 
also Ibid., p. 187. Auk, XIV, p. 165.)— 1889. Cairns, J. S. The Summer 
Birds of Buncombe County, North Carolina. Orn. and 061., XIV, pp. 17-22; 
123 species. — 1893. Brimley, C. S. Some Additions to the Avifauna of 
North Carolina, with Notes on Some Other Species. Auk, X, 1893, pp. 
241-244; 48 species. — 1897. Smithwick, J. W. P. Ornithology of North 
Carolina. Bull. 144, N. C. Agric. Exp. Sta., pp. 193-228; 303 species.— 
1899. Pearson, T. G. Preliminary List of Birds of Chapel Hill, N. C. 
Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc, XVI, pp. 33-51; 132 species. 1901. 
Bishop, L. B. The Winter Birds of Pea Island, N. C. Auk, XVIII, pp. 
260-268; 42 species. — 1905. Oberholser, H. C. Notes on the Mammals 
and Summer Birds of Western North Carolina. Published bv Biltmore 
Forest School. Birds pp. 11-24; 136 species.— 1910. Philipp, P. B. 
(see S. C). 

Ohio 

1877. Langdon, F. W. A Catalogue of the Birds of the Vicinity of 
Cincinnati. 8vo, 18 pp. Salem, Mass.; 279 species. — 1879. Langdon, F. W. 
A Revised List of Cincinnati Birds. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., I, 4, pp. 
167-193. (See also Ibid., Ill, pp 121-127; V, 1882, p. 186; VI, 1883, pp. 12- 
31; 256 species.) — 1882. Wheaton, J. M. Report on the Birds of Ohio. Report 
of the Geological Survey of Ohio, IV, I, pp. 188-628; 298 species.— 1891. 
Smith, R. W. A List of the Birds of Warren Countv, Ohio. Journ. Cin. 
Soc. Nat. Hist., XIV, pp. 105-133; 189 species.— 1896. Oberholser, H. C. 
A Preliminary List of the Birds of Wavne Co. Bull. Ohio Agric. Exp. 
Sta. I, 4, pp. 243-354; 183 species.— 1902. Heninger, W. F. A Pre- 
liminary List of the Birds of Middle Southern Ohio. Wilson Bulletin, 
IX, pp. 77-93; 209 species. (See also Ibid., pp. 130-132; XII, 1905, pp. 89- 
93).— 1902. Jones, L. Bird Studies in Lorain Co., Ohio. Wilson Bull., IX, 
pp. 37-58; also pp. 94-100.-1903. Daw.son, W. L. The Birds of Ohio, 
4 to xlv+671 pp. Manyillus. Columbus, Wheaton Pub. Co. — 1903. Field, 
A. I. Birds of Lecking Co., Ohio. Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., XV; 
203 species. — 1903. Jones, L. The Birds of Ohio. A Revised Catalogue. 
Ohio State Acad, of Sci., Special Papers No. 6, 141 pp. 1 map; 31s sp(>cies. 
• — 1906. Heninger, W. F. A Preliminary List of Birds of Seneca Co., 
Ohio. Wilson Bull., XVIII, pp. 47-60; 205 species.— 1909-10. Jones, L. 
The Birds of Cedar Point and Vicinity. Wilson Bull., XXI. pp. 55-70, 
115-131, 187-202; XXII, pp. 2.5-41. 97-115, 172-182. Vo<e.— Every is.sue 
of the Wilson Bulletin (Oberlin, Ohio) contains matter of special inter- 
est to bird students in Ohio and the adjoining states. 

Pennsylvania 

1844. Baird, W. M. and S. F. List of Birds Found in the Vicinity of 
Carlisle, Cumberland County, Pa. Am. Journ. Sci. and Arts. XLVI, pp. 
261-273.; 201 species.— 1845. Baird, S. F. Catalogue of Birds Found in the 
Neighborhood of Carlisle, Cumberland County, Pa. Lit. Rec. and Journ. 
Linn. Assoc, of Penna. College, I, pp. 240-257; 203 species. — 1861. Barn- 
ard, V. A. A Catalogue of the Birds of Chester C^ounty. Pa. Times of 
Arrival in Spring. Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1860, pp. 434-43S; 191 species. — 
1869. TuRNBULL, W. P. The Birds of East Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 



514 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 

... 1 vol. roy. 8vo, and also 4to, xii +62 pp. ; 342 species. — 1880. Wareen, 
H. B. The Birds of Chester County, Pa. Forest and Stream, XIII, pp.1024, 
1025; XIV, pp. 6, 25; 218 species.— 1886. Parker, H. G. List of Birds near 
Philadelphia with the Dates That Sets of Eggs Were Taken. Orn. and 061. 
XI, pp. 70, 71 ; 76 species. — 1887. Pennock, C. J. Birds of Chester County, Pa. 
The Oologist. IV, pp. 1-10; 234 species.— 1889. Ressel, C. B. Birds of Ches- 
ter County, Pa. Orn. and 051., XIV, 97-101, pp. 112-116, 129, 130; 199 species. 
— 1890. Warren, B. H. Report on the Birds of Pennsylvania. With 
Special Reference to the Food Habits. Second Edition. Harrisburg. Svo, 
xiv +434 pp. ; 100 col. pUs. — 1891. Stone, W. The Summer Birds of Harvey's 
Lake, Luzerne Co., Pennsylvania, T\dth Remarks on the Faunal Position of 
the Region. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1891, pp. 431-438; 54 species. — 
1892. DwiGHT, J., Jr. Summer Birds of the Crest of the Pennsylvania 
Alleghanies. Auk, IX, pp. 129-141; 84 species. — 1893. Jacobs, J. W. Summer 
Birds of Greene Co., Pa. Svo, 15 pages; 90 species. Published by Author, 
Waynesburg, Pa.— 1893. Todd, W. E. C. Summer Birds of Indiana [65 spe- 
cies] and Clearfield [55 species] Counties, Pa. Auk, X, 1893, pp. 35^6. — 1894. 
Stone, W. The Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 8vo, vii + 
185 pp. Del. Valley Orn. Club, Phila. 346 species.— 1895. Rotzell, W. E. 
Birds of Narbeth,Pa., and Vicinity. The Citizen, June 22 and 29, and reprinted 
in pamphlet, 8 pp.; 108 species. — 1896. Baily, W. L. Summer Birds of 
Northern Elk Co. Auk, XIII, pp. 289-297; 69 species.— 1896. Young, R. 
T. Summer Birds of Anthracite Coal Regions of Pennsylvania. Auk, XIII, 
1896, pp. 278-285; 69 species.— 1897. Montgomery, T. H., Jr. A List of 
the Birds of the Vicinity of West Chester, Chester Co., Pa. Am. Nat., 1897, 
pp. 622-628. 812-814, 907-911; 145 species.— 1897-1910. Stone, W. Editor. 
Numerous Notes on and Short Lists of Eastern Pennsylvania Birds. Proc. 
Del. Valley Orn. Club, Phila. — 1899. Rhoads, S. N. Notes on Some of the 
Rarer Birds of Western Pennsylvania. Auk, XVI, pp. 308-313; 65 spe- 
cies. — 1901. Burns, F. L. A Sectional Bird Census, at Berwyn, Pa. Wil- 
son Bull. No. 36, pp. 84-103; 62 species.— 1904. Todd, W. E. C. The 
Birds of Erie and Presque Isle, Erie Co., Pa. Annals Carnegie Museum, 
II, pp. 481-596, 4 plates; 237 species.— 1904. Todd, W. E. C. The Mam- 
mal and Bird Fauna of Beaver County, Pa. Bausman's History of Beaver 
County, II, 1904, pp. 1195-1202; 178 species. 

Rhode Island 

1899. Howe, R. H., Jr., and Sturtevant, E. The Birds of Rhode 
Island. Published by Authors. 8vo, 111 pp; 291 species. — 1908. Commis- 
sioners of Birds. A Check-List of Rhode Island Nesting Birds, pp. 1-26; 
104 species. 

South Carolina 

1868. CouES, E. Synopsis of the Birds of South CaroHna. Proc. Bost. 
Soc. Nat. Hist., XII, pp. 104-127; 294 species.— 1879. Loomis, L. M. A 
Partial List of the Birds of Chester County, S. C. Bull. N. O. C, IV, pp. 
209-218; 140 species. (See also additions and notes. Auk., II, 1885, pp. 
188-193; VIII, 1891, pp. 49-59, 167-173; IX, 1892; pp. 28-39; XI, 1894. 
Dp. 26-39, 94-117.)— 1885. Hoxie, W. Notes on the Birds of the Sea Islands. 
Orn. and 061., X, pp. 13-27, 29, 44-46, 62, 63. (Also Corrections and Addi- 
tions, Ibid., XI, 1886, pp. 33, 34) 238 species.— 1890. Loomis, L. M. 
Observations on Some of the Summer Birds of the Mountain Portions of 
Pickens County. Auk, VII, pp. 30-39, 124-130; 76 species.— 1891. Loomis, 
L. M. June Birds of Caesar's Head, S. C. Auk, VIII, pp. 323-333; 52 species. 
— 1910. Philipp, p. B. List of Birds Observed [in the Carolinas]. Auk, 
XXVII, pp. 312-322. (See also Wayne, Ibid., p. 464.)— 1910. Wayne, 
A. T. Birds of South Carolina. Cont. from Charleston Museum, I, Svo, xxi 
+pp. 254 ; 337 species. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX 515 

Tennessee 

1886. Fox, W. H. List of Birds Found in Roane Countv, Tennessee, 
During April, 1884, and March and April, 1885. Auk, III. pp. 315-320; 114 
species. — 1895. Rhoad.s, S. X. Cont. Zool. Tenn., Proc. Acad. Xat. 
Sci., Phila., 1895. pp. 463-501. Also Auk, XIII, 1896, p. 181; 223 species.— 
1910. Howell, A. H. Xotes on the Birds of Kentucky and Tennessee. 
Auk. XXVII, pp. 295-304. Tenn.; 162 species. 

Vermont 

1901. Howell, A. H. Preliminary List of Summer Birds of Mount 
Mansfield, Vt. Auk, XVIII, pp. 337-347; 86 species.— 1902. Perkins, 
G. H. A Preliminary List of the Birds Found in Vermont. 21st Ann. Rep, 
Vt. State Bd. Agric, pp. 8.5-118; 261 species. See also Howe, R. H., Jr., 
Cont. X. A. Orn. II, pp. 5-22. — 1903. Davenport, E. B. Birds Observed on 
Mt. Mansfield and the West End of Stowe Valley at the Base of the Moun- 
tain, in the Summer of 1902. Wilson Bull., XV, pp. 77-86; 74 species. — 

1907. Davenport, E. B. Birds of Windham and Bennington Counties. 
Bull. Xo. 2, Vermont Bird Club (Burlington, Vt.), pp. 5-14,; 176 species. — 

1908. Allen, F. H. Summer Birds of Southern Vermont. Auk, XXV, 
pp. 56-64; 86 species. 

Virginia 

1890. Rives, Wm. C, M. D. A Catalogue of the Birds of the Virginias. 
Proc. Xewport Xat. Hist. Soc, Document VII, Xewport R. I. 8vo, 100 
pp.; 305 species. — 1902. Daniels, J. W. Summer Birds of the Great Dis- 
mal Swamp. Auk XIX, 15-18 pp.; 41 species. — 1910. Embody, G. C. A List 
of Birds Observed at Ashland, Va. Auk, XXVII, pp. 169-177; 114 species. 

West Virginia « 

1873. Scott, W. E. D. Partial List of the Summer Birds of Kanawha 
County, West Virginia, •^v^th Annotations. Proc. Bost. Soc. Hist., XV, 
pp. 219-227; 86 species. — 1875. Brewster, W. Some Observations on the 
Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia. Annals of the Lye. Xat. Hist., N. 
Y., XI, pp. 129-146; 100 species.— 1888. Doan, W. D. Birds of West 
Virginia. Bull 3, Agric. Exp. Sta., Morgantown; 200 species. — 1889. Sur- 
BER, T. Birds of Greenbriar Countv, West Va. The Hawkeve Orn. and 
061. (E. B. Webster, Cresco, Iowa), 11, pp. 2-4 13-15, 29-32; ^21 species. 
—1890. Rives, W. C. (See Virginia.)— 1898. Rives, W. C. Summer 
Birds of the West Virginia Spruce Belt. Auk, XV, pp. 131-137; 46 species. — 

1909. Brooks, E. A. West Virginia Birds in State Board oif Agriculture. 
Report W. Va. State Board Agric, for 1908, pp. 3-62; 193 species. 

Wisconsin 

1853. Hoy, P. R. Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin. Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci., Phila., VI, pp. 304-313, 381-385, 42.3-429; 283 species. (Revised 
with additions in the Trans. Wise State Agric. Soc, 1852, II, i)p. 341-364.) — 
1854. Barry, A. C. On the Ornithological Fauna of Wi.scoiisin. Proc. 
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., V, 1854, pp. 1-13; 218 .species.— 1882. Kinc;. F. H. 
Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds. Wis. Geol. Survey, I, pp. 441 (ilO; 
figs. 103-144; 295 species. — 1883. Willard, S. W, Migration and Di.stri- 
bution of North American Bird.s in Brown and Outgamie Counties. Tran.s. 
Wise. Acad. Sci. Arts, and Letters, VI, pp. 177-196; 210 sper-ies. — 1894. 
Grundtvig, F. L. The Birds of Shiocton in Bovina, Outgamie Co., Wise. 
Trans. Wise. Acad. Sciences, X, pp. 73-158; 183 species. — 1903. Kumlien, 
L. and Hollister, N. The Birds of Wisconsin. Bull. Wise. Nat. Hist. 
Soc, III (N. S.), pp. 1-143, 8 half-tones; 357 species.— 1909. Cory, C. B. 
(See Ills.) 

35 



I 



INDEX 



I Acanthis homemanni exilipes, 380. 

hornemanni homemanni, 380. 

linaria holboelli, 381. 

linaria linaria, 380. 

linaria rostrata, 381. 
Accipiter cooperi, 294. 

velox, 293. 
Actitis macularia, 261. 
.(Echmophorus occidentalis, 139. 
iEgialitis hiaticiila, 267. 

meloda,.286. 

nivosa, 276. 

semipalmata, 266. 
^strelata gularis, 176. 

hasitata, 176. 

scalaris, 176. 
Agelaius phoeniceus bryanti, 361. 

phoeniceus floridanus, 362. 

phceniceus fortis, 362. 

phoeniceus phoeniceus, 361. 
Aix sponsa, 197. 
Ajaja ajaja, 217. 
Alauda arvensis, 348. 
Alaudidse, figured, 128. 
Albatross, Wandering, 173. 

Yellow-nosed, 173. 
Albinism, 96. 
Alca torda, 148. 
Alcedinidse, 320; figured, 127. 
Alcidse, 145; figured, 118. 
Alle alle, 149. 
Alleghanian fauna, 30. 
Altricial birds, 75. 
Aluco pratincola, 308. 
Aluconidffi, 308; figured, 125. 
American Ornithologists' Union, 23. 

Committee of, 8. 
Ammodramus bairdi, 389. 

savannarum australis, 389. 

savannarum floridanus, 390. 
Anas fulvigula, 193. 

platyrhynchos, 191. 

rubripes rubripes, 192. 

rubripes tristis, 192. 
Anatidae, 186. 
Anatinae, 190; figured, 121. 
Anhinga anhinga, 181. 
Anhingidae, 181; figured, 120. 
Ani, 70, 318. 

Groove-billed, 319. 
Anoiis stolidus, 171. 
Anser albifrons albifrons, 212. 

albifrons gambeli, 212. 

brachyrhynchos, 213. 

fabalis, 213. 
Anseres, 186; figured, 121. 
Anserinse, 121, 210. 
Anthrenus, 21. 
Anthus pratensis, 472, 

rubescens, 471, 

apraguei, 471. 



Antrostomus carolinensis, 331. 

vociferus vociferus, 332. 
Aphelocoma cyanea, 351. 
Aphrizidse, 268. 
April, birds of, 34, 38. 
Aquila chrysaetos, 301. 
Aramidae, 230; figured, 123. 
Aramus vociferus, 230. 
Archibuteo ferrugineus, 300. 

lagopus sancti-johannis, 300. 
ArcMlochus colubris, 336. 
Arctic zone, 29. 
Ardea cinerea, 224. 

herodias herodias, 223. 

herodias wardi, 224. 

occidentalis, 223. 

wuerdmanni, 223. 
Ardeidse, 219; figured, 122. 
Arenaria interpres interpres, 268. 

interpres morinella, 268. 
Arquatella maritima maritima, 249, 
Asio flammeus, 310. 

wilsonianus, 310. 
Astragalinus tristis tristis, 382. 
Astur atricapillus atricapillus, 382. 
Asturina plagiata, 300. 
Audubon Societies, National Association 

of, 24. 
August, birds of, 35, 39, 
Auk, Great, 149. 

Little. See Dovekie. 

Razor-billed, 148. 
Auk, The, 24. 
Austral Region, 29. 

Austroriparian fauna, 30. ' 

Auxiliary barrel, 14. 
Avocet, American, 241; figured, 105. 

Baeolophus bicolor, 485. 

Baldpate. 194. 

Banding birds, 73. 

Banner marks, 95. 

Bartramia longicauda, 259. 

Beach-bird. .SVc Sandfrliiig. 

Beetle-head. Svc Plover, Black-bellied. 

Bendire, C. E., 22. 

Bill, uses of, 104. 

Bird, young, condition of, 79, 

defense of, 81. 

feeding of, SO, 81. • 

food of, 80. 
Bird-Lore, 24. 
Birds and insects, 99, 

and man, 114. 

and rodents, 100. 

and Avof'ds, 100. 

as scavengers, 101. 

care of, in the field, 16. 

collecting, 15. 

distribution of, 27. 

economic value of, 98, 100. 



(517) 



518 



INDEX 



Birds, food of, 98. 

how named, 5. 

how to find; 3. 

how to identify, 4, 

intelUgence of, 11. 

migration of, 32. 

relation of, to man, 1, 2. 

senses of, 109. 

sexual organs of, 20. 

skinning, 16. 

study of, in nature, 60. 

voice of, 60. 

why we should study, 1, 2. 
Birdskins, 15, 16. 
Bittern, American, 221. 

Cory's Least, 222. 

Least, 222. 
Blackbird, Bahama Red-wing, 362. 

Cow. See Cowbird. 

Crow. See Crackles, Purple and 
Bronzed. 

Florida Red-wing, 362. 

Red-winged, 72, 361. 

Rusty, 365. 

Skunk. See Bobolink. 

Thick-billed Redwing, 362. 

Yellow-headed, 360. 
Black-cap, Wilson's. See Warbler, Wil- 
son's. 
Black-head. See Duck, Scaup. 
Black Jack. See Scaup, Lesser. 
Blind, umbrella, 11. 
Bluebill. See Duck, Scaup. 

Greater. See Scaup, Duck, Greater. 

Small. See Scaup, Lesser. 
Bluebird, 115, 499. 
Blue Peter. See Coot. 
Blue Stocking. »See Avocet. 
Bobolink, 358; map of migration of, 44. 
Bob-white, 100, 270. 

Florida, 271. 
Bog-sucker. See Woodcock. 
Bombycilla cedrorum, 421. 

garrula, 420. 
Bombycillidse, 420; figured, 130. 
Bonasa umbellus togata, 274. 

umbellus umbellus, 273. 
Booby, 179. 

Blue-faced, 180. 

Red-footed, 180. 
Boreal Region, 28. 
Botaurus lentiginosus, 221. 
Brant, 214. 

Black, 214. 

White. See Goose, Snow. 
Branta bernicla glaucogastra, 214. 

canadensis canadensis, 213. 
• canadensis hutchinsi, 213. 

canadensis minima, 213. 

leucopsis, 214. 

nigricans, 214. 
Brant-bird. See Turnstone. 
Brent. See Brant. 
Broadbill. See Ducks, Scaup and Shove' 

ler. 
Brooding, 79. 
Broods, number of, 68. 
Brown-Back. See Dowitcher. 
Bubo virginianus heterocnemis, 315. 

virginianus subarcticus, 315. 

virginianus virginianus, 315. 



Bufflehead, 204. 
Bull-bat. See Nighthawks. 
Bulweria bulweri, 176. 
Bunting, Bay-winged. See Sparrow, Ves- 
per. 

Black-throated. See Dickcissel. 

Indigo, 410. 

Lark, 413. 

Painted, 411. 

Snow, 384, 

Varied, 411. 
Burgomaster. See Gull, Glaucous, 
Butcher-bird. See Shrike, Northern. 
Buteo borealis borealis, 295. 

borealis calurus, 296. 

borealis harlani, 296. 

borealis krideri, 296. 

borealis umbrinus, 296. 

brachyurus, 299. 

lineatus alleni, 298. 

lineatus lineatus, 296. 

platypterus platypterus, 298. 

swainsoni, 298. 
Buteonidse, 287; figured, 126. 
Butorides virescens virescens, 227. 
Butter-ball. See Bufflehead. 
Buzzard, Turkey, 286. 

Cahow. See Shearwater, Audubon's. 
Calamospiza melanocorys, 413. 
Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus, 385. 

ornatus, 386. 

pictus, 386. 
Calico-back. See Turnstone. 
Calidris leucophsea, 254. 
Call, location, 60. 
Call-notes, 60. 

Callichelidon cyaneoviridis, 419. 
Calls of praecocial birds, 60, 61, 
Camera, 13. 

Campephilus principalis, 323. 
Camptorhynchus labradorius, 206. 
Canachites canadensis canace, 272. 

canadensis canadensis, 272. 
Canadian zone, 28. 
Canary, Wild. See Goldfinch. 
Canvasback, 201. 
Caprimulgidse, 331; figured, 127. 
Caracara, Audubon's, 307. 
Cardinal, 407. 

Florida, 408. 

Kentucky. See Cardinal. 
Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis, 407. 

cardinalis floridanus, 408. 
Carduelis carduelis, 383. 
Carolinian fauna, 30. 
Carpodacus purpureus purpureus, 377. 
Casarca ferruginea, 196. 
Cataloguing birdskins, 20. 
Catbird, 473, 

Catharista urubu urubu, 287. 
Cathartes aura septentrionalis, 286. 
Cathartidse, 286; figured, 126. 
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatuS; 
258. 

semipalmatus semipalmatus, 258. 
Cedar-bird. See Waxwing, Cedar, 
Centurus carolinus, 329. 
Cepphus grylle, 146. 

mandti, 147. 
Certhia familiaris americana, 481. 



INDEX 



519 



Certhiidse, 481; figured, 131. 

Ceryle alcyon, 321. 

Chsemepelia passerina bermudiana, 285. 

passerina terrestris, 284. 
Chsetura pelagica, 335. 
Chalk-line. '.See Heron, Little Green. 
Charadriidse, 124. 
Charadrius apricarius, 265. 

dominicus dominicus, 264. 
Charitonetta albeola, 204. 
Chat, Yellow-breasted, 467. 
Chaulelasmus streperus, 193. 
Chebec. See Flycatcher, Least. 
Chelidonaria urbica, 419. 
Chen caerulescens, 212. 

hyperboreus hyperboreus, 211. 

hyperboreus nivalis, 211. 
Cherry-bird. See WaxTving, Cedar. 
Chewink. -See Towhee. 
Chickadee, 100, 486. 

Acadian, 488. 

Carolina, 487. 

Florida, 488. 

Hudsonian, 488. 
Chicken, Mother Carey's. See Petrel, 
Wilson's. 

Prairie, 276. 
Chippy. See Sparrow, Chipping. 

Winter. See Sparrow, Tree. 
Chondestes grammacus grammacus, 394 
Chordeiles virginianus chapmani, 334. 

virginianus sennetti, 334. 

virginianus virginianus, 333. 
Chuck-will's-widow, 331. 
Cicomidge, 219. 
Circus hudsonius, 292. 
Cistothorus stellaris, 479. 
Civilization, effects of, on birds, 113. 
Clangula clangula americana, 203. 

islandica, 204. 
Clape. See Flicker. 
Climate, 27. 

Cobb. See Gull, Great Black-backed. 
Coccyges, 318; figured, 126. 
Coccyzus americanus amcricanus, 319. 

erythrophthalmus, 320. 

minor maynardi, .319. 

minor minor, 319. 
Cockawee. See Old-Squaw. 
Coereba bahamensis, 430. 
Colaptes auratus auratus, 329. 

auratus luteus, 329. 
Colinus \-irginianus floridanus, 271. 

virginianus virginianus, 270. 
Collection, care of, 21. 
Collector, outfit of, 14. 
Colonial birds, nesting habits of, 71. 
Color and ago, 87. 

and climate, 89. 

and concealment, 91. 

and habit, 95. 

and season, 87. 

and sex, 87. 
Columbaj, 281; figured, 125. 
Columba leucocephala, 281. 

squamosa, 2S2. 
Colymbidae, 138; figured, 118. 
Coiymbus auritus, 140. 

holboelli, 140. 

nigricollis californicus, 141. 
Compsothlypis americana americana, 447. 



Compsothlypis americana usneae, 447. 
Condor, The, 23. 
Conuropsis carolinensis, 317. 
Coooer Ornithological Club, 24. 
Coot, American, 237; figured, 109. 

Bumblebee. See Duck Ruddy. 

Butter-billed. See Scoter, American. 

Ivory-billed. See Coot, American. 

Patch-head. See Scoter, Surf. 

White -winged. See Scoter, White- 
winged. 
Corvidse, 350; figured, 128. 
Cor\'Tis brachyrynchos brachyrhynchos, 
353. 

brachyrhynchos pascuus, 354. 

corax principalis, 352. 

corax sinuatus, 352. 

frugilegus, 355. 

ossifragus, 354. 
Coturnincops noveboracensis, 235. 
Coturnix coturnix, 271. 
Counter-shading, 93. 
Courlan. See Limpkin. 
Courlans, 230. 
Courtship, 70. 
Cowbird, 70, 77, 359. 
Crake, Corn, 236. 

Spotted, 235. 
Crane, Blue. See Heron, Great Blue. 

Brown. See Crane, Sandhill. 

Little Brown, 229. 

Sandhill, 229. 

White. See Crane, Whooping. 

Whooping, 229. 
Creciscus jamaicensis, 235. 
Creeper, Black and White. See Warbler, 
Black and White. 

Brown, 481 ; figured, 107. 
Crex crex, 236. 
Crossbill, American, 379. 

White-winged, 379. 
Crotophaga ani, 318. 

sulcirostris, 319. 
Crow, 110, 111, 353. 

Carrion. See Vulture, Black. 

European Hooded, 355, 

Fish, 354. 

Florida, 354. 
Crow-Duck. See Coot. 
Crying-bird. See Limpkin. 
Cryptoglaux acadica acadica, 313 

funerea richardsoni, 312. 
Cuckoo, 100. 

Black-billed, 320. 

jNTangrovc, 319. 

Maynard's, 319. 

Yellow-biUod. 319. 
Cucuiidce, 3 IS; figured, 127. 
Curlew, Eskimo, 262. 

European, 26.3. 

Hudsonian, 262. 

Jack. See Curlew, Hudsonian. 

Long-billed. 261. 

Pink. See Spoonbill, Roseate. 

Spanish. .SVe Il)is, White. 
Cut-water. Svv Skimmer, Black. 
Cyanocitta cristata cristata, 350. 

cristata florincoia, 351. 
Cygninse, 121, 215. 

Dabchick. See Grebe, Picd-bilicd. 



520 



INDEX 



Dafila acuta, 197. 
Daption capense, 174. 
Darter, Little Blue. See Hawk, Sharp- 
shinned. 

Big Blue. See Hawk, Cooper's. 
Darters, 181. 
December, birds of, 36. 
Decoration of nest, 74. 
Delaware Valley Ornithological Club, 23. 
Dendrocygna bicolor, 215. 
Dendroica aestiva aestiva, 448. 

auduboni auduboni, 451. 

cserulescens cserulescens, 449. 

cserulescens cairnsi, 450. 

castanea, 453. 

cerulea,1452. 

coronata, 450. 

discolor, 460. 

dominica albilora, 456. 

dominica dominica, 456. 

fusca, 455. 

kirtlandi, 457. 

magnolia, 451. 

palmarum hypochrysea, 459, 

palmarum palmarum, 459. 

pensylvanica, 453. 

striata, 454. 

tigrina, 448. 

townsendi, 457. 

vigorsi vigorsi, 458. 

virens, 457. 
Dermestes, 21. 

Dichromanassa rufescens, 225. 
Dichromatism, 96. 
Diedapper. See Grebe, Pied-billed. 
Diomedea exulans, 173. 
Diomedeidse, 172; figured, 119. 
Distribution and food, 98. 

factors influencing, 27. 

factors governing local, 104. 
Diver, Great Northern. See Loon. 

Hell. See Grebe, Horned. 
Diving Birds, 138. 
Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 358. 
Dough-bird. See Curlew, Eskimo. 
Dove, Bermuda Ground, 285. 

Carolina. See Dove, IMourning. 

Ground, 284. 

Mourning, 100, 283. 

Turtle. See Dove, Mourning. 

White-winged, 284. 

Zenaida, 284. 
Dovekie, 149. 
Dowitcher, 247. 

Long-billed, 247. 
Dryobates borealis, 325. 

pubescens medianus, 325. 

pubescens pubescens, 325. 

villosus auduboni, 324. 

villosus leucomelas, 324. 

villosus terrsenovse, 324. 

villosus villosus, 323. 
Duck, Black, 192. 

Black-head. See Duck, Scaup. 

Blue-bill. See Duck, Scaup. 

Bridal. See Duck, Wood. 

Broad-bill. See Ducks, Scaup and 
Shoveller. 

Brown-legged Black, 192. 

Butter. See Bufflehead. 

Crow. See Coot. 



Duck, Dipper. See Bufflehead. 

Dusky. See Duck, Black. 

English. See Mallard. 

Florida, 193. 

Gray. See Gadwall. 

Greater Scaup, 202. 

Harlequin, 206. 

Labrador, 206. 

Lesser Scaup, 202. 

Long-tailed. See Old-squaw. 

Masked, 210. 

Pied. See Duck, Labrador. 

Raft. See Scaup, Lesser. 

Red-legged Black, 192. 

Ring-bill. See Duck, Ring-necked. 

Ring-necked, 203. 

Ruddy, 210. 

Rufous-crested, 198. 

Scaup, 202. 

Spoonbill. See Shoveller. 

Spirit. See Bufflehead. 

Summer. See Duck, Wood. 

Surf. See Scoter, Surf. 

Wood, 186, 197. 
Ducks, Molt of, 86. 
Dumetella carolinensis, 473. 
Dunlin, 253. 

Eagle, Bald, 302. 

Caracara. See Caracara. 

Golden, 301. 

Gray Sea, 302. 
Economic Value of Birds, 98. 
Ectopistes migratorius, 282. 
Eggs, collecting and preserving, 21. 

colors of, 78. 

number of, laid, 77. 

shape of, 78. 

size of, 78. 

variations of, 78, 79. 
Egret, 224. 

Peale's. See Egret, Reddish. 

Reddish, 225. 

Snowy, 225. 

White,, 110. 
Egretta candidissima candidissima, 225. 
Eider, American, 207. 

King, 208. 

Northern, 207. 

Stefler's, 207. 
Elanus leucurus, 291. 
Empidonax flaviventris, 344. 

trailli alnorum, 346. 

trailli trailli, 346. 

virescens, 345. 
Enemies of nesting birds, 71. 
Environment as mold for habit, 73 
Ereunetes mauri, 254. 

pusillus, 253. 
Erismatura jamaicensis, 210. 
Erolia ferruginea, 253. 
Erythrism, 96. 
Euphagus carolinus, 365. 

Faico sesalon, 306. 

columbarius columbarius, 305. 
islandus, 303. 
mexicanus, 304. 
peregrinus anatum, 305. 
peregrinus peregrinus, 305. 
rusticolus gyrfalco, 304. 



INDEX 



521 



IFaIco rusticolus obsoletus, 304. 
rusticolus rusticolus, 304. 
sparverius paulus, 307. 
sparv'erius sparverius, 307. 
sparveroides, 307. 
tinnunculus, 306. 
Falcon, Peregrine, 305. 

Prairie, 304. 
Falconidse, 303. 
Faunal areas, 28. 
February, birds of, 34, 38. 
Feet, uses of, 107. 
Field-glass, 5, 9. 
Finch, Grass. See Sparrow, Vesper. 

Lark. See Sparrow, Lark. 

Pine. See Siskin, Pine. 

Purple, 377. 

Summer/ See Sparrow, Bachman's. 
Firebird. See Oriole, Baltimore. 
Flamingo, 216; figured, 108. 
Flicker, 77, 100, 329. 

Northern, 329. 
Flight-song, 64. 
Flinthead. See Ibis, Wood. 
Florida ceerulea CEerulea, 226. 
Floridian fauna, 31. 
Flycatcher, Acadian, 74, 345. 

Alder, 346. 

Crested, 74, 341. 

Fork-tailed, 340. 

Great-crested. See Flycatcher, Crested. 

Green-crested. See Flycatcher, Acadian. 

Least, 347. 

Olive-sided, 343. 

Scissor-tailed, 341. 

Traill's, 346. 

Vermilion, 347. 

Yellow-bellied, 344. 
Fly-up-the-creek. See Heron, Little 

Green. 
Food of birds, 98. 

IFratercula arctica arctica, 145. 
arctica naumanni, 146. 
Fregata aquila, 186. 
Fregatidae, 185; figured, 120. 
Fregetta grallaria, 178. 
Frigate-bird, 185. 
Fringillidse, 369; figured, 129. 
Frost-bird. See Plover, Golden. 
Fulica americana, 237. 

atra, 237. 
Fuligulinae, 198; figured, 121. 
Fulmarus glaciaiis glacialis, 174. 
Fute. See Curlew, Eskimo. 

Gadwall, 193. 
■ Gallinse 269; figured. 125. 
Gallinago delicata, 245. 

gallinago, 247. 

media, 247. 
Gallinula galeata, 236. 
Gallinule, Florida, 236. 

Purple, 236. 
Gannet, 180. 

Gannet. See Ibis, Wood. 
Gare-fowl. See Auk, Great. 
Garrot. .See Golden-eyes. 
Gavia adamsi, 144. 

arctica, 144. 

immer, 143. 

stellata, 144. 



Gaviidae, 142. 
Gelochelidon nilotica, 164. 
Geothlypis trichas trichas, 466. 

trichas ignota, 467. 
Geotrygon chrysia, 285. 

montana, 285. 
Glacial period, 56. 
Glottis nebularia, 256. 
Gnatcatcher, Blue-gray, 491. 
Godwit, Black-tailed, 256. 

Hudsonian, 255. 

Marbled, 255. 
Golden-eye, American, 203. 

Barrow's, 204. 
Goldfinch, 85, 88, 382. 

European, 383. 

Black-headed, 384. 
Goggle-nose. See Scoter, Surf. 
Goosander. See Merganser, American. 
Goose, Barnacle, 214. 

Bean, 213. 

Blue, 212. 

Brant. See Brant. 

CackUng, 213. 

Canada, 213. 

European White-fronted, 212. 

Greater, Snow, 211. 

Hutchins's, 213. 

Laughing, See Goose, White-fronted. 

Lesser Snow, 211. 

Nigger. See Cormorant, Double- 
crested. 

Pink-footed, 213. 

Sea. See Phalaropes, Red and 
Northern. 

Solan. See Gannet. 

White-fronted, 212, 
Goshawk, 294. 

Mexican, 300. 
Crackle, Boat-tailed, 368. 

Bronzed, 368. 

Florida, 307. 

Purple, 68, 366. 
Grassbird. See Sandpiper, Pectoral. 
Gras.squit, 412. 

Melodious, 412. 
Gray-Back. See Knot. 
Grebe, Eared, 141. 

Holboeirs, 140. 

Horned, 140 

Piod-billed, 141. 

Western, 139. 
Greenback. See Plover, American 

Golden. 
Greenhead. See Mallard. 
Greenshank, 256. 
Grosbeak, Black-headed, 409. 

Blue. 409. 

Cardinal. See Cardinal. 

Evening, .375. 

Pine. 376. 

Rose-breasted, 408. 
Grouse, Black. See Partridge, Canada 
Spruce. 

Canada. See Partridge, Spruce. 

Canada Ruffed. 274. 

Pinnatofl. .SVf Chicken. Prairie. 

Prairie Sharp-tailed, 278. 

Ruffed. 273; figured, 108. 

Sharp-tailed. 278. 

Spruce. See Partridge, Canada Spruce. 



522 



INDEX 



Grouse, Willow. See Ptarmigan, "Willow. 
Gruidffi, 229; figured 123. 
Grus americana, 229. 

canadensis, 229. 

mexicana, 229. 
Guara alba, 218. 

rubra, 218. 
Guillemot, Black, 146. 

Common. See Murre. 

Mandt's, 147. 

Thick-billed. See Murre, Briinnich's. 
Guiraca cserulea ceerulea, 409. 
Gull, Black-headed. See Gull, Laughing. 

Bonaparte's, 160. 

Flood. See Skimmer, Black. 

Fork-tailed. See Gull, Sabine's. 

Franklin's, 160. 

Glaucous, 155. 

Great Black-backed, 157. 

Herring, 157. 

Iceland, 156. 

Ivory, 154. 

Kurolien's, 156. 

Laughing, 159. 

Little, 161. 

Mackerel. See Tern, Common. 

Mew, 159. 

Riug-billed, 158. 

Ross's, 161. 

Sabine's, 162. 

Short-billed, 159. 

Siberian, 159. 

Summer. See Tern, Common. 

White-winged. See Gull, Iceland. 
Gulls, as scavengers, 102. 
Gun for collecting, 14. 
Gyrfalcon, 304. 

Black, 304. 

Gray, 304. 

White, 303. 

Habit and Structure, 104. 

Habitat, 103. 
Hgematopodidse, 268. 
Hsematopus ostralegus, 269. 

palliatus, 268. 
Hagdon, See Shearwater, Greater. 

Black. See Shearwater, Sooty. 
Hair-bird. See Sparrow, Chipping. 
Haliseetus leucocephalus leucocephalus, 

302. 
Hang-nest. See Oriole, Baltimore. 
Harelda hyemalis, 205. 
Harrier. See Hawk, Marsh. 
Hawk, Black. See Hawk, Rough-legged. 

Blue Hen. See Goshawk. 

Broad-winged, 298. 

Chicken. See Hawks, Red-shouldered 
and Red-tailed. 

Cooper's, 296. 

Cuban Sparrow, 307. 

Duck, 305. 

Fish, 73, 307. 

Florida Red-shouldered, 298. 

Florida Sparrow, 307. 

Harlan's, 296. 

Harris's, 295. 

Hen. See Hawks, Red-shouldered and 
Red-tailed. 

Killy. See Hawk, Sparrow. 

Krider's, 296. 



Hawk, Little Black. See Hawk, Short- 
tailed 

Marsh, 72, 292. 

Pigeon, 305. 

Red-shouldered, 296, 

Red-tailed, 295. 

Rough-legged, 300. 

Sharp-shinned, 293. 

Short-tailed, 299. 

Snail. See Kite, Everglade. 

Sparrow, 306. 

Squirrel, 301. 

Swainson's, 298. 
Hawks, economic value of, 100. 
Hearing, sense of, 109. 
Helinaia swainsoni, 440. 
Hell-Diver. See Grebe, Pied-billed. 
Helmitheros vermivorus, 440. 
Helodromas ocrophus, 258. 

solitarius solitarius, 257. 
Hen, Heath, 276. 

Indian. See Bittern, American. 

Meadow. See Coot, American and 
Rail, Clapper. 

Mud. See Rail, Clapper and Coot, 
American. 

Prairie. See Chicken, Prairie. 
Herodias egretta, 224. 
Herodiones, 217; figured, 122. 
Heron, Black-crowned Night, 228. 

European, 224. 

Great Blue, 72, 223. 

Great White, 223. 

Little Blue, 226. 

Little Green, 227. 

Louisiana, 226. 

Night, 74. 

Sno-RT^. See Egret, Snowy. 

Ward's, 224. 

Yellow-crowned Night, 228. 
Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina, 

375. 
High-hole. See Flicker. 
Himantopus mexicanus, 242, 
Hirundinidse, 415; figured, 130. 
Hirundo erythrogaster, 417. 

rustica, 418. 
Histrionicus histrionicus, .206. 
Honey Creeper, Bahama, 430. 
Horse-head. See Scoter, Surf. 
Hudsonian zone, 28. 
Hummingbird, Ruby-throated, 336, 
Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis, 226. 
Hydrochelidon leucoptera, 171. 

nigra surinamensis, 170. 
Hylocichla alicige alicise, 494. 

alicise bicknelli, 495. 

fuscescens fuscescens, 493. 

fuscesccns salicicolus, 494. 

guttata pallasi, 496. 

mustelina, 492. 

ustulata swainsoni, 495. 

Ibididse, 218; figured, 122. 
Ibis, Glossy, 218. 

Scariet, 218. 

White, 218. 

White-faced Glossy, 219. 

Wood, 219. 
Ice Age, 57. 
Icteria virens virens, 467. 



INDEX 



523 



Icteridse, 357; figured, 129. 
Icterus galbula, 365. 

spurius, 364. 
Ictinia mississippiensis, 291. 
Incubation, 68, 79. 

period of, 79. 
Indigo-bird. See Bunting, Indigo. 
Inheritance of nesting habit, 70. 
Insects, loss caused by, 99. 

taste of, to birds, 109. 
IntelUgence of birds. 111. 
lonornis martinicus, 236. 
Iridoprocene bicolor, 418. 
Ixobrychus exilis, 222. 

neoxenus, 222. 
Ixoreus naevius naevius, 499. 

Jacana, Mexican, 269. 

spinosa, 269. 
Jackdaw. See Grackle, Boat-tailed. 
Jaeger, Long-tailed, 152. 

Parasitic, 151. 

Pomarine, 150. 
January, birds of, 33. 
Jay, Blue, 113, 350. 

Canada, 352. 

Florida, 352. 

Florida Blue, 351. 

Labrador, 352. 
Joree. See Towhees. 

Journal Maine Ornithological Society, 24. 
Journals, 9. 
Junco, Carolina, 401. 

hyemalis carolinensis, 401. 

hyemalis hyemalis, 400. 

hyemalis montanus, 401. 

Montana, 401. 

Slate-colored, 400. 
July, birds of, 35. 
June, birds of, 35. 

Kestrel, 306. 

Key, field, to common birds, 133. 

to orders and families, 118. 
Kildee. See Killdeer. 
Killdeer. 265. 
Kingbird, 339. 

Arkansas, 340. 

Gray, 340. 
Kingfisher, Belted, 321. 
Kinglet, Golden-crowned, 489. 

Ruby-crowned, 490. 
Kite, Blue. See Kite, Mississippi. 

Everglade, 291. 

Fork-tailed. See Kite, Swallow-tailed. 

Hook-bill. See Kite, Everglade. 

Mississippi, 291. 

White-tailed, 291. 
Kittiwako, 155. 
Knot, 248. 

Labeling birdskins, 20. 
Lagopus lagopus alleni, 275. 

lagopus lagopus, 274. 

rupestris reinhurdi, 276. 

rupestris rupestris, 275. 

welchi, 276. 
LamclUrostral swimmers, 186. 
Laniida;, 422; figured, 130. 
Lanius borealis, 422. 

ludovicianus ludovicianus, 423. 



Lanius ludovicianus migrans, 423. 
Lanivireo flavifrons, 427. 

solitarius solitarius, 427. 

solitarius alticola, 428. 
Lapwing, 264. 
Larinse, 152; figured, 119. 
Lark, Field. See Meadowlark. 

Horned. .348. 

Hoyt's Horned, 349. 

Prairie. See Meadowlark. 

Prairie Horned, 349. 

Shore. See Lark, Horned. 
Larus affinis, 157. 

argentatus, 157. 

atricilla, 159. 

brachyrhynchos, 159. 

canus, 159. 

delawarensis, 158. 

franklini, 160. 

hyperboreus, 155. 

kumlieni, 156. 

leucopterus, 156. 

niarinus, 157. 

niinutus, 161. 

Philadelphia, 160. 
Loadback. See Sandpiper, Red-backed. 
Lens, photographic, 13. 
Leptoptilos crumeniferus, 219. 

dubius, 219. 
Limicolse, 238; figured, 124. 
Liniosa fedoa, 255. 

hajmastica, 255. 

limosa, 256. 
Limpkin, 230. 
Linnet. See Finch, Purple. 

Pine. See Siskin, Pine. 

Redpoll. See Redpoll. 
Lobipes lobatus, 240. 
Log-cock. See Woodpecker, Pileated. 
Longipennes, 150; figured, 118. 
Longspur, Chestnut-collared, 386. 

Lapland, 385. 

McCown's, 386. 

Smith's, 385. 
Loon, 143. 

Black. See Cormorant, Donble-crestod. 

Black-throated, 144. 

Rod-throated, 144. 

Yellow-billed, 144. 
Lophodytes cuculhitus, 189. 
Lord and Lady. See Duck, Harlequin. 
Loxiu curviroslra minor, 379. 

Icucoptera, 379. 
Lunda cirrhata, 146. 

Machetes pugnax, 259. 
Machrochircs, .331; figured, 127. 
Macpfjrhanijihus griscus griseus, 247. 

griscus scolopacciis, 217. 
Magazines, ornithological. 24. 
Maine; Ornitliological Society, 24. 
Mallard, 191. 

Black. See Duck, Black. 
Man-fj'-war-bird, 180; figured, 106. 
Marabou, 219. 
March, birds of, 34, 38. 
Marcra americana, 194. 

ix-nciope, 194. 
Marila aflinis. 202. 

americana, 200. 

collaris, 203. 



524 



INDEX 



Marila marila, 202. 

valisineria, 201. 
Marlin, Brown. See Godwit, Marbled. 

Ring-tailed. See Godwit, Hudsonian. 
Marsh-Hen. See Rail, Clapper. 
Martin, Bee. See Kingbird. 

Cuban, 416. 
■ European, 419. 

Purple, 416. 
Mating, 70. 

Maybird. See Bobolink. 
May, birds of, 34, 38. 
Meadowlark, 362. 

Southern, 363. 

Western, 363. 
Megalestris skua, 150. 
Megaquiscalus major major, 368. 
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 328. 
Melanism, 96. 
Meleagridse, 278. 
Meleagris gallopavo osceola, 279. 

gallopavo silvestris, 279. 
Melopelia asiatica asiatica, 284. 
Melospiza georgiana, 404. 

lincolni lincolni, 403. 

melodia melodia, 402. 
Memory of birds, 113. 
Merganser, American, 188. 

Hooded, 189. 

Red-breasted, 188. 
Mergellus albellus, 190. 
Merginse, 187; figured, 121. 
Mergus americanus, 188. 

serrator, 188. 
Merlin, 306. 

Micropalama himantopus, 248. 
Micropodidae, 334; figured, 127. 
Migration, at night, 50. 

extent of, 40. 

height of, 51. 

how performed, 48. 

of western birds, 40. 

routes of, 41. 

speed of, 51, 52. 

times of, 32. 

why performed, 55. 
Mimidse, 472; figured, 131. 
IMimus polyglottos polyglottos, 472. 
Mniotilta varia, 438. 
Mniotiltidse, 430; figured, 130. 
Mockingbird, 65, 472. 

Finch. See Shrike, Loggerhead. 
Mollimpke, 174. 
Molothrus ater ater, 359. 
Molt, 85. 
Motacilla alba, 
Motacillidae, 470; figured, 131 
Mother Carey's Chicken, 173, 178. 
Moose-bird. See Jay, Canada. 
Mud-Hen. See Coot. 

White-billed. See Coot. 
Murre, 147. 

Brunnich's, 148. 
Murrelet, Ancient, 146. 
Muscivora forficata, 341. 

tyrannus, 340. 
Myadestes towndsendi, 497. 
Mycteria americana, 219. 
Myiarchus crinitus, 341. 
Myiochanes richardsoni richardsoni, 344. 

virens, 343. 



Names of birds, 6. 

Nannus hiemalis hiemalis, 478. 

Nesting dates, 69. 

season, date of, 66-68. 

site, 71. 
Nests, 70. 

character of, 75. 

collecting and preserving of, 21. 

construction of, 74. 

exercises in, 81. 

material for, 73. 

sanitation of, 81. 
Netta rufina, 198. 
Nettion carolinense, 195. 

crecca, 195. 
Nighthawk, 33, 100. 

Florida, 334. 

Sennett's, 334. 
Noddy, 54, 171. 
Noddy. See Fulmar. 
Nomenclature system of, 6. 
Nomonyx dominicus, 210. 
Nonpareil. See Bunting, Painted. 
Note-books, 9. 
Notes, recognition of, 61. 
November, birds of, 36, 39, 40. 
Numenius americanus, 261. 

arcuatus, 263. 

boreahs, 262. 

hudsonicus, 262. 

phseopus, 263. 
Nuthatch, Brown-headed, 484. 

Florida White-breasted, 484. 

Red-breasted, 484. 

White-breasted, 483. 
Nuttallornis boreahs, 343. 
Nyctanassa violacea, 228. 
Nyctea nyctea, 315. 
Nycticorax nycticorax nsevius, 228. 

Oceanites oceanicus, 177. 
Oceanodroma castro, 177. 

leucorhoa, 177. 
Ochthodromus wilsonius wilsonius, 367. 
October, birds of, 36, 39, 40. 
OdontoglossEe, 216; figured, 122. 
Odontophoridse, 269. 
Oidemia americana, 208. 

deglandi, 209. 

fusca, 209. 

perspicillata, 209. 
Old-squaw, 205. 
Old-wife. See Old-squaw. 
Olor buccinator, 216. 

columbianus, 215. 

cygnus, 216. 
O'ologist, The, 25. 
Opera-glass, 5, 9. 
Oporornis agilis, 465. 

formosus, 464. 

Philadelphia, 465. 
Oreospiza chlorura, 407. 
Orientation, power of, 53. 
Oriole, Baltimore, 65, 74, 365. 

Orchard, 364. 
Oscines, 62. 
Osprey, 307. 

foot of, 108. 
Otocoris alpestris alpestris, 348. 

alpestris hoyti, 349. 

alpestris praticola, 349. 



INDEX 



525 



Otus asio asio, 313. 

asio floridanus, 314. 
Oven-bird, 460. 
Owl, Acadian. See Owl, Saw-whet. 

Barn, 309. 

Barred, 109, 110, 311. 

Burrowing, 317. 

Cat. See Owl, Screech. 

Day. See Owl, Hawk. 

Florida Barred, 312. 

Florida Burrowing, 316. 

Florida Screech, 314. 

Great Gray, 312. 

Great Horned, 315. 

Hawk, 316. 

Hoot. See Owl, Barred. 

Labrador Horned, 315. 

Long-eared, 310. 

Marsh, 311. 

Monkey-faced. See Owl, Barn, 

Mottled. See Owl, Screech. 

Richardson's, 312. 

Saw-whet, 313. 

Screech, 313. 

Short-eared, 310. 

Snowy, 315. 
Owls, economic value of, 101. 
Oxeye, Meadow. See Sandpiper, Least. 

Sand. See Sandpiper, Semipalmated. 
Oxyechus vociferus vociferus, 265. 
Oyster-catcher, 268. 

European, 269. 

Pandion haliaetus carolinensis, 307. 
Pagophila alba, 154. 

Palmetto-bird. See Yellow-throat, Flor- 
ida. 
Paludicolse, 229; figured, 123. 
Pandionidse, 307. 
Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi, 295. 
Parasitism, 76. 
Paridae, 485; figured, 131. 
Paroquet, Carolina, 317. 
Parrakeet. See Paroquet, Carolina. 
Parrot, Sea. See Puffin. 
Partridge. See Grouse, Ruffed, and Bob- 
white. 

Birch. See Grou.se, Ruffed. 

Canada Spruce, 272. 

Hudsonian Spruce, 272. 

Hungarian, 280. 

Swamp. .See Grouse, Canada Spruce. 
Passer domesticus domesticus, 378. 

montanus, 379. 
Passerculus princeps, 387. 

sandwichensis savanna, 388. 
Passerella iliaca iliaca, 405. 
Passeres, 337; figured, 128. 
Passerherbulus caudacutus, 391 

henslowi henslowi, 390. 

lecontei, 391. 

maritimus fisheri, 304. 

maritimus margitlivrai, 394. 

maritimus maritimus, 393. 

maritimus peninsulse, 394. 

nelsoni nclsoni, 392. 

nelsoni subvirgatus, 392. 

nigrescena, 395. 
Passerina ciris, 411. 

cyanea, 410. 

versicolor versicolor, 411. 



Peabcdy-bird. See Sparrow, White- 
throated. 
Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris, 278. 

phasianellus phasianellus, 278. 
Peep. See Sandpipers, Least and Semi- 
palmated. 
Peet-weet. See Sandpiper, Spotted. 
Pelagodroma marina, 178. 
Pelecanidse, 183; figured, 120. 
Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, 184. 

occidentalis, 184. 
Pelican, 56. 

Brown, 184. 

Frigate. See Man-o'-war-bird. 

White, 27, 57, 184. 
Pelidna alpina alpina, 253. 

alpina sakhalina, 252. 
Perdix perdix, 280. 
Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus, 486. 

carolinensis carolinensis, 487. 

carolinensis impiger, 488. 

hudsonicus hudsonicus, 488. 

hudsonicus littoralis, 488. 
Peregrine. See Hawk, Duck. 
Perisoreus canadensis canadensis, 352. 

canadensis nigricapillus, 352. 
Permanent residents, 32, 37. 
Petrel, Black-capped, 176. 

Bulwer's, 176. 

Hawaiian, 177. 

Leach's, 177. 

Peale's, 176. 

Pintado, 174. 

Scaled, 176. 

Storm, 176. 

White-bellied, 178. 

White-faced, 178. 

Wilson's, 177. 
Petrochelidon fulva, 417. 

lunifrons lunifrons, 417. 
Peucsea aestivalis aestivalis, 401. 

aestivalis bachmani, 402. 
Pewee, Wood, 343. 
Pewit. See Phoebe. 
Phaethon aethereus, 179. 

flavirostris, 178. 
Phaethontidae, 178; figured. 120. 
Phalacrocoracidae, 182; figured, 120. 
Phalacrororax auritus auritus, 182. 

auritus floridanus, 183. 

carbo, 182. 

vigua mexicanus, 183. 
Phalarope, Northern, 240. 

Red, 239. 

Wilson's, 241. 
Phalaropodidae, 239; figured, 124. 
Phalaropus fulicarius, 239. 
Phasianid®, 280. 
Phasianus colchicus, 280. 

torquatus, 280. 
Pheasant. See Grouse, Ruffed. 

English, 280. 

Ring-necked. 280. 
Pheugopcdius rutilus, 62. 
Philohela minor, 244. 
Phlocotomus piloatus abieticola, 328. 

pileatus pileatus, 327. 
Phoebe. 342. 

Say's, 342. 
Phoenicopterida^, 216; figured, 122. 
Phcenicopterus ruber, 216. 



526 



INDEX 



Photographic outfit, 13. 

Pici, figured, 127. 

Picidse, figured, 127. 

Picoides americanus americanus, 326. 

arcticus, 325. 
Pigeon, Homing, 53. 

Passenger, 282. 

Prairie. See Plover, Upland. 

West Indian Scaled, 282. 

White-crowned, 281. 

Wild, 282. 
Pintail, 197. 
Pipilo erythrophthalmus alleni, 407. 

erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus 
406. 

maculatus arcticus, 407. 
Pipit, American, 471. 

European Meadow, 

Sprague's, 471. 
Piranga erythromelas, 413. 

ludoviciana, 414. 

rubra rubra, 414. 
Pisobia bairdi, 251. 

fuscicollis, 250. 

maculata, 249. 

minutilla, 251. 
Planesticus migratorius achrusterus, 8, 
499. 

migratorius migratorius, 7, 8, 497. 

migratorius propinquus, 8. 
Plataleidae, 217; figured, 122. 
Plautus impennis, figured, 149. 
Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis, 384. 
Plegadis autumnalis, 218. 

guarauna, 219. 
Plover, Black-bellied, 263. 

Chicken. See Turnstone. 

European Golden, 265. 

Field. See Plover, Upland. 

Golden, 264. 
map of, 47. 
migration of, 46. 

Grass. See Plover, Upland. 

Mountain, 268. 

Piping, 266. 

Ringed, 267. 

Semipalmated, 266. 

Snowy, 267. 

Upland, 94, 259. 

Wilson's, 267. 
Plumage, 84. 

colors of, 87. 

color of and climate, 90. 

color of and concealment, 92. 

color of and season, 88. 

color of and sex, 88. 

wear, 86. 
Podasocys montanus, 268. 
Podilymbus podiceps, 141. 
Poisoning collections, 21. 
Polioptila cserulea cserulea, 491. 
Polyborus cheriway, 307. 
Polygamy, 70. 
Polysticta stelleri, 207. 
Pooecetes gramineus gramineus, 386. 
Porzana Carolina, 234. 

porzana, 23"!. 
Praecocial birds, 75. 
Prairie-Pigeon. See Gull, Franklin's. 
Preacher. See Vireo, Red-eyed. 
Procellariidae, 173; figured, 119. 



Progne cryptoleuca, 416. 

subis subis, 416. 
Protonotaria citrea, 439. 
Psittaci, 126, 317. 
Psittacidse, 317. 
Ptarmigan, Allen's, 275. 

Greenland. See Ptarmigan, Rein- 
hardt's. 
Ptarmigan, molt of, 86. 

Reinhardt's, 276. 

Rock, 275. 

Welch's, 276. 

Willow, 274. 
Puffin, 145. 

Large-billed, 146. 

Tufted, 146. 
Puffinus assimilis, 176. 

borealis, 175. 

gravis, 175. 

griseus, 176. 

Iherminieri, 175. 

puffinus, 175. 
Pygopodes, 138; figured, 118. 
Pyrocephalus rubinus mexicanus, 347. 

Qua-bird. See Heron, Black-crowned 

Night. 
Quail. See Bob-white. 

Migratory, 271. 
Quail-Dove, Blue-headed, 285. 

Key West, 285. 

Ruddy, 285. 
Quawk. See Heron, Black-crowned 

Night. 
Querquedula cyanoptera, 196. 

discors, 195. 
Quiscalus quiscula seneus, 368. 

quiscula aglseus, 367. 

quiscula quiscula, 366. 

Rail, Carolina. See Sora. 

Clapper, 232. 

Florida Clapper, 232. 

King, 231. 

Little Black, 235; figured, 105. 

Louisiana, 232. 

Virginia, 233. 

Yellow, 235. 
Rain-crow. See Cuckoos. 
Rallidse, 230; figured, 123. 
Rallus crepitans crepitans, 232. 

crepitans saturatus, 232. 

crepitans scotti, 232. 

crepitans waynei, 233. 

elegans, 231. 

virginianus, 233. 
Range, 103. 

Raptores, 286; figured, 125. 
Raven, 352. 

Northern, 352. 
Reason, definition of. 111, 112. 
Recurvirostra americana, 241. 
Recurvirostridse, 241. 
Red-bird. See Cardinal. 
Red-head, 200, 201. 
Redpoll, 380. 

Greater, 381. 

Greenland, 380. 

Hoary, 380. 

Holboell's, 381. 

Mealy. See Redpoll, Hoary. 



INDEX 



527 



Red-shank, 257. 

Redstart, 470; map of migration of, 45. 

Red-tail, Western, 296. 

Reed-bird. See Bobolink. 

Reeve, 259. 

Regulus calendula calendula, 490. 

satrapa satrapa, 489. 
Rhodostethia rosea, 161. 
Rhyncophanes mccowni, 3S6. 
Ricebird. See Bobolink. 
Ring-neck. See Plover, Semipalmated. 
Riparia riparia, 419. 
Rissa tridactyla tridactyla, 155. 
Robin, 7, 68, 73, 74, 114, 497. 

Golden. See Oriole, Baltimore. 

Ground. See Towhee. 

Southern, 499. 

Swamp. 5ee Thrush, Hermit. 
Rocker. See Ptarmigan, Rock. 
Rockweed Bird. See Sandpiper, Purple. 
Rook, European, 355. 
Rootrhamus sociabilis, 291. 
Rough-leg, Ferruginous, 300. 
Ruff, 259. 

Rynchopidae, 172; figured, 119. 
Rynchops nigra, 172. 

Saddle-back. See Gull, Great Black- 
backed. 
Sanderling, 254. 
Sandpiper, Baird's, 251. 

Bartramian. See Plover, Upland. 

Black-bellied. See Dunlin. 

Buff-breasted, 260. 

Curlew, 253. 

Green, 258. 

Least, 251. 

Pectoral, 249. 

Purple, 249. 

Red-backed, 2.52. 

Red-breasted. See Knot. 

Semipalmated, 253. 

Solitary, 257. 

Spotted, 261. 

Stilt, 248. 

Western, 254. 

White-rumped, 250. 
Sanitation of nest, 81. 
Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied, 326. 
Saw-bill. See Merganser, American. 
Saxicola cenanthe leucorhoa, 499. 
Sayornis, phcebe, 342. 

saya, 342. 
Scalp Act in Pennsylvania, 101. 
Scissor-bill. *See .Skimmer, Black. 
Scolopacidae, figured, 124. 
Scolopax rusticola, 245. 
Scoter, American, 208. 

Surf, 209. 

Velvet, 209. 

White-winged, 209. 
Scotiaptex nebulosa ncbulosa, 312. 
Sea-Dove. See Dovekie. 
Sea-Parrot. See Puffin. 
Sea-Pigeon. See Guillemot, Black. 
Sea-Swallow. See Torn, Common. 
Sedge-hen. See Rail, Clapper. 
Seiurus aurocapillus, 460. 

noveboracensis notabilis, 403. 

noveboracensis noveboracensis, 4C1 

naotacilla, 463. 



Senses of birds, 109. 
September, birds of, 36, 39. 
Setophaga ruticilla, 470. 
Sexing Birds, 20. 
Sexual characters, 89. 
Shag. See Cormorant. 
Shearwater, Alhed, 176. 

Audubon's, 175. 

Cory's, 175. 

Dark-bodied, 49. 

Greater, 175. 

Manx, 175. 

Sooty, 176. 
Shelldrake. See Merganser, American 
and Red-breasted. 

Pond. See Merganser, American. 

Ruddy, 196. 
Shells, for collecting, 14. 
Shore-birds, 238. 
Shoveller, 196. 
Shrike, Loggerhead, 423. 

Migrant, 423. 

Northern, 422. 
Sialia sialis sialis, 499. 
Sickle-bird. See Curlew, Long-billed. 
Sight, sense of, 110. 
Siskin, Pine, 383. 
Sitta canadensis, 484. 

carolinensis atkinsi, 484. 

carolinensis carolinensis, 483. 

pusilla, 484. 
Sittid®, 482; figured, 131. 
Skimmer, Black, 172. 
Skua, 150. 

Skunk-head. See Scoter, Surf. 
Skylark, 348. 
Smell, sense of, 109. 
Smew, 190. 

Snail-Hawk. See Kite, Everglade. 
Snake-bird, 181. 
Snipe, American. See Snipe, Wilson's. 

Brown. See Dowitcher. 

English. See Snipe, WiLson's. 

European, 247. 

Grass. See Sandpiper, Pectoral. 

Gray. See Knot and Dowitcher. 

Great, 247. 

Jack. See Snipe, Wilson's. 

Red-breasted. See Dowitcher, and 
Knot. 

Robin. See Knot and Dowitcher 

Rock. See Sandpiper, Purple. 

Surf. See Sanderling. 

Wilson's, 94, 245. 

Winter. See Sandpiper, Puri)lo 
Snowbird. See .hmro. Slate-colored. 

White. See Snow Hunting. 
Snow Bunting, S(), 100. 
Snowflake. See Bvmting, Snow. 
Societies, Ornithological. 23. 
Solitaire, Townsond's, 197. 
Somateria drosscri, 207. 

molissima boreahs, 207. 

spectabilis, 208. 
Song. 62. 

functions of, 62. 

geographical variations of, 64. 

imitation of, 65. 

inheritance of, 64. 
Sora, 234. 
South-southerly. See Old-squaw. 



528 



INDEX 



Sparrow. Acadian Sharp-tailed, 392. 

Aleutian Song, 90. 

Bachman's, 402. 

Baird's, 389. 

Brewer's, 399. 

Bush. See Sparrow, Field. 

Chipping, 398. 

Clay-colored, 399. 

Desert Song, 90. 

Dusky Seaside, 394. 

English, 378. 

European Tree, 379. 

Field, 399. 

Florida Grasshopper, 390. 

Fox, 405. 

Gambel's, 406. 

Grasshopper, 389, 

Harris's, 395. 

Henslow's, 390. 

House, 54, 68, 70, 114, 116, 378. 

Ipswich, 387. 

Lark, 394. 

Leconte's, 391. 

Lincoln's, 403. 

Louisiana Seaside, 394. 

Macgillivray's Seaside, 394. 

Mexican Song, 90. 

Nelson's, 392. 

Pine-woods, 401. 

Savannah, 388. 

Scott's Seaside, 393. 

Seaside, 85, 393. 

Sharp-tailed, 85, 391. 

Song, 68, 80, 402; chmatic races of, 
90-92. 

Sooty Song, 90. 

Swamp, 404. 

Tree, 100, 397. 

Vesper, 386. 

Western Field, 400. 

White-crowned, 396. 

White-throated, 397. 

Yellow-winged. See Sparrow, Grass- 
hopper. 
Spatula clypeata, 196. 
Species, life of, 115. 

status of, 113. 
Speckle-belly. See Goose, American 

White-fronted. 
Speed of birds, 51. 
Speotyto cunioularia floridana, 316. 

cunicularia hypogsea, 317. 
Sphyrapicus varius varius, 326. 
Spine-tail. See Duck, Ruddy. 
Spinus notatus, 384. 

pinus pinus, 383. 
Spiza americana, 412. 
Spizella breweri, 399. 

monticola monticola, 397. 

pallida, 399. 

passerina passerina, 398. 

pusilla arenacea, 400. 

pusilla pusilla, 399. 
Spoonbill. See Shoveller. 

Roseate, 110, 217. 
Sprigtail. See Pintail. 
Squatarola squatarola, 263. 
Stake-driver. See Bittern, American. 
Starling, 98, 355. 
Starnoenas cyanocephala, 285. 
Steganopodes, 178; figured, 120. 



Steganopus tricolor, 241. 
Stelgidopteryx serripennis, 419. 
Stercorariidse, 150; figured, 119. 
Stercorarius longicaudus, 150. 

parasiticus, 151. 

pomarinus, 150. 
Sterna ansethetus, 170. 

antillarum, 169. 

caspia, 165. 

dougalU, 168. 

forsteri, 166. 

fuscata, 170. 

hirundo, 167. 

maxima, 165. 

paradisea, 168. 

sandvicensis acuflavida, 166. 

trudeaui, 166. 
Sterninse, 162; figured, 119. 
Stiff Tail. See Duck, Ruddy. . 
Stilt, Black-necked, 242. 
Stone-chat. See Wheatear. 
Storks, 219. 

Wood. See Ibis, Wood. 
Strigidge, 309; figured, 125. 
Striker, Little. See Tern, Least. 
Strix varia alleni, 312. 

varia varia, 311. 
Sturnella magna argutula, 363. 

magna magna, 362. 

neglecta, 363. 
Sturnidse, 355; figured, 129. 
Sturnus vulgaris, 355. 
Sula bassana, 180. 

cyanops, 180. 
Sula leucogastra, 179. 

piscator, 180. 
Sulidse, 179; figured, 120. 
Summer residents, 32. 

visitants, 33. 
Surina ulula caparoch, 316. 
Swallow, Bahama, 419. 

Bank, 419. 

Barn, 417. 

Chimney, 335. 

Cliff, 417. 

Cuban Cliff, 417. 

Eaves. See Swallow Cliff. 

European, 418. 

Rough-winged, 419. 

Tree, 45, 76, 418; figured, 105. 

White-beUied. See Swallow, Tree. 
Swan, Trumpeter, 216. 

WhistUng, 215. 

Whooping, 216. 
Swift, Chimney, 335. 
Sylviidse, 488; figured, 132. 
Synthliboramphus antiquus, 146. 

Tail, uses of, 106. 

Tanager, Scarlet, 85, 88, 94, 100, 413. 

Summer, 414. 

Western, 414. 
Tangaridse, figured, 129. 
Taste, sense of, 109. 
Tattler. See Yellow-legs, Greater. 
Teal, Blue-wing, 195. 

Cinnamon, 196. 

European, 195. 

Green-winged, 195. 

Summer. See Teal, Blue-wing. 

Winter. See Teal, Green-wing. 



INDEX 



529 



. See Sandpiper, Spotted. 
See Yellow-legs, Greater, 
/■tes palustris griseus, 4S1. 
J iliacus, 4S1. 
is marianse, 481. 
is palustris, 480. 
nent of birds, 114. 
:ure control, laws of, 28. 
.•tic, 168. 
46, 170. 
d, 170. 
•s, 166. 
\, 165. 
a, 167. 
3, 166. 
.ed, 164. 
.69. 
.. See Tern, Gull-billed. 
-kOSUAte, 168. 
Royal, 165. 

Sandwich. See Tern, Cabot's. 
Short-tailed. See Tern, Black. 
Sooty, 54, 170. 
Trudeau's, 166. 
White-winged Black, 171. 
Wilson's. See Tern, Common. 
Tertiary period, 57. 
Tetraonidse, 272. 
Thalassidroma pelagica, 176. 
Thalassogeron culminatus, 173. 
Thayer, A. H., researches of, 93. 
Thistle-bird. See Goldfinch. 
Thrasher, Brown, 474. 
Thrush, Alice's. See Thrush, Gray 
cheeked. 
Bicknell's, 495. 

Brown. See Thrasher, Brown. 
Golden-crowned. .See Oven-bird. 
Gray-cheeked, 494. 
Hermit, 496. 
Olive-backed, 495. 
Red-winged, 497. 

Swainson's. See Thrush, Olive-backed. 
Tawny. See Veery. 
Varied, 499. 
Willow, 494. 
Wood, 492. 
Thryomanes bewicld bewicki, 477. 
Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus, 
476. 
ludovicianus miamensis, 476. 
Thunder-pumper. See Bittern, American. 
Tiaris bicolor, 412. 

canora, 412. 
Timberdoodle. See Woodcock. 
Tinea, 21. 

Tinker. See Auk, Razor-billed. 
Tip-up. See Sandpiper, Spotted. 
Titlark. See Pipit, American. 
Titmouse, Tufted, 485. 
Totanus flavipes, 256. 
melanoleucus, 256. 
totanus, 257. 
Towhee, 406. 
Arctic, 407. 
Green-tailed, 407. 
White-eyed, 407. 
Toxostoma rufum, 474. 
Transient \'isitants, 33. 
Tree-duck, Fulvous, 215. 
Tringa canutus, 248. 



Trinomials, 7. 

Trochilidse, 335; figured, 127. 

Troglodytes aedon aedon, 477. 

aedon parkmani, 478. 
Troglodytidae, 475; figured, 131, 
Tropic-birds, Red-billed, 179. 

Yellow-billed, 178, 179. 
Tryngites subruficollis, 260. 
Tube-nosed S"n-immers, 172. 
Tubinares, 72; figured, 119. 
Turdidae, 491; figured, 132. 
Turdus iliacus. musicus, 497. 
Turkey, Florida, 279. 

Wild, 279. 
Turnstone, 46. 268. 

Ruddy, 268. 
Tympanuchus americanus americanus, 
276. 

cupido, 277. 
Tyrannidfie, 338;_ figured, 128. 
Tyrannus dominicensis dominicensis, 340. 

tyrannus, 339. 

verticaUs, 340. 

Uria lom\'ia lomvia, 14S. 
ring\-ia, 147. 
troile troile, 147. 

Vanellus vanellvis, 264. 

Veery, 493. 

Vermivora bachmani, 441. 

celata celata, 444. 

chrysoptera, 443. 

lawrencei, 443. 

leucobronchialis, 442. 

peregrinus, 440. 

pin us, 441. 

rubricapilla rubricapilla, 444. 
Vireo belli belli, 429. 

Bell's, 429. 

Bermuda, White-eyed, 429. 

bermudianus, 429. 

Black-whiskered, 424. 

Blue-hoaded, 427. 

griseus griseus, 428. 

griseus maynardi, 429. 

Key West, 429. 

Mountain SoUtary, 428. 

Philadelphia, 426. 

Red-<'yed, 425. 

Solitary. See Vireo, Blue-headed. 

Warbling, 420. 

White-eyed, 428. 

Yellow-throated, 427. 
Vireonida?, 424; figured, 130. 
Vireosylva calidris barbatula, 424. 

gilva gilva, 420. 

olivacea, 425 . 

philadelphica, 426. 
Vulture, Black, 287. 

Turkey, 287. 
Vultures, as scavengers, 101. 

Wagtail, European White, 472, 
Warbler, Audubon's, 451. 

Bachman's, 441. 

Bay-breasted, 453. 

Black and White, 438. 

Black and Yellow. See Warbler, 
Magnolia. 

Blackbiurnian, 455. 



530 



INDEX 



^ 



Black-throated Blue, 449. 

Black-throated Green, 457. 

Blackpoll, 454 ; map of migration of, 42. 

Blue-winged, 441. 

Blue Yellow-backed. See Warblers. 

Brewster's, 442. 

Cairnss, 450. 

Canadian, 469. 

Cape May, 448. 

Cerulean, 452. 

Chestnut-sided, 453. 

Connecticut, 465. 

Golden-winged, 443. 

Hooded, 468. 

Kentucky, 464. 

Kirtland's, 457. 

Lawrence's, 443. 

Magnolia, 451. 

Mourning, 465 ; map of migration of, 43. 

Myrtle, 450. 

Nashville, 444. 

Northern Parula, 447. 

Orange-crowned, 444. 

Palm, 459. 

Parula, 447. 

Pine, 458. 

Prairie, 460. 

Prothonotary, 439. 

Red-poll. See Warblers, Palm and 
Yellow Palm. 

Summer. See Warbler, Yellow. 

Swainson's 440. 

Sycamore, 456. 

Tennessee, 446. 

Townsend's 457. 

Wilson's, 468. 

Worm-eating, 440. 

Yellow, 65, 448. 

Yellow Palm, 459. 

Yellow-rumped. See Warbler, Myrtle. 

Yellow-throated, 456. 
"^Varbier^, ni^ciration of, 41. 
Water-ThrusL, 461. 

Grinnell's, t63. 

Louisiana, i63. 
Water-Turkei , 181. 
Water-witch. See Grebe, Pied-billed. 
Wave, bird o2. 
Wavej'. Sc'e Goose, Snow. 

Blue. See' Goose, Blue. 
Waxwing, Boii'jmian, 420. 

Cedar, 80, 99, 421. 
Whale bird. See Phalarope, Red. 
Whcatear, Greenland, 499. 
Whimbrel, 2*^':;. 
Whip-poor- wiii, 72, 332. 
Whisk<!y-Jr :>k. See Jay, Canada. 
W}ustlor. See Golden-eyes. 
Wid.f:!:ron. See Baldpate. 

European, 194. 
Willet, 2.58. 

Western, 258. 
Wihon Bulletin, 25. 
Wilson Ornithological Club, 23. 
Wiisonia canadensis, 469. 

fitrina, 468. 

pusilla pusilla, 468. 
Wing, uses of, 105. 
Winter residents, 33, 37. 
Woodcock, 94; American figured, 104, 106. 

American, 244. 



Woodcock, Black. See Wc 

Pileated. 
European, 245. 
Woodpecker, American T^ 
Arctic Three-toed, 325. 
Black-backed. See Woe 

Three-toed. 
Downy, 325; figured, 1( 
Golden-winged. See Fl 
Hairy, 323. 
Ivory-billed, 323. 
Ladder-backed. See 

American Three-toe 
Newfoundland, 324. 
Northern Hairy, 324. 
Northern Pileated, 328 
Pigeon. See Flicker. 
Pileated, 327. 
Red-bellied, 329. 
Red-cockaded, 325. 
Red-headed, 328. 
Southern Downy, 324. 
Southern Hairy, 324. 
Yellow-bellied. See Sapsucker, Yellow- 

beUied. 
Wren, Bewick's, 477. 
Carolina, 476. 
Florida, 476. 
House, 477. 

Long-billed Marsh, 480. 
Marian's Marsh, 481. 
Mocking. See Wren, Carolina. 
Prairie Marsh, 481. 
Short-billed Marsh, 479. 
Western House, 478. 
Winter, 478. 

Worthington's Marsh, 481. 
Wood. See Wren, House. 

Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, 360. 
Xanthochroism, 96. 
Xema sabini, 162. 

Yellow-bird. See Goldfinch. 

Summer. See Warbler, Yellow. 
Yellow-hammer. See Flicker. 
Yellow-legs, 256 

Greater, 256. 

Summer. See Yellow -legs. 

Winter. See Yellow -legs. Greater. 
Yellow-throat, Florida, 467. 

Maryland, 65, 100, 466. 

Northern, 466. 
Young birds, colors of, 95. 

condition of, at birth, 79. 

defense of, 81. 

exercises of, 81. 

fear in, 81. 

feeding of, 80. 

flight of, 82. 

growth of, 80. 

voice of, 81. 
Yucker. See Flicker. 

Zamelodia ludoviciana, 408. 

Zebra-bird. See Woodpecker. Red bellied. 

Zenaida zenaida, 284. 

Zenaidura macroura carolinensis, 283 

Zonotrichia albicollis, 397. / 

leucophrys gambeli, 396. • 

leucophrys leucophrys, 396. 

querula, 395. 



_ .JAtM 1 b- 1924 



3477-6 



(15) 



I 



